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{{Cleanup|reason="Language of flowers" appears to refer to communication by humans using flowers, not to plant symbolism in general.|date=July 2025}}
{{AI-generated|date=October 2025}}
{{Short description|Cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers}}
{{Redirect|Floriography|the album by Moddi|Floriography (album)|other uses|The Language of Flowers (disambiguation)}}
[[File:'Language of Flowers' by Alphonse Mucha.jpg|thumb|Color lithograph ''Langage des Fleurs'' (''Language of Flowers'') by [[Alphonse Mucha]] (1900)]]

'''Floriography''' ('''language of flowers''') is a means of [[Cryptography|cryptological]] communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.

== History ==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2023}}
[[File:Floral poetry and the language of flowers (1877) (14782868105).jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration from ''Floral Poetry and the Language of Flowers'' (1877)]]

According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the [[The Walled Gardens of Cannington, Somerset|Walled Gardens of Cannington]], the renewed [[Victorian era]] interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in [[Ottoman Turkey]], specifically the court in [[Constantinople]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.bridgwater.ac.uk/blog/post/?id=19|title = The Language of Flowers|website = Bridgwater College|access-date = 2016-03-29|date = 2016-02-12}}</ref> and an obsession it held with [[tulips]] during the first half of the 18th century. In the 14th century, the Turkish tradition sélam had an influence on the language of flowers. Sélam was a game of gifting flowers and objects to send a message, the interpretation of the message revealed through rhymes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-05-18 |title=Decoding Love: The Language of Flowers |url=https://www.tonyamitchellauthor.com/post/decoding-love-the-language-of-flowers |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=Tonya Mitchell |language=en}}</ref>

During the [[Victorian era|Victorian age]], the use of flowers as a means of covert communication coincided with a growing interest in [[botany]]. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by the Englishwoman [[Mary Wortley Montagu]] (1689–1762), who brought it to England in 1717, and Aubry de La Mottraye (1674–1743), who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's {{lang|fr|Dictionnaire du language des fleurs}} (1809) appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote {{lang|fr|Le langage des Fleurs}}.

Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, ''The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora'', first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book.<ref>Reprints published by Robert Tyas, London, 1841; Houlston and Stoneman, London, 1844; George Routledge and Sons, London, 1869;  George Routledge and Sons, London, 1875; George Routledge And Sons, London, 1880.</ref>

Interest in floriography soared in [[Victorian era|Victorian England]], North America and France<ref>{{Cite web |title=Floriography: The History and Traditions of the Language of Flowers |url=https://www.byarcadia.org/post/floriography-the-history-and-traditions-of-the-language-of-flowers |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.byarcadia.org|date=14 May 2023 }}</ref> during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings of romance and courtship which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society.<ref name="archive">{{cite book | url = https://archive.org/details/languageofflower00gree | title=Language of Flowers |first=Kate |last=Greenaway |location=London |publisher=George Routledge and Sons }}</ref><ref name="laufer">{{cite book |title=Tussie-Mussies: The Victorian Art of Expressing Yourself in the Language of Flowers |url=https://archive.org/details/tussiemussiesvic00lauf |url-access=registration |first=Geraldine Adamich |last=Laufer |publisher=Workman Publishing |year=1993|isbn=9781563051067|pages=4–25, 40–53 }}</ref> Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets" or "word poesy,” called nosegays or [[tussie-mussies]], which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory.<ref name="laufer"/>{{rp|25, 40–44}} The word "nosegay" was used because the flowers would smell nice and the word "gay" meant ornament. These accessories were originally worn to mask the scent of the streets and body odor, and were often composed of fragrant herbs and flowers such as lavender, lemon balm, and roses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sproule |first=Rob |date=2021-10-06 |title=The Lost Language of Flowers: Victorian Floriography - Salisbury Greenhouse - Blog |url=https://salisburygreenhouse.com/the-lost-language-of-flowers-victorian-floriography/ |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=Salisbury Greenhouse |language=en-US}}</ref>

During the 16th century, the purpose of the tussie-mussies changed. They were commonly gifted to a love interest. The meaning of flowers was determined by their cultural meanings along with legends and myths. In England and America, courses such as botany, painting flowers, and floral arranging became popular in education, especially for young women.<ref name="Laufer">{{Cite book |last=Adamich Laufer |first=Geraldine |title=Tussie Mussies The Victorian Art of Expressing Yourself in the Language of Flowers |date=1993 |publisher=Workman Publishing Company, Inc. |isbn=1563051060}}</ref> Tussie-mussies are still used in modern-day as corsages and boutonnieres.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Language of Flowers: History and Symbolic Meanings |url=https://www.rootwell.com/blogs/language-of-flowers |access-date=2024-03-06 |publisher=Rootwell Products Inc. |date=2016-07-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the United States, the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque]], a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' and monthly ''Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment''. These pieces contained the botanic, English, and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning; therefore readers could select flowers appropriately to send a message.<ref name="Laufer"/> However, the first books on floriography were [[Elizabeth Wirt]]'s ''Flora's Dictionary'' and [[Dorothea Dix]]'s ''The Garland of Flora'', both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828.

