View source for Languages of the Caucasus

{{short description|Diverse languages between the Black and Caspian seas}}
{{more footnotes|date=June 2011}}
[[File:Caucasus-ethnic en.svg|thumb|upright=1.59|[[Ethnolinguistic group]]s in the Caucasus region (1995)]]

The [[Caucasus|Caucasian]] languages comprise a large and extremely varied array of languages spoken by more than ten million people in and around the [[Caucasus Mountains]], which lie between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]].

[[Comparative method|Linguistic comparison]] allows the classification of these languages into several [[language family|language families]], with little or no discernible affinity to each other. However, the languages of the Caucasus are sometimes mistakenly referred to as a ''family'' of languages.<ref name="Tuite">Tuite, Kevin. (1999). The myth of the Caucasian Sprachbund: The case of ergativity. Lingua. 108. 1-29. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0024-3841(98)00037-0]</ref> According to Asya Pereltsvaig, "grammatical differences between the three groups of languages are considerable. [...] These differences force the more conservative historical linguistics to treat the three language families of the Caucasus as unrelated."<ref>{{cite book |last=Pereltsvaig |first=Asya |author-link=Asya Pereltsvaig |title=Languages of the World: An Introduction|year=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|page=65}}</ref>

== Families indigenous to the Caucasus ==
{{Infobox language family
| name          = Caucasian
| familycolor   = Caucasian
| acceptance    = geographic
| family        = Not a single family
| region        = [[Caucasus]]
| child1        = [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]]
| child2        = [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]]/[[Alarodian languages|Alarodian]]?
| child3        = [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]
| glotto        = none
}}
Three of these families have no current indigenous members outside the Caucasus, and are considered indigenous to the area. The term '''Caucasian languages''' is generally restricted to these families, which are spoken by about 11.2 million people.<ref name="Krishnan">{{cite book|last=Krishnan|first=K. S.|author-link=K. S. Krishnan|date=12 August 2019|title=Origin of Vedas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O6SoDwAAQBAJ|publisher=[[Notion Press]]|page=|isbn=9781645879817}}</ref>

* '''[[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian]]''', also known as the '''South Caucasian''' or '''Iberian''' language family, with a total of about 4.3 million speakers. Includes [[Georgian language|Georgian]], the official language of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], with four million speakers, [[Svan language|Svan]] with 14,000 speakers, [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] with 345,000 speakers, and [[Laz language|Laz]] with 22,000 speakers.
* '''[[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]]''', also called the '''Nakh-Daghestanian''' or '''Caspian''' family, with a total of about 4.3 million speakers. Includes [[Chechen language|Chechen]] with 1.7 million speakers, [[Avar language|Avar]] with 1 million speakers, [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]] with 590,000 speakers, [[Ingush language|Ingush]] with 500,000 speakers, and [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]] with 800,000 speakers.
* '''[[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]''', also called the '''Abkhazo-Adyghean''', '''Circassian''', or '''Pontic''' family, with a total of about 2 million speakers. Includes [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], with one million speakers, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] with 610,000 speakers, [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] with 190,000 speakers, and [[Abaza language|Abaza]] with 85,000 speakers.

The Northeast and Northwest Caucasian families are notable for their high number of [[consonant]] [[phonemes]] (inventories range up to the 80–84 consonants of [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]). The consonant inventories of the South Caucasian languages, however, are not nearly as extensive, ranging from 28 (Georgian) to 32 ([[Svan language|Svan]]) – comparable to languages like [[Russian phonology|Russian]] (up to 37 consonant phonemes, depending on definition), [[Arabic phonology|Arabic]] (28 phonemes), and Western European languages (often more than 20 phonemes).

The autochthonous languages of the Caucasus share some [[areal feature]]s, such as the presence of [[ejective consonant]]s and a highly [[agglutination|agglutinative]] structure, and, with the sole exception of [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], all of them exhibit a greater or lesser degree of [[ergative–absolutive alignment|ergativity]]. Many of these features are shared with other languages that have been in the Caucasus for a long time, such as [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] (which has ejective sounds but no ergativity).<ref name="Tuite" />

