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{{Short description|Torah, or first five books of the Hebrew Bible}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
[[File:El Greco - Mount Sinai - WGA10419.jpg|370px|thumb|right|[[El Greco]]'s ''View of [[Mount Sinai]]'' (1570–1572), [[Historical Museum of Crete]]]]

The '''Law of Moses''' ({{langx|he|תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה}} {{transliteration|he|Torat Moshe}}), also called the '''Mosaic Law''', is the law said to have been revealed to [[Moses]] by [[God in Abrahamic religions|God]]. The term primarily refers to the [[Torah]] or the first five books of the [[Hebrew Bible]].

== Terminology ==
The Law of Moses or [[Torah#Meaning and names|Torah of Moses]] (Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה}}, {{Lang|he-Latn|Torat Moshe}}, [[Septuagint]] {{langx|grc|νόμος Μωυσῆ}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|nómos Mōusē}}, or in some [[English translations of the bible|translations]] the "Teachings of Moses")<ref>e.g. [[New Century Version]], {{bibleverse||Joshua|8:32|NCV}}</ref> is a biblical term first found in the [[Book of Joshua]] {{bibleverse-nb||Joshua|8:31–32|NKJV}}, where Joshua writes the Hebrew words of "Torat Moshe {{Script/Hebrew|תֹּורַת מֹשֶׁה}}" on an altar of stones at [[Mount Ebal]]. The text continues:
{{blockquote|And afterward he read all the words of the teachings, the blessings and cursings, according to all that is written in the book of the Torah.|Joshua 8:34<ref>Kristin De Troyer, Armin Lange ''Reading the present in the Qumran library'' 2005 p158: "Both at the beginning and at the ending of the Gibeonites' story there is now a reference to the law of Moses and to the fact that ... The building of the altar happens on Mount Ebal, not in Gilgal — Joshua gets to Gilgal only in 9:6."</ref>}}

The term occurs 15 times in the [[Hebrew Bible]], a further 7 times<ref>'the Law of Moses' – John 7:23; Luke 2:22; 22:44; Acts 15:5, 21; 24:14; 28:23</ref> in the [[New Testament]], and repeatedly in [[Second Temple period]], [[intertestamental]], [[rabbinical]] and [[Church Fathers|patristic]] literature.

The Hebrew word for the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, ''[[Torah]]'' (which means "law" and was translated into Greek as [[Nomos (mythology)|"nomos"]] or "Law") refers to the same five books termed in English "Pentateuch" (from Latinised Greek "five books", implying the five books of Moses). According to some scholars, use of the name "Torah" to designate the "Five Books of Moses" of the [[Hebrew Bible]] is clearly documented only from the 2nd century BCE.<ref>Frank Crüsemann, Allan W. Mahnke (1996). ''The Torah: theology and social history of Old Testament law'', p. 331. "...{{spaces}}there is only clear evidence for the use of the term Torah to describe the Pentateuch as a{{spaces}}..."</ref>

In modern usage, ''Torah'' can refer to the first five books of the Tanakh, as the Hebrew Bible is commonly called, to the instructions and [[mitzvot|commandments]] found in the 2nd to 5th books of the Hebrew Bible, and also to the entire Tanakh and even all of the [[Oral Torah|Oral Law]] as well. Among English-speaking Christians the term "The Law" can refer to the whole Pentateuch including [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], but this is generally in relation to the New Testament where ''nomos'' "the Law" sometimes refers to all five books, including Genesis. This use of the Hebrew term "Torah" (law) for the first five books is considered misleading by 21st-century Christian [[bible scholar]] [[John Van Seters]], because the Pentateuch "consists of about one half law and the other half narrative".<ref>John Van Seters (2004). ''The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary'', p. 16 "Furthermore, the Hebrew term Torah, 'Law', is a little misleading as a description of the content of the Pentateuch, since it consists of about one half law and the other half narrative."</ref>

== Law in the Ancient Near East ==
The "Law of Moses" in ancient Israel was different from other legal codes in the [[ancient Near East]] because transgressions were seen as offences against God rather than solely as offences against society (civil law).<ref>John H. Walton (1990). ''Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context'', p. 233. "The ancient Near Eastern collections do not include cultic law; rather, their focus is on civil law. As a generalization, in the ancient Near East violation of law is an offense against society. In Israel a violation of law is an{{spaces}}..."</ref> This contrasts with the [[Sumer]]ian [[Code of Ur-Nammu]] ({{c.|2100}}–2050 BCE), and the [[Babylonia]]n [[Code of Hammurabi]] ({{c.|1760 BCE}}, of which almost half concerns [[contract law]]).