During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors. [[Sarah Josepha Hale]], longtime editor of the ''[[Ladies' Magazine]]'' and co-editor of ''[[Godey's Lady's Book]]'', edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. [[Catharine H. Waterman Esling]] wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, ''Flora's Lexicon''; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in ''The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry'', first published in 1841. [[Frances Sargent Osgood]], a poet and friend of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], first published ''The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry'' in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s.

==Meanings==
The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the [[mimosa]], or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red [[Rose (symbolism)|rose]] and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the [[blood of Christ]] and the intensity of [[romantic love]], while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the [[five Holy Wounds|five crucifixion wounds of Christ]]. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The [[Black rose (symbolism)|black rose]] (in nature, a very dark shade of red, purple, or maroon, or may be dyed)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Roses Color Meaning and Symbolism|url=https://www.petalrepublic.com/rose-flower-meaning/#15-black-rose-flower-meaning-amp-symbolism-|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-20 |website=www.petalrepublic.com|date=2 March 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221208071057/https://www.petalrepublic.com/rose-flower-meaning/}}</ref> may be associated with [[death]] and darkness due to the traditional (Western) connotations of the shade.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Meaning of Black Roses |url=https://www.flowerglossary.com/black-roses/ |website=Flower Glossary |date=11 April 2019}}</ref>

"A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie ({{a.k.a.}} nosegay). If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'."<ref>Meadow, James B., Rocky Mountain News, 26 January 1998</ref> Details such as positioning of flowers and their buds were very important and carried different messages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillips |first=Henry |title=Floral emblems: or a guide to the language of flowers |publisher=London: Saunders and Otley |year=1831}}</ref>

The action of giving flowers served as a silent answer to a question. If flowers were presented with the right hand it would indicate the answer to the question was "yes", if the flowers were given with the left hand it meant "no". Important details such as which side the bow was tied determined if the message applied to the person presenting the flowers or the person receiving them.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flower Meanings: Symbolism of Flowers, Herbs, and More Plants {{!}} The Old Farmer's Almanac |url=https://www.almanac.com/flower-meanings-language-flowers |access-date=2024-03-06 |website=www.almanac.com |language=en}}</ref>

Later authors inspired by this tradition created lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.<ref>{{cite book |title=Dictionary of Mythology, Folklore, and Symbols |first=Gertrude |last=Jobes |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |location=New York |year=1962 }}</ref>

== In literature ==
[[William Shakespeare]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Emily Brontë]], [[John Henry Ingram]] in ''[[Flora Symbolica]]'',<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2CuAAAAIAAJ |title=John Henry Ingram's Poe Collection at the University of Virginia |first1=John E. |last1=Reilly |first2=John Carl |last2=Miller |publisher=[[University of Virginia Library]] |year=1994 |page=15 |isbn=9780813915524}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiBbdJ1sdA8C&pg=PA83 |title=The Language of Flowers: A History |first=Beverly |last=Seaton |publisher=[[University of Virginia Press]] |date=10 October 2012 |page=83 |isbn=9780813934532}}</ref> and children's novelist [[Frances Hodgson Burnett]], among others, used the language of flowers in their writings.{{Quote box
| quote = <poem>I know a bank where the [[Thymus vulgaris|wild thyme]] blows,
Where [[Primula elatior|oxlips]] and the nodding [[Viola odorata|violet]] grows,
Quite over-canopied with luscious [[Lonicera periclymenum|woodbine]],
With sweet [[Rosa moschata|musk-roses]] and with [[Rosa rubiginosa|eglantine]]:
There sleeps Titania sometime of the night,
Lull'd in these flowers with dances and delight;</poem>
| source = – ''A Midsummer Night’s Dream'', Act 2, Scene 1
| align = right
}}

Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Language of Flowers|url=http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192|publisher=Folger Shakespeare Library|access-date=2013-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919185926/http://www.folger.edu/template.cfm?cid=3192|archive-date=2014-09-19|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ''[[Hamlet]]'', [[Ophelia]] mentions the symbolic meanings of flowers and herbs as she hands them to other characters in Act 4, Scene 5: [[pansies]], [[rosemary]], [[fennel]], [[Aquilegia|columbine]], [[rue]] and [[Bellis perennis|daisy]]. She regrets she has no [[violet (plant)|violets]], she says, "... but they wither'd all when my father died".<ref>{{cite web |last=Eriksson |first=Katarina |title=Ophelia's Flowers and Their Symbolic Meaning|url=http://huntingtonbotanical.org/Shakespeare/ophelia.htm|publisher=Huntington Botanical|access-date=2013-05-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109215813/https://huntingtonbotanical.org/Shakespeare/ophelia.htm|archive-date=2020-11-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> In ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, [[daffodils]], and [[Primula vulgaris|primroses]] to make garlands for her friends. In ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', [[Oberon]] talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://schoolgardening.rhs.org.uk/Resources/Info-Sheet/Flowers-in-Shakespeare-s-Plays|title=Flowers in Shakespeare's plays / RHS Campaign for School Gardening|website=schoolgardening.rhs.org.uk|access-date=2016-11-02}}</ref>