=== External relations ===
Since the birth of comparative linguistics in the 19th century, the riddle of the apparently isolated Caucasian language families has attracted the attention of many scholars, who have endeavored to relate them to each other or to languages outside the Caucasus region.<ref name="Krishnan" /><ref name="Schulze">Schulze, Wolfgang. "11. The comparative method in Caucasian linguistics". ''Volume 1 Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics'', edited by Jared Klein, Brian Joseph and Matthias Fritz, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2017, pp. 105-114. [https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110261288-011]</ref> The most promising proposals are connections between the Northeast and Northwest Caucasian families and each other or with languages formerly spoken in [[Anatolia]] and northern [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Schulze" /><ref name="Arkadiev">Arkadiev, Peter & Maisak, Timur. (2018). Grammaticalization in the North Caucasian languages. [https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198795841.003.0007]</ref>

==== North Caucasian languages ====
{{main|North Caucasian languages}}
Linguists such as [[Sergei Starostin]] see the Northeast (Nakh-Dagestanian) and Northwest (Abkhaz–Adyghe) families as related and propose uniting them in a single '''North Caucasian''' family, sometimes called '''Caucasic''' or simply '''Caucasian'''. This theory excludes the South Caucasian languages, thereby proposing two indigenous language families.<ref name="NCED">Nikolayev, S., and S. Starostin. 1994 ''North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary''. Moscow: Asterisk Press. [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?flags=eygtnnl&basename=%5Cdata%5Ccauc%5Ccaucet&recode=yes&hiero=gif Available online].</ref> While these two families share many similarities, their morphological structure, with many [[morpheme]]s consisting of a single consonant, make comparison between them unusually difficult, and it has not been possible to establish a genetic relationship with any certainty.<ref name="Arkadiev" />

==== Ibero-Caucasian languages ====
{{main|Ibero-Caucasian languages}}
There are no known affinities between the South Caucasian and North Caucasian families.<ref name="Arkadiev" /> Nevertheless, some scholars have proposed the single name '''Ibero-Caucasian''' for all the Caucasian language families, North and South, in an attempt to unify the Caucasian languages under one family.

==== Hattic ====
Some linguists have claimed affinities between the Northwest Caucasian (Circassian) family and the extinct [[Hattic language]] of central Anatolia. See the article on [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] for details.

==== Alarodian ====
{{main|Alarodian languages}}
Alarodian is a proposed connection between Northeast Caucasian and the extinct [[Hurro-Urartian languages]] of [[Anatolia]].

==== Dené–Caucasian macrofamily ====
{{main|Dené–Caucasian languages}}
Linguists such as [[Sergei Starostin]] have proposed a [[Dené–Caucasian languages|Dené–Caucasian]] [[macrofamily]], which includes the North Caucasian languages together with [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Burushaski]], [[Na-Dené languages|Na-Dené]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], and [[Yeniseian languages|Yeniseian]]. This proposal is rejected by most linguists.

== Families with wider distribution ==
Other languages historically and currently spoken in the Caucasus area can be placed into families with a much wider geographical distribution.

=== Indo-European ===
The predominant [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language in the Caucasus is [[Armenian language|Armenian]], spoken by the [[Armenians]] (circa 6.7 million speakers). The Ossetians, speaking the [[Ossetian language]], form another group of around 700,000 speakers. Other Indo-European languages spoken in the Caucasus include [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[Pontic Greek]]), [[Persian language|Persian]] (including [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat Persian]]), [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Talysh language|Talysh]], [[Judeo-Tat]], and the [[Slavic languages]], such as [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], whose speakers number over a third of the total population of the Caucasus.

=== Semitic ===
Two dialects of [[Neo-Aramaic languages|Neo-Aramaic]] are spoken in the Caucasus: [[Suret|Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]], with around 30,000 speakers, and [[Neo-Aramaic dialect of Bohtan|Bohtan Neo-Aramaic]], with around 1,000 speakers. Both of these were brought to the Caucasus by ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] fleeing the [[Sayfo]] or Assyrian genocide during [[World War I]].

A dialect of [[Arabic]] known as [[Shirvani Arabic]] was spoken natively in parts of [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Dagestan]] throughout medieval times until the early 20th century.<ref name=WDG>{{cite book|last=Owens|first=Jonathan|title=Arabic As a Minority Language|year=2000|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|isbn=9783110165784|pages=89–101}}</ref><ref name=CHC>{{cite book|last=Zelkina|first=Anna|title=In Quest for God and Freedom: The Sufi Response to the Russian Advance in the North Caucasus|year=2000|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=9781850653844|page=31}}</ref> In the nineteenth century, it was considered that the best [[Modern Standard Arabic|literary Arabic]] was spoken in the mountains of [[Dagestan]].<ref name=CHC2>{{cite book|last=Bryan|first=Fanny. E.B.|editor-last=Bennigsen-Broxup|editor-first=Marie|editor-link=Marie Bennigsen-Broxup|title=The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World|year=1992|publisher=[[C. Hurst & Co.]]|isbn=9781850653059|page=210}}</ref>

=== Turkic ===
Several [[Turkic languages]] are spoken in the Caucasus. Of these, [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] is predominant, with around 9 million speakers in Azerbaijan and more than 10 million in North Western Iran. Other Turkic languages spoken include [[Karachay-Balkar]], [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]], [[Nogai language|Nogai]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] and [[Urum language|Urum]].