However, the influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the Law of ancient Israel is recognised and well documented,<ref>Andrew E. Hill, John H. Walton (2000). ''A survey of the Old Testament'', p. 52. "The influence of the ancient Near Eastern legal tradition on the form and function of Hebrew law is undeniable and widely documented. Along with this contemporary cultural influence, the Old Testament affirms the divine origin of{{spaces}}..."</ref> for example, in principles such as {{lang|la|lex talionis}} ("[[eye for an eye]]"), and in the content of the provisions. Some similarities are striking, such as in the provisions concerning a man-goring ox (Code of Hammurabi laws 250–252, Exodus 21:28–32). Some writers have posited direct influence: [[David P. Wright]], for example, asserts that the Covenant Code is "directly, primarily, and throughout dependent upon the Laws of Hammurabi", "a creative rewriting of Mesopotamian sources to be viewed as an academic abstraction rather than a digest of laws".<ref>David P. Wright (2009). ''Inventing God's Law: How the Covenant Code of the Bible Used and Revised the Laws of Hammurabi''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195304756}}</ref> Others posit indirect influence, such as via [[Arameans|Aramaic]] or [[Phoenicia]]n intermediaries.<ref>Marc Van De Mieroop (2016). ''Philosophy before the Greeks: The Pursuit of Truth in Ancient Babylonia''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|9780691176352}}</ref> There is consensus that the similarities are a result of inheriting common oral traditions. Another example, the Israelite [[Sabbatical Year]] has antecedents in the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''mesharum'' edicts granting periodic relief to the poor.<ref>Jimmy Jack McBee Roberts (2002). ''The Bible and the ancient Near East: collected essays'', p. 46. "The Israelite Sabbatical Year, which seems to have the same purpose and recurs at about the same interval, appears to be an Israelite adaptation of this mesharum-edict tradition."</ref> An important distinction, however, is that in ancient Near East legal codes, as in more recently unearthed [[Ugaritic]] texts, an important, and ultimate, role in the legal process was assigned to the king. Ancient Israel, before the monarchical period beginning with David, was set up as a [[theocracy]], rather than a [[monarchy]], although God is most commonly portrayed like a king.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Curtis |first=Adrian |title=Law and religion: essays on the place of the law in Israel |year=1988 |editor-last=Lindars |editor-first=Barnabas |editor-link=Barnabas Lindars |page=3 |chapter=Chapter 1. God as 'judge' in Ugaritic and Hebrew thought |quote=The many legal texts discovered at Ugarit make it clear that the king played an important legal role; although legal transactions could be carried out before witnesses, ...}}</ref>

== Hebrew Bible ==
=== Moses and authorship of the Law ===
{{main|Moses|Deuteronomist|Mosaic authorship}}
According to the Hebrew Bible, Moses was the [[The Exodus|leader of early Israel out of Egypt]]; and traditionally the first five books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] are attributed to him, though most modern scholars believe there were multiple authors. The law attributed to Moses, specifically the laws set out in the books of [[Leviticus]] and [[Deuteronomy]], as a consequence came to be considered supreme over all other sources of authority (any king and/or his officials), and the [[Levites]] were the guardians and interpreters of the law.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=McKenzie |first1=Steven L. |last2=Graham |first2=Matt Patrick |date=January 1998 |title=The Hebrew Bible Today: An Introduction to Critical Issues |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=9780664256524 |page=19ff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owwhpmIVgSAC&pg=PA19}}</ref>

The Book of Deuteronomy ({{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|31:24–26|KJV}}) records Moses saying, "Take this book of the law, and put it by the side of the [[Ark of the Covenant]] of the {{LORD}}". Similar passages referring to the Law include, for example, Exodus 17:14, "And the {{LORD}} said unto Moses, Write this for a memorial in a book, and rehearse it in the ears of [[Joshua]], that I will utterly blot out the remembrance of [[Amalek]] from under [[heaven]]; Exodus 24:4, "And Moses wrote all the words of the {{LORD}}, and rose up early in the morning, and built an altar under the mount, and twelve pillars, according to the [[twelve tribes of Israel]]; Exodus 34:27, "And the {{LORD}} said unto Moses, Write thou these words, for after the tenor of these words I have made a [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] with thee and with Israel; and {{Bibleverse|Leviticus|26:46|KJV}} "These are the decrees, the laws and the regulations that the {{LORD}} established on [[Biblical Mount Sinai|Mount Sinai]] between himself and the [[Israelites]] through Moses.

=== Later references to the Law in the Hebrew Bible ===
The [[Books of Kings|Book of Kings]] relates how a "law of Moses" was discovered in the [[Solomon's Temple|Temple]] during the reign of king [[Josiah]] (r. 641–609 BCE).

Another mention of the "Book of the Law of Moses" is found in {{Bibleverse|Joshua|8:30–31}}.

=== Content ===
The content of the Law is spread among the books of [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], and [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], and then reiterated and added to in [[Deuteronomy]]. This includes:
* The [[Ten Commandments]]
* Moral laws – on murder, theft, honesty, adultery, homosexuality, etc.
* Social laws – on property, inheritance, marriage, and divorce.
* Food laws – on what is [[kosher|clean and unclean]], on cooking and storing food.
* Purity laws – on [[Niddah|menstruation]], [[Keri|seminal emissions]], [[Tzaraath|skin disease and mildew]], etc.
* Feasts – the [[Day of Atonement]], [[Passover]], [[Feast of Tabernacles]], [[Feast of Unleavened Bread]], [[Feast of Weeks]], etc.
* Sacrifices and offerings – the [[sin offering]], [[Burnt offering (Judaism)|burnt offering]], [[whole offering]], [[heave offering]], [[Passover sacrifice]], [[meal offering]], [[wave offering]], [[peace offering]], [[drink offering]], [[thank offering]], [[dough offering]], [[incense offering]], [[red heifer]], [[scapegoat]], [[first fruits]], etc.
* Instructions for the [[Priesthood (Ancient Israel)|priesthood]] and the [[High Priest (Judaism)|high priest]], including [[Terumat hamaaser|tithe]]s.
* Instructions regarding the [[Tabernacle]], and which were later applied to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], including those concerning the [[Holy of Holies]] containing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] (in which were the tablets of the law, [[Aaron's rod]], the [[manna]]). Instructions and for the construction of [[altar (Judaism)|various altars]].
* Forward looking instructions for time when Israel would demand a [[kings of Israel|king]].