In [[J. K. Rowling]]'s 1997 novel ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'', Professor [[Severus Snape]] uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and [[Harry Potter (character)|Harry Potter]]'s mother, according to ''[[Pottermore]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lily, Petunia and the language of flowers|url=https://www.pottermore.com/features/lily-potter-petunia-and-the-language-of-flowers|access-date=2019-04-27|newspaper=Pottermore|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220531102058/https://www.wizardingworld.com/features/lily-potter-petunia-and-the-language-of-flowers|archive-date=31 May 2022}}</ref>

Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story "[[The Chrysanthemums]]" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.lonestar.edu/symbolism-chrysanthemums.htm|title=Symbolism in "The Chrysanthemums"|website=www.lonestar.edu|access-date=2016-10-31}}</ref>

[[Hajime Isayama]] frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series ''[[Attack on Titan]]'', which also includes [[Hanakotoba]] (花言葉), the Japanese form of floriography.<ref>{{Cite web|title=アニメ『進撃の巨人』サシャへの"恋心"が発覚！ 白バラの意味に「涙が止まらない」 (2021年2月10日) - エキサイトニュース(2/2)|url=https://www.excite.co.jp/news/article/Myjitsu_261804/|access-date=2021-09-12|website=エキサイトニュース|language=ja}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-03|title=【進撃の巨人】ネタバレ122話考察！花が何を表すのかアニメも含め検証！｜進撃の巨人 ネタバレ考察【アース】|url=https://animenb.com/%e3%80%90%e9%80%b2%e6%92%83%e3%81%ae%e5%b7%a8%e4%ba%ba%e3%80%91%e3%83%8d%e3%82%bf%e3%83%90%e3%83%ac122%e8%a9%b1%e8%80%83%e5%af%9f%ef%bc%81%e8%8a%b1%e3%81%8c%e4%bd%95%e3%82%92%e8%a1%a8%e3%81%99-36829/|access-date=2021-09-12|website=進撃の巨人 ネタバレ考察【アース】|language=ja}}</ref>

== Flower symbolism in Iranian culture ==
Flowers hold a special place in Iranian culture, symbolizing beauty, renewal, and spiritual harmony. In Persian poetry and art, they often represent love, purity, and the fleeting nature of life. The rose (gol-e sorkh) signifies love and divine beauty, appearing frequently in the works of Hafez and Saadi, while the tulip (laleh) symbolizes martyrdom and national pride, especially in modern Iran.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flowers in Persian Art and Culture |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/flowers-in-persian-art |access-date=2025-10-24 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book |last=Koch |first=Ebba |title=The Persian Garden: Echoes of Paradise |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |year=2005}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Symbolism of Flowers in Persian Literature |url=https://www.iranchamber.com/literature/articles/symbolism_flowers_persian_literature.php |access-date=2025-10-24 |website=Iran Chamber Society}}</ref>

== In art ==
[[Flower]]s have long served as more than mere decorative elements in art, often carrying rich symbolic meanings that reflect cultural, religious, and personal narratives. This tradition dates back centuries, with artists using floral imagery to communicate emotions, allegories, and social messages.

=== In Religion and Mythology ===
Throughout [[art history]], flowers have served as potent symbols, reflecting religious, cultural, and philosophical ideas through visual expression. Rather than solely appearing in myth or ritual, floral motifs have been integrated into artworks to convey deeper meanings across eras and regions.

In Indian miniature paintings from the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period, the [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]] appears frequently alongside deities like [[Lakshmi]] and [[Brahma]], symbolizing purity and spiritual awakening.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Guide to Flowers with Religious Symbolism Around the World |url=https://www.petalandpoem.com/floral-thoughts/guide-to-flowers-with-religious-symbolism-around-the-world |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Petal & Poem - HK's Top Luxury Florist |language=en-GB}}</ref> Similarly, the [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta cave]] murals depict lotuses emerging from sacred ponds beneath figures of the [[The Buddha|Buddha]], reinforcing its role as a symbol of spiritual growth. In [[Tibetans|Tibetan]] [[thangka]] paintings, color variations of the lotus convey symbolic meaning—white for purity, pink for the historical Buddha, and blue for wisdom.<ref name=":02" />
[[File:Botticelli-primavera.jpg|thumb|[[Primavera (Botticelli)|Primavera]],1482, [[Sandro Botticelli]]]]
In [[Renaissance]] painting, artists like [[Sandro Botticelli]] used flowers to enhance allegorical narratives. In [[Primavera (Botticelli)|''Primavera'']] (1482), over 500 plant species are depicted, including the [[rose]], which symbolizes [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and divine love. The [[Lilium|lily]] frequently appears in [[Annunciation]] scenes, such as in [[Leonardo da Vinci]]’s [[Annunciation (Leonardo)|''Annunciation'']] (1472–76), where it signals the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]'s purity and chastity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-22 |title=How Flower are used in World Religions |url=https://www.woodflowers.com/blogs/how-to-sola/how-flower-are-used-in-world-religions |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=WoodFlowers.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Classical mythology]] also influenced European art across centuries. The myth of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] was captured by [[Caravaggio]]'s [[Narcissus (Caravaggio)|''Narcissus'']] (1597–99), using reflection and surrounding flowers to symbolize vanity and self-love. The story of [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]] inspired [[Romanticism|Romantic]] works like [[Jean Broc]]’s [[The Death of Hyacinthos|''The Death of Hyacinthus'']] (1801), where the [[Hyacinth|hyacinth flower]] becomes a symbol of grief and rebirth after the youth's tragic death.