=== Mongolic ===
[[Kalmyk Oirat]], spoken by descendants of [[Oirat language|Oirat]]-speakers from East Asia, is a [[Mongolic languages|Mongolic]] language.

== Vocabulary comparison ==
Below are selected basic vocabulary items for all three language families of the Caucasus.

:{| class="wikitable sortable"
! gloss !! [[Proto-Northeast Caucasian language|Proto-NE Caucasian]]<ref name="Nichols-2003">Nichols, Johanna. 2003. The Nakh-Daghestanian consonant correspondences. In Dee Ann Holisky and Kevin Tuite (eds.), ''Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics: Papers in honor of Howard I. Aronson'', 207-264. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. {{doi|10.1075/cilt.246.14nic}}</ref> !! [[Proto-Northwest Caucasian language|Proto-NW Caucasian]]<ref>Chirikba, Viacheslav. 1996. ''Common West Caucasian: The Reconstruction of its Phonological System and Parts of its Lexicon and Morphology''. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African, and Amerindian Studies. ISBN 978-9073782716.</ref> !! [[Proto-Kartvelian language|Proto-Kartvelian]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Klimov |author-link=Georgy Klimov |first=G. |year=1998 |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |place=Berlin}}</ref> !! [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
|- 
| eye || {{lang|mis|*(b)ul, *(b)al}} || {{lang|mis|*b-la}} || {{lang|mis|*twal-}} || {{lang|ka|tvali}}
|-
| tooth || {{lang|mis|*cVl-}} || {{lang|mis|*ca}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian–Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*ḳb-il-}} || {{lang|ka|k’bili}}
|-
| tongue || {{lang|mis|*maʒ-i}} || {{lang|mis|*bza}} || {{lang|mis|*nena-}} || {{lang|ka|ena}}
|-
| hand, arm || {{lang|mis|*kV, *kol-}} || {{lang|mis|*q’a}} || {{lang|mis|*qe-}} || {{lang|ka|xeli}}
|-
| back (of body) || {{lang|mis|*-uqq’}} || {{lang|mis|*pxá}} ||  || {{lang|ka|zurgi}}
|-
| heart || {{lang|mis|*rVk’u / *Vrk’u}} || {{lang|mis|*g°ə}} || {{lang|mis|*gul-}} || {{lang|ka|guli}}
|-
| meat || {{lang|mis|*(CV)-(lV)ƛƛ’}} || {{lang|mis|*Lə}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*qorc-}} || {{lang|ka|xorci}}
|-
| sun || {{lang|mis|*bVrVg}} || {{lang|mis|*dəɣa}} || {{lang|mis|*mz₁e-}} || {{lang|ka|mze}}
|-
| moon || {{lang|mis|*baʒVr / *buʒVr}} || {{lang|mis|*məʒa}} || {{lang|mis|*tute-}} || {{lang|ka|mtvare}}
|-
| earth || {{lang|mis|*(l)ončči}} || {{lang|mis|*č’ə-g°ə}} ([[Proto-Circassian language|P-Circassian]]) ||  || {{lang|ka|dedamiʦ’a}}
|-
| water || {{lang|mis|*ɬɬin}} || {{lang|mis|*psə}} ([[Proto-Circassian language|P-Circassian]]) || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*c̣q̣a-}} || {{lang|ka|ʦ’q’ali}}
|-
| fire || {{lang|mis|*c’ar(i), *c’ad(i)}} || {{lang|mis|*məć’°a}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*ʓec₁xl-}} || {{lang|ka|cecxli; xanʒari}}
|-
| ashes || {{lang|mis|*rV-uqq’ / *rV-uƛƛ’}} || {{lang|mis|*tq°a}} || {{lang|mis|*ṭuṭa-}} || {{lang|ka|perpli}}
|-
| road || {{lang|mis|*-eqq’ / *-aqq’}} || {{lang|mis|*məʕ°á}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*gza-}} || {{lang|ka|gza}}
|-
| name || {{lang|mis|*cc’Vr, *cc’Vri}} || {{lang|mis|*(p’)c’a}} || {{lang|mis|*ʓ₁ax-e-}} || {{lang|ka|saxeli; gvari}}
|-
| kill || {{lang|mis|*-Vƛ’}} || {{lang|mis|*ƛ’ə́}} ||  || {{lang|ka|k’vla}}
|-
| burn || {{lang|mis|*-Vk’}} || {{lang|mis|*ca; *bla/ə}} || {{lang|mis|*c₁x-}} || {{lang|ka|ʦ’va}}
|-
| know || {{lang|mis|*(-)Vc’}} || {{lang|mis|*ć’a}} ||  || {{lang|ka|codna}}
|-
| black || {{lang|mis|*alč’i- (*ʕalč’i-)}} || {{lang|mis|*ć’°a}} ||  || {{lang|ka|šavi}}
|-
| round || {{lang|mis|*goRg / *gog-R-}} ||  ||  || {{lang|ka|mrgvali}}
|-
| dry || {{lang|mis|*-aqq’(u) / *-uqq’}} || {{lang|mis|*ʕ°ə́}} || {{lang|mis|*šwer-, *šwr-}} || {{lang|ka|mšrali}}
|-
| thin || {{lang|mis|*(C)-uƛ’Vl-}} || {{lang|mis|*č’°a}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*ttx-el-}} || {{lang|ka|txeli}}
|-
| what || {{lang|mis|*sti-}} || {{lang|mis|*sə-tʰə; *śə-da}} ([[Proto-Circassian language|P-Circassian]]) || {{lang|mis|*ma-}} || {{lang|ka|ra}}
|-
| one || {{lang|mis|*cV (*cʕV ?)}} || {{lang|mis|*za}} || ''[[Proto-Georgian-Zan language|GZ]]'' {{lang|mis|*ert-}} || {{lang|ka|erti}}
|-
| five || {{lang|mis|*(W)-ƛƛi / *ƛƛwi}} || {{lang|mis|*txᵒə}} || {{lang|mis|*xut-}} || {{lang|ka|xuti}}
|}