== Rabbinical Interpretation ==
The content of the instructions and its interpretations, the Oral Torah, was passed down orally, excerpted and codified in [[Rabbinical Judaism]], and in the [[Talmud]] were numbered as the [[613 commandments]]. The [[law given to Moses at Sinai]] ({{Langx|he|הלכה למשה מסיני|Halakhah le-Moshe mi-Sinai}}) is a [[Halakha|halakhic]] distinction.

[[Rabbinic Judaism]]<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |title=Gentile |section=Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah |section-url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/6585-gentile#anchor21 |access-date=2025-06-15}}</ref> asserts that Moses presented the laws to the Jewish people, and that the laws do not apply to [[Gentiles]] (including Christians), with the exception of the [[Seven Laws of Noah]], which (it teaches) apply to all people.

== Christian interpretation ==
{{main|Christian views on the Old Covenant}}{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2024}}
Orthodox Christians{{who|date=October 2023}} regard the Law of Moses as still fully in effect but transformed and fulfilled in a number of ways. Other Christians believe that [[Supersessionism|only parts dealing with the moral law (as opposed to ceremonial law) are still applicable]], others believe that [[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws|none apply]], [[Dual-covenant theology|dual-covenant theologians]] believe that the Old Covenant remains valid only for Jews, and a minority have the view that [[Jewish Christianity|all parts still apply]] to believers in Jesus and in the New Covenant without any transformation in their character. Hebrew Catholics believe that the Law of Moses is not obligatory for Christians, but yet beneficial to preserve the Jewish identity of those Jews who have become Catholic, and as a devotional.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

During the Enlightenment, European society transitioned from the religious traditional social order of the Middle Ages into the modern Age of Reason. Anti-semitism, once driven by religious conviction and the persistent belief that Jews should be blamed for the death of Jesus, was reconfigured. The influence of Hebrew scripture and authoritarian ritual practice on Christian orthodoxy (including the [[Catholic Church]]) became the basis for attacks on Church authority. Anti-Semitic polemic against the Mosaic Law became a common theme for many well-known Enlightenment philosophers. [[Pierre Bayle]], a [[deist]], criticized the biblical figures from the Old Testament and their adherence to religious law which he said operated in an authoritarian manner to regulate social and community behavior instead of a personal conscience that requires agency.

== In Islam ==
Muslims believe Moses was one of the major [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|prophets (and apostles) of God]] and the Law was one of the three major [[Islamic books|revealed scriptures]] known by name beside the [[Quran]], which mentions the Law or Torah a total of eighteen times, and repeats commandments from it:

{{blockquote|How do they (the Jews) make you (Muhammad) judge when [they have] the Law ("Torah") with them, wherein are the commandments of God? Even then they turn away [from God], after all that. They are no believers. Indeed have We sent down the Law ("Torah"), wherein was guidance and light, by which the prophets, who submitted to God, used to govern ("judge") those who [now] are of the Jewish folk. So did the Rabbis and religious scribes by what of the Scripture of God they were entrusted with and were witnesses to. So fear not the men but fear Me and trade not My verses (commandments) for a petty price [of this worldly life]. Whoever governs ("judges") not by what God has sent down: they are those [who are] the unbelievers. We ordained for them therein: life for life, eye for eye, nose for nose, ear for ear, tooth for tooth and an [equal] retribution [for] wounds. But whoever is charitable with it, then be it [counted as] his atonement. And whoever governs not by what God has sent down: they are those [who are] the wrong-doers. And We followed up upon their footsteps Jesus the son of Mary verifying what was before him of the Law. And We gave him the Gospel ("Evangel"), wherein was guidance and light, verifying what was before him of the Law, a guidance and an admonition for the pious.|{{cite quran|5|43–46|s=ns}}}}

== See also ==
{{portal|Judaism}}
* [[Matthew 5#Antitheses|Matthew 5: Antitheses]]
* [[Moses in Islam]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |author1-link=Joseph Jacobs |last2=Blau |first2=Ludwig |author2-link=Lajos Blau |encyclopedia=[[Jewish Encyclopedia]] |title=Torah |section=Laws of the Torah |section-url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14446-torah#anchor10 |access-date=2025-06-15}}

[[Category:Law of Moses| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East law]]
[[Category:Biblical phrases]]
[[Category:Religious terminology]]
[[Category:Biblical law]]