By examining these specific artworks and art movements, it becomes clear that flowers are not merely decorative motifs, but essential visual devices through which artists across cultures communicate cultural identity, spiritual values, and emotional depth.

=== In Western Art ===
In [[Art of Europe|Western art]], flowers have long been used as symbolic elements, conveying emotions, virtues, and hidden meanings. Their significance has evolved, reflecting cultural beliefs and artistic intentions.

From time, the individual flowers do not hold much meaning, but their presence allows artists to communicate. For instance, the 17th-century Dutch still life painting, [[Vanitas|vanitas painting]], often features decaying flowers to embody the transience of life. It is often included alongside objects that represent wealth to mirror the beauty of wealth and the inevitability of impending death.<ref>{{Cite web |last=alicefry22 |date=2016-11-16 |title=Inspiration – Vanitas Painting and the Symbolism of Objects |url=https://alicefryart.wordpress.com/2016/11/16/inspiration-vanitas-painting-and-the-symbolism-of-objects/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Alice Fry |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:John_Everett_Millais_-_Ophelia_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|[[Ophelia (painting)|Ophelia]], 1851–52, [[John Everett Millais]]]]
The popularity of floriography—the language of flowers—during the 19th century greatly influenced Western art. As Seaton<ref>{{Cite book |last=Seaton |first=Beverly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiBbdJ1sdA8C |title=The Language of Flowers: A History |date=2012-10-10 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-3453-2 |language=en}}</ref> mentions, during the [[Victorian era]], flowers were given specific meanings, allowing artists to hide messages within their works. For example, [[Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood|Pre-Raphaelite]] painters often used flowers to symbolize purity, love, or mourning, drawing inspiration from floral dictionaries popular at the time. For [[John Everett Millais]], the founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, plants were more than mere decorative elements in outdoor scenes; they were symbolic references drawn from a distinct literary and cultural context, reflecting his deliberate effort to remain faithful to his literary sources.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leonard |first=Sarah M. M. |date=April 15, 2009 |title=The Bower of the Pre-Raphaelites: Plant Life and the Search for Meaning in the Art of Millais, Rossetti, and Morris |url=https://digitalcollections.wesleyan.edu/islandora/bower-pre-raphaelites-plant-life-and-search-meaning-art-millais-rossetti-and-morris |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |website=}}</ref> His painting [[Ophelia (painting)|''Ophelia'']] (1851–52) depicts Ophelia after the fall, which is described in Act IV, Scene V of [[Hamlet]]. [[Rose|Wild roses]], [[Myosotis|forget-me-nots]], [[Poppy|poppies]] and [[Viola (plant)|violets]] painted around the drowning Ophelia symbolized her sad fate.

The use of floral was popular in the [[Art Nouveau]] movement and [[Alphonse Mucha]] was no exception. Throughout Mucha's body of work, he consistently gives prominence to floral elements—either by allowing them to occupy large portions of the composition or by making them visually distinct through the use of color and intricate detail. This deliberate emphasis not only captures the viewer's attention but also suggests that Mucha intended for these flowers to be noticed.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wills |first=Cynthia |date=January 9, 2024 |title=The Flowers of Alphonse Mucha: Symbolic Connections Between Nature, Mysticism, Religion, and the Occult |url=https://unca-urcap.org/ugr_journal.php?publication_static_id=79&forum_id=12}}</ref><gallery widths="120" heights="120">
File:The_Lily_Alphonse_Mucha.jpg|The Flowers: Lily, 1898, [[Alphonse Mucha]]
File:Alfons_Mucha_-_The_Seasons_(series),_1896.jpg|[[The Seasons (Mucha)|The Seasons]] (series), 1896, [[Alphonse Mucha]]
</gallery>

=== In East Asian Art ===
Flowers in [[Chinese art]] are deeply symbolic, often representing virtues, philosophical ideals, and cultural beliefs. The [[Prunus mume|plum blossom]] (梅花), for instance, is celebrated for its resilience and purity, blooming vibrantly amidst the harshness of winter. This enduring quality has made it a symbol of perseverance and hope, frequently depicted in traditional paintings to convey strength in adversity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flowers Featured in Chinese Art and Their Symbolism |url=https://www.bloomandsong.com/hk-flower-delivery-locations/flowers-featured-in-chinese-art-and-their-symbolism |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=BLOOM & SONG |language=en-GB}}</ref> Additionally, the plum blossom is recognized as one of the "[[Four Gentlemen]]" (四君子) in Chinese art, representing noble virtues alongside the orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Chinese Flower and Fruit symbolism |url=https://www.chinasage.info/symbols/flowers-and-fruit.htm |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=www.chinasage.info}}</ref> In [[Japanese art]], plum blossoms are frequently depicted to convey resilience and hope, resonating with cultural values that esteem endurance through hardships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese Flower Meanings in Hanakotoba |url=https://thursd.com/articles/hanakotoba-japanese-flower-meaning |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Thursd |language=en}}</ref>

Similarly, the [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus flower]] (荷花) holds significant meaning, symbolizing purity and spiritual enlightenment. Emerging untainted from muddy waters, the lotus embodies the idea of transcending impurities, a concept deeply rooted in [[Buddhist philosophy]]. This symbolism is prevalent in various art forms, including paintings and sculptures, where the lotus often serves as a metaphor for inner beauty and moral integrity.<ref name=":1" /> [[Wu Bin (painter)|Wu Bin]]'s ''Lotus Out of Water'' (n.d.) presents a vivid depiction of a lotus flower emerging from the water, capturing the essence of purity and enlightenment associated with the lotus in Chinese symbolism. This artwork is housed in the [[Palace Museum|Beijing Palace Museum]] and is noted as one of the oldest lotus paintings in its collection.