== See also ==
{{sister project|project=wiktionary|text=[[Wiktionary]] has word lists at '''''[[Wiktionary:Appendix:Caucasian word lists|Appendix:Caucasian word lists]]'''''}}
{{portal|Language|Asia|Europe}}
* [[Caucasus]]
* [[Ethnic groups in the Caucasus]]
* [[Languages of Europe]]
* [[North Caucasus]]
* [[South Caucasus]]
{{-}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Kovalevskaia, V. B "Central Ciscaucasia in Antiquity and Early Middle Ages: Caucasian Substratum and Migrations of the Iranic-Speaking Tribes." (1988).

== External links ==
{{colbegin}}
* TITUS: Caucasian languages [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/karten/kauk/kaukasm.htm map by Jost Gippert] & projects [http://armazi.uni-frankfurt.de/ Armazi]& [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/ecling/ecling.htm Ecling]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/ethnocaucasus.jpg CIA ethnolinguistic map]
* [http://linguistics.buffalo.edu/people/faculty/dryer/dryer/map.caucasus.GIF language-family map by Matthew Dryer]
* [http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/languages.html Caucausian section of the Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061217214014/http://www.ling.lu.se/persons/Arthur/caucprojreport.pdf The Iberian-Caucasian Connection in a Typological Perspective] – An in-depth linguistic study of Basque, Georgian, and other ergative languages, concluding that the similarities are not strong enough to prove a genetic link.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070917141516/http://linguarium.iling-ran.ru/publications/caucas/alw_cau_content.shtml Atlas of the Caucasian Languages with very detailed Language Guide (by Yuri B. Koryakov)]
* [http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/pies/pdfs/IESV/1/VVI_Horse.pdf Comparative Notes on Hurro-Urartian, Northern Caucasian and Indo-European] by [[Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|V. V. Ivanov]]
* [https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110261288-011/pdf 11. The comparative method in Caucasian linguistics] by Wolfgang Schulze
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223781662_The_myth_of_the_Caucasian_Sprachbund_The_case_of_ergativity The myth of the Caucasian Sprachbund: The case of ergativity] by Kevin Tuite
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233510214_The_Rise_and_Fall_and_Revival_of_the_Ibero-Caucasian_Hypothesis The Rise and Fall and Revival of the Ibero-Caucasian Hypothesis] by Kevin Tuite
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329819214_Grammaticalization_in_the_North_Caucasian_languages Grammaticalization in the North Caucasian languages] by Peter Arkadiev and Timur Maisak
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263175145_Areal_Typology_of_Proto-Indo-European_The_Case_for_Caucasian_Connections Areal Typology of Proto‐Indo‐European: The Case for Caucasian Connections] by Ranko Matasovic
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344330212_The_Northwest_Caucasian_languages The Northwest Caucasian languages] by Peter Arkadiev and Yury Lander
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234147412_Mountain_of_Tongues_The_Languages_of_the_Caucasus Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus] by J. C. Catford
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357223924_Mountain_of_Tongues_The_Languages_of_the_Caucasus_in_Arabic-Islamic_Sources_The_Languages_of_the_Caucasus_in_Arabic-Islamic_Sources “Mountain of Tongues” The Languages of the Caucasus in Arabic-Islamic Sources] by Andrii Danylenko
* [https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781351055628-3 Routledge Handbook of the Caucasus] by John Colarusso
* [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-areal-linguistics/caucasus/D26A5236E4ACD4BC99B747242422DE31 13 - The Caucasus from Part II - Case Studies for Areal Linguistics] by Sven Grawunder
* [https://dlc.hypotheses.org/507 Ejectives, Altitude, and the Caucasus as a Linguistic Area] by Thomas Wier
* [https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=531 The languages of the Caucasus]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/weekinreview/24barry.html Barriers That Are Steep and Linguistic] by Ellen Barry
* [https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0057.xml Caucasian Languages] by Marina Chumakina
* [https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/28/10/2905/973568 Parallel Evolution of Genes and Languages in the Caucasus Region]
* [https://www.ijhcs.com/index.php/ijhcs/article/download/1424/1297 North Caucasian languages: comparison of three classification approaches] by Valery Solovyev
* [https://www.languagesoftheworld.info/uncategorized/linguistic-genetic-mosaic-northwest-caucasus.html The linguistic and genetic mosaic of the Northwest Caucasus] by Asya Pereltsvaig
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30022477 Languages of the World: Ibero-Caucasian and Pidgin-Creole Fascicle One] by C. F. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin on JSTOR
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028646 A Case of Taboo-Motivated Lexical Replacement in the Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus] by Kevin Tuite and Wolfgang Schulze on JSTOR
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2949334 Mountain of Tongues: The Languages of the Caucasus] by J. C. Catford on JSTOR
* [https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED010355.pdf Languages of the World: Ibero-Caucasian and Pidgin-Creole Fascicle One] by C. F. Voegelin and F. M. Voegelin
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313227059_A_case_of_taboo-motivated_lexical_replacement_in_the_indigenous_languages_of_the_Caucasus A case of taboo-motivated lexical replacement in the indigenous languages of the Caucasus] by Kevin Tuite and Wolfgang Schulze on ResearchGate
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358511334_From_North_to_North_West_How_North-West_Caucasian_Evolved_from_North_Caucasian_In_MOTHER_TONGUE_Journal_of_the_Association_for_the_Study_of_Language_in_Prehistory_Issue_XXI_2016_p_1-27 From North to North West: How North-West Caucasian Evolved from North Caucasian] by Viacheslav Chirikba
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/290503561_2_The_problem_of_the_Caucasian_Sprachbund 2. The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund] by Viacheslav Chirikba
* [http://lingvarium.org/raznoe/publications/caucas/alw_cau_over.shtml Overview of Caucasian languages and Caucasus]
* [https://www.mustgo.com/worldlanguages/caucasian-language-families/ Caucasian Language Families]
* [https://aratta.wordpress.com/2013/03/19/caucasians/ The Caucasians - Cradle of Civilization]
* [https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/1346186 Northwest Caucasian Languages and Hattic] on Dergi Park
* [https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/290541/azu_td_8102239_sip1_m.pdf BASQUE AND CAUCASIAN: A SURVEY OF THE METHODS USED IN ESTABLISHING ANCIENT GENETIC AFFILIATIONS] on repository by the University of Arizona
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lbLbAAAAQBAJ The History of Basque]
* [https://www.iias.asia/the-review/endangered-languages-caucasus-and-beyond Endangered Languages of the Caucasus and Beyond] on IIAS
* [https://omniglot.com/conscripts/pca.htm The Pan-Caucasian alphabet by Vazgen R. Ghazaryan] at Omniglot
{{colend}}

{{Languages of the Caucasus}}
{{Eurasian languages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Caucasus, languages}}
[[Category:Languages of the Caucasus| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]