In [[Ink wash painting|Chinese ink painting]], especially during the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties, the [[peony]]—regarded as the “King of Flowers”—became a symbol of wealth, nobility, and feminine grace. Artists such as [[Yun Shouping]] of the [[Qing dynasty]] used refined brushwork to capture its grandeur.
[[File:Sumida_River,_the_Wood_of_the_Water_God,_at_Masaki_LACMA_M.66.35.5.jpg|thumb|294x294px|Sumida River, the Wood of the Water god, at Masaki, 1854–58, [[Hiroshige|Utagawa Hiroshige]]]]
In [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]], the language of flowers, known as [[Hanakotoba]] (花言葉), assigns specific meanings to various blooms, allowing for nuanced emotional expression through floral imagery. The [[cherry blossom]] (桜 or sakura), for example, epitomizes the transient nature of life due to its brief blooming period, reflecting the aesthetic principle of mono no aware, which appreciates the beauty of ephemeral things. This symbolism is deeply ingrained in Japanese art and [[Japanese literature|literature]], where cherry blossoms often evoke themes of mortality and the fleeting beauty of existence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-04 |title=Hanakotoba: The Secret Japanese Language of Flowers |url=https://www.tsunagujapan.com/hanakotoba-the-secret-japanese-language-of-flowers/ |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=tsunagu Japan |language=en}}</ref> In Japanese [[ukiyo-e]] woodblock prints, [[Hiroshige|Utagawa Hiroshige]] frequently depicted cherry blossoms, emphasizing the fleeting nature of life—a visual interpretation of Buddhist impermanence.

=== In Islamic Art ===
Flowers play a central role in [[Islamic art]], where they often symbolize spiritual ideas, the transcendence of nature, and the concept of divine beauty. Due to the traditional prohibition against depicting sentient beings in religious contexts, Islamic artists developed highly stylized floral motifs, integrating them into intricate geometric and arabesque designs that adorn architecture, manuscripts, and decorative objects. These motifs are not merely ornamental—they serve as visual metaphors for the perfection and infinite nature of God.

One prominent example is the [[Alhambra|Alhambra Palace]] in [[Granada]], [[Spain]], where floral patterns are embedded into stucco carvings and glazed tile work, reflecting the Islamic worldview that nature mirrors divine order and harmony. Similarly, in [[Persian miniature|Persian miniature painting]], flowers such as the [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] and [[rose]] frequently appear as symbolic elements within spiritual and poetic narratives, representing purity, divine love, and enlightenment.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tabbaa |first=Yasser |title=The transformation of Islamic art during the Sunni revival |date=2002 |publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=978-1-85043-392-7 |location=London}}</ref>

In [[Sufism]], the mystical branch of Islam, floral imagery takes on even deeper meaning. The rose, in particular, is often used in [[Sufi literature|Sufi poetry]] and visual symbolism to represent the divine beloved and the soul's longing for unity with God. This can be seen in the works of [[Rumi]], where the rose becomes a recurring motif for mystical love and transcendence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |title=Islamic art and spirituality |date=1987 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-88706-174-5 |location=Albany}}</ref> Additionally, floral motifs in [[Islamic pottery|Islamic ceramics]] and textiles are not only valued for their beauty but also evoke an image of paradise, believed to be a garden in which flowers bloom eternally.<ref name=":2" />

=== In Modern and Contemporary Art ===
In modern and [[contemporary art]], the language of flowers has been reimagined to convey a diverse array of themes, including beauty, decay, identity, and socio-political commentary. Artists have moved beyond traditional [[symbolism (movement)|symbolism]], utilizing floral imagery to explore complex human experiences and cultural narratives.
[[File:Rage,_Flower_Thrower_Banksy_2003_Palestina_01.jpg|thumb|[[Flower Thrower]], 2003, [[Banksy]]]]
For instance, street artist [[Banksy|Banksy's]] 2003 mural ''[[Flower Thrower]]'' depicts a masked figure poised to throw a bouquet of flowers, juxtaposing the act of violence with a [[peace symbol|symbol of peace]] and hope. This work challenges viewers to reconsider notions of conflict and protest, suggesting that compassion can be a powerful agent for change.  

Contemporary artists continue to reinterpret floral motifs to address current issues. For example, the exhibition "''Forever is Now''" held around the pyramids of [[Giza]] featured [[Shilo Shiv Suleman|Shilo Shiv Suleman's]] installation ''Padma/Pulse and Bloom'', consisting of giant [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotus]] flowers. Drawing from both Eastern and Western symbolism, her work creates a space for connection and tranquility, seamlessly blending ancient [[Indian art|Indian]] and [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] imagery.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Basharat |first=Mona |date=2024-10-31 |title=Forever Is Now: Egypt's Celebrated Art Exhibition Returns |url=https://www.admiddleeast.com/gallery/forever-is-now-egypts-celebrated-art-exhibition-returns |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=AD Middle East |language=en-AE}}</ref>

Additionally, artists like [[Takashi Murakami]] have reimagined flowers in bold and colorful style. Murakami asserts that his flowers reflect the trauma and emotional complexity experienced in [[Japan]] following [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Takashi Murakami And NFTs: Flower Power |url=https://www.myartbroker.com/artist-takashi-murakami/articles/takashi-murakami-nfts-flower-power |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=MyArtBroker |language=en}}</ref>

== The Language of Flowers Around the World ==
Though the language of flowers is popularly known through its romantic and Victorian roots, this practice is not new to other parts of the world. This said, there is no universally accepted set of meanings for flowers. Instead of a standardized symbolic system, floral symbolism functioned as a collection of associations, with interpretations varying between different books and sources. The books that compile floral vocabularies, often referred to as "language of flowers" books, belong to a broader category of sentimental flower literature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia. |url=https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=169&q=Seaton,+B.+(1995).+The+Language+of+Flowers:+a+history.+The+University+Press+of+Virginia.&cvid=beed4d6704ea4b9da28ac0ad1007a5af&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOTIICAEQ6QcY_FXSAQczMjdqMGoxqAIIsAIB&FORM=ANNAB1&PC=ACTS |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Bing |language=en}}</ref> Unlike botanical or horticultural texts that focus on scientific classification or cultivation, these works emphasize the emotional and symbolic associations of flowers, reflecting themes of sentiment and personal meaning rather than practical uses.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia. |url=https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=169&q=Seaton,+B.+(1995).+The+Language+of+Flowers:+a+history.+The+University+Press+of+Virginia.&cvid=beed4d6704ea4b9da28ac0ad1007a5af&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOTIICAEQ6QcY_FXSAQczMjdqMGoxqAIIsAIB&FORM=ANNAB1&PC=ACTS |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Bing |language=en}}</ref>

Throughout history flowers have fascinated people, who have dedicated considerable effort to cultivating them, even without a clear practical benefit.<ref name="Huss 140–153">{{Cite journal |last1=Huss |first1=Efrat |last2=Yosef |first2=Kfir Bar |last3=Zaccai |first3=Michele |date=2017-08-17 |title=The Meaning of Flowers: A Cultural and Perceptual Exploration of Ornamental Flowers |url=https://doi.org/10.2174/1874350101710010140 |journal=The Open Psychology Journal |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=140–153 |doi=10.2174/1874350101710010140 |issn=1874-3501}}</ref> Humans have seen symbolism in flowers. While some symbolic themes are common across cultures, many are not.<ref name="Seaton">{{cite book |last1=Seaton |first1=Beverly |title=The Language of Flowers: A History |date=10 October 2012 |publisher=University of Virginia Press |isbn=978-0-8139-3453-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fiBbdJ1sdA8C |language=en}}</ref>

The significance of nature, particularly flowers, is evident even in prehistoric times, as shown by the discovery of flowers in ancient burial sites, where they were placed as part of rituals, reflecting their spiritual importance to early humans.<ref name="Boncompagni">{{Cite book |last1=Boncompagni |first1=Solas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FKQ3EAAAQBAJ |title=Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism |last2=Monzali |first2=Maurizio |date=2021-06-24 |publisher=I Libri del Casato |isbn=978-88-98905-89-8 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:065-An-Offering-of-Flowers-Original.jpg|thumb|Relief on Level 4, Balustrade at Borobudur, Java, Indonesia]]

=== Cultural and Religious Nuances ===
When considering the relationship between humans and flowers through a cultural lens, it can be examined through the varied perceptual experiences that different flowers evoke. The way individuals within a specific culture process floral imagery and construct meanings around flowers is shaped by their sensory interpretations and cultural influences.<ref name="Huss 140–153"/> Cultural interactions are often fluid, overlapping, and, at times, contradictory. Recognizing these complex relationships is essential, as the blending of different cultural elements can produce both ambiguous meanings and paradoxical effects, making the process of cultural exchange more intricate than it may initially appear.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Tay |first=SC |date=2023 |title=Flowers as symbols and metaphors in Chinese culture |url=https://figshare.utas.edu.au/articles/thesis/Flowers_as_symbols_and_metaphors_in_Chinese_culture/23242250/1 |pages=11696981 Bytes |publisher=University of Tasmania |doi=10.25959/23242250.V1}}</ref>

Flowers have been used by cultures throughout history to express their unique perspectives on life. From mythology and symbolism to religion, art, literature, crafts, and industry, flowers have long held a special place in human expression. This enduring fascination with flowers has given rise to a symbolic language that resonates across cultures worldwide.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Boncompagni |first1=Solas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FKQ3EAAAQBAJ&dq=religious+symbolism+of+flowers&pg=PT26 |title=Flowers, sounds, colours: Between Magic and Symbolism |last2=Monzali |first2=Maurizio |date=2021-06-24 |publisher=I Libri del Casato |isbn=978-88-98905-89-8 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Historical Background Across Cultures ===

==== Ancient Egypt ====
The ancient Egyptians, known for their deep religiosity, expressed their reverence for nature through a profound appreciation for plants, particularly flowers. They are credited with the early tradition of associating flowers with the deceased, using them in burial rituals as a form of purification.<ref name=":0" />

==== Israel ====
In contrast, the Hebrews incorporated flowers into celebratory feasts, such as [[Pentecost]], a festival of gratitude for a successful harvest, and the [[Sukkot|Feast of Tabernacles]], marking the arrival of autumn.<ref name=":0" />

==== Hinduism ====
In Hindu tradition, flowers are linked to the element of air or aether, while in China, where rituals hold great significance, Tantric-Taoist symbolism views flowers as a tool for spiritual enlightenment, representing inner transformation akin to the elixir of longevity.<ref name=":0" />

==== Japan ====
Among floral traditions, Japanese [[Ikebana]] stands out as the highest form of symbolic floral arrangement. This art follows a ternary structure, where the tallest branch represents heaven, the middle branch signifies humanity, and the lowest branch symbolizes the earth, positioning man as the bridge between the two realms.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Nagoya Ikebana Art Exhibition Sakae Nov 2018 78.jpg|thumb|Nagoya Ikebana Art Exhibition Sakae]]
The development of Ikebana and [[Hanakotoba]] (the language of flowers) in Japan is deeply intertwined with religious and philosophical traditions, particularly [[Shinto]] and [[Buddhism]]. Both belief systems emphasize a profound respect for nature and its spiritual significance. In Shinto, all elements of the natural world are believed to possess a spirit or energy, reinforcing the idea that nature is alive and interconnected with human existence. This worldview likely contributed to the enduring presence of floral symbolism in Japanese culture and literature. Scholar Davis F. Hadland highlights this relationship, stating, “Take away their landscape, and you take away at once their sense of poetry, and, we may almost add, the floral side of their religion too, for the Japanese worship flowers and trees in a way utterly impossible to the more prosaic Westerner” (2014, p.&nbsp;155).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sigourney |first=L. H. |url=https://doi.org/10.5479/sil.157132.39088003058906 |title=The voice of flowers |date=1846 |publisher=H.S. Parsons & Company|doi=10.5479/sil.157132.39088003058906 }}</ref>

==== Ancient Greece ====
The ancient Greeks, on the other hand, with their appreciation for aesthetics, celebrated flowers through art and architecture, immortalizing their beauty in mosaics, friezes, and vase paintings, where flowers were closely associated with joy and the pleasures of life.<ref name=":0" /> This love and appreciation for flowers is evident, especially in their mythology and literature, often tied to themes of transformation, life, and death. For example, Daphne, a nymph, turned into a laurel tree to escape [[Apollo]], making the laurel a symbol of victory and divine favor. The pomegranate, linked to [[Persephone]], held significance in the Underworld, representing the cycle of life and death.<ref name="bing.com">{{Cite web |title=Greek Flowers and Plants in Mythology: Symbolism and Stories {{!}} History Cooperative |url=https://www.bing.com/search?q=Greek+Flowers+and+Plants+in+Mythology:+Symbolism+and+Stories+%7C+History+Cooperative&cvid=c7670a9fd0fc43c4b7f2b9777cb3204e&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOTIICAEQ6QcY_FXSAQgzOTQ2ajBqNKgCCLACAQ&FORM=ANAB01&PC=ACTS |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Bing |language=en}}</ref>

Here are some notable flowers in Greek mythology:
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Flower'''
|'''Symbolism'''
|'''Images'''
|-
|'''Laurel (Daphne)'''
|Victory, prophecy, purification
|[[File:Bee on a mountain laurel flower on Occoneechee Mountain.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Rose'''
|Love, passion, secrecy
|[[File:Red rose with black background.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Narcissus'''
|Self-absorption, death, renewal
|[[File:Narcissus 'Ice Follies' 02.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Violet'''
|Fertility, love, Athens
|[[File:Violet flowers kołobrzeg.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Hyacinth'''
|Death, rebirth, athletic prowess
|[[File:Hyacinth - Anglesey Abbey.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Lily (Krinon)'''
|Purity, motherhood
|[[File:Formosa lily, Nagai Park, Osaka.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Anemone'''
|Death, forsaken love
|[[File:Anemone hupehensis var. japonica 1.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Iris'''
|Communication with the gods, the rainbow
|[[File:Siberian Iris 'Caesar's Brother' (Iris sibirica).jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Crocus'''
|Love, awakening
|[[File:Crocus cultivars-20210326-RM-123445.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Poppy'''
|Sleep, peace, fertility
|[[File:Dülmen, Fröbelstraße, Mohn am Feldrand -- 2021 -- 9174.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Myrtle'''
|Love, marriage, peace
|[[File:Myrtus communis MHNT.BOT.2007.40.51.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Asphodel'''
|Death, afterlife
|[[File:Bog Asphodel - geograph.org.uk - 1402477.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|'''Pomegranate Blossoms'''
|Marriage, fertility, and the underworld
|[[File:Pomegranate blossoms - άνθη ροδιάς 01.jpg|thumb]]
|}
''Table 1''

These flowers had a significant influence on Greek culture, leaving a visible mark in various forms. In art, they were commonly featured as prominent motifs on pottery dating back to the sixth century BCE. Red-figure vases, for instance, often depicted women holding wreaths of myrtle and rose in wedding scenes, while the [[Parthenon Frieze|Parthenon frieze]] showed maidens carrying flower baskets during religious processions.<ref name="bing.com"/>

=== Eastern vs. Western Interpretations ===
A key distinction between Eastern and Western floral symbolism lies in the selection of flowers, which varies across cultures and complicates the idea of a universal floral language. In Western traditions, the rose is considered the "queen of flowers," while in China, the tree peony holds greater symbolic significance as the "king of flowers."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Seaton, B. (1995). The Language of Flowers: a history. The University Press of Virginia. |url=https://www.bing.com/search?q=Seaton,+B.+(1995).+The+Language+of+Flowers:+a+history.+The+University+Press+of+Virginia.&cvid=dbfd90affb28418b8a42606bb25f27e6&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDsyBggAEEUYOzIICAEQ6QcY_FXSAQc0MjlqMGo0qAIIsAIB&FORM=ANAB01&PC=ACTS |access-date=2025-04-18 |website=Bing |language=en}}</ref> In addition, in both China and Japan and many Buddhist countries, the lotus is the most significant religious flower symbol, closely associated with Buddha. Representing truth, perfection, and immortality (Koehn, ''Japanese Flower Symbolism''), it frequently appears in depictions of Buddha and references to his teachings.
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Flower'''
|'''Eastern'''
|'''Western'''
|'''Images'''
|-
|Cherry Blossom
|Loyalty, patriotism, a life lived joyfully
|A good education
|[[File:Cherry Blossom in El Retiro Park, Madrid, Spain.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|Narcissus
|Good fortune, happiness
|Egoism
|[[File:Narcissus 'Ice Follies' 02.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|Lotus
|Purity, truth
|eloquence
|[[File:Lotus flower (978659).jpg|thumb]]
|-
|Willow
|Meekness, femininity, good luck
|Melancholy
|[[File:Flowering Salix - Willow 05.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|Peony
|Masculinity, brightness, prosperity
|Boldness
|[[File:Paeonia suffruticosa Yatsuka JdP.jpg|thumb]]
|-
|Pomegranate
|fertility
|fatuity
|[[File:Pomegranate blossoms - άνθη ροδιάς 01.jpg|thumb]]
|}
''Table 2''

(Clement; Koehn, Japanese Flower Symbolism; and Koehn, Chinese Flower Symbolism)

== In the 21st century ==
Floriography in the 21st century has been reduced but has been displayed in different ways. For example, tattoos of flowers and plants may carry symbolism and significance which relate to their historical meaning.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-25 |title=The Language of Flowers: A Historical Journey of Floral Symbolism - History of Yesterday |url=https://historyofyesterday.com/the-language-of-flowers-a-historical-journey-of-floral-symbolism/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=historyofyesterday.com |language=en-us}}</ref> The same can be said for jewelry designed and worn based on what the flowers represent. Floriography can still be found in traditional ways through bouquets, a common example of this would be the common practice of gifting red roses on Valentine's Day to represent love and romance and wearing poppies for remembrance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Floriography: When Flowers Talk (David Trinklein) |url=https://ipm.missouri.edu/meg/2023/2/floriography-DT/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=ipm.missouri.edu |language=en}}</ref> The gifting of flowers is not always personal, businesses and organizations may send floral arrangements to communicate professionalism and success. While the traditional use of floriography may have changed, the symbolism of flowers continues to provide a connection between humans and nature.

==See also==
* [[Floral emblem]]
* {{transliteration|ja|[[Hanakotoba]]}} – Japanese flower language
* [[Plant symbolism]]
* ''[[Sub rosa]]''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
<!-- see [[WP:EL]] for how to choose appropriate external links -->
* [http://www.literarycalligraphy.com/books/history.html "History of the Language of Flowers"], a chapter excerpted from the book ''Flowers, the Angels' Alphabet'' by [[Susan Loy]], 2001.
* [https://www.rhs.org.uk/about-the-rhs/pdfs/publications/lindley-library-occasional-papers/volume-ten.pdf ''The Victorian Language of Flowers - Occasional Papers volume 10''], Occasional Papers of the RHS Lindley Library, volume 10, April 2013. Gives a full overview of the topic and a comparison of the meanings of flowers from a selection of language of flowers books in the RHS Lindley Libraries.
* Scans of 19th-century books on the language of flowers:
** Charlotte de La Tour (in French), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mGsuAAAAYAAJ Le langage des fleurs]'', 7e éd., Paris : Garnier Frères, 1858. At [[Google Books]].
** [[Kate Greenaway]] (illustration), [https://archive.org/details/languageofflower00gree ''Language of Flowers''], n.d. Via the [[Internet Archive]].
** Nehemiah Cleaveland, [https://archive.org/details/flowerspersonif00gimbgoog ''The Flowers Personified''], New York: R Martin, 1849. Via the Internet Archive.

==External links==
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{{Americana Poster|Flowers, Symbolism of|Symbolism of Flowers}}
* {{Wiktionary inline|language of flowers}}
* {{Wiktionary inline|floriography}}

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[[Category:Language of flowers| ]]
[[Category:Victorian culture]]