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'''Lead''' ({{IPAc-en|l|ɛ|d|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Naomi Persephone Amethyst (NaomiAmethyst)-lead.wav}}) is a [[chemical element]] with the [[Chemical symbol|symbol]] '''Pb''' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|plumbum}}) and [[atomic number]] 82. It is a [[Heavy metal (elements)|heavy metal]], [[density|denser]] than most common materials. Lead is [[Mohs scale|soft]], [[Ductility|malleable]], and has a relatively low [[melting point]]. When freshly cut, it appears shiny gray with a bluish tint, but [[tarnish]]es to dull gray on exposure to air. Lead has the highest atomic number of any [[stable nuclide|stable element]], and three of its [[isotope]]s are endpoints of major nuclear [[decay chain]]s of heavier elements.

Lead is a relatively unreactive [[post-transition metal]]. Its weak metallic character is shown by its [[Amphoterism|amphoteric]] behavior: lead and [[lead oxide]]s react with both [[acid]]s and [[base (chemistry)|bases]], and it tends to form [[covalent bond]]s. [[Lead compounds]] usually occur in the +2 [[oxidation state]] rather than the +4 state common in lighter members of the [[carbon group]], with exceptions mostly limited to [[Organolead chemistry|organolead compounds]]. Like the lighter members of the group, lead can [[catenation|bond with itself]], forming chains and polyhedral structures.

Since lead is easily extracted from its [[ore]]s, prehistoric people in the Near East [[metals of antiquity|were aware of it]]. [[Galena]] is a principal ore of lead which often bears silver. Interest in silver helped initiate widespread extraction and use of lead in [[ancient Rome]]. Lead production declined after the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of Rome]] and did not reach comparable levels until the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Lead played a crucial role in the development of the [[printing press]], as [[movable type]] could be relatively easily cast from lead alloys.{{sfn|Theodore Low De Vinne|1899|pp=9–36}} In 2014, the annual global production of lead was about ten million tonnes, over half of which was from recycling. Lead's high density, low melting point, [[ductility]] and relative inertness to [[Redox|oxidation]] make it useful. These properties, combined with its relative abundance and low cost, resulted in its extensive use in [[construction]], [[plumbing]], [[Lead–acid battery|batteries]], [[Bullet|bullets]], shots ([[Shot (pellet)|pellets]]), [[Mass|weights]], [[solder]]s, [[pewter]], [[fusible alloy]]s, [[lead paint]]s, [[Tetraethyllead|leaded gasoline]], and [[lead shielding|radiation shield]]ing.

Lead is a [[neurotoxin]] that accumulates in soft tissues and bones. It damages the nervous system, interferes with biological [[enzyme]]s, and can cause [[neurological disorder]]s ranging from behavioral problems to brain damage. It also affects cardiovascular and renal systems. [[Roman lead poisoning theory|Lead's toxicity was noted]] by ancient Greek and Roman writers, but became widely recognized in Europe in the late 19th century.

== Physical properties ==
=== Atomic ===
A lead [[atom]] has 82 [[electron]]s, with the [[electron configuration]] &#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&#93;4f<sup>14</sup>5d<sup>10</sup>6s<sup>2</sup>6p<sup>2</sup>. The combined first and second [[ionization energy|ionization energies]]—the total energy required to remove the two 6p electrons—are similar to those of [[tin]], lead's immediate neighbor above in the [[carbon group]]. This is unusual, as ionization energies typically decrease down a group due to the outer electrons being farther from the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] and more [[shielding effect|shielded]] by inner orbitals. However, the sum of the first four ionization energies of lead is higher than that of tin,{{sfn|Lide|2005|pp=10-179}} contrary to [[periodic trends]]. This anomaly is explained by [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]], which become significant in heavier atoms.{{sfn|Pyykkö|1988|pp=563–594}} These effects contract the s and p orbitals, giving lead's 6s electrons greater binding energies than its 5s electrons.{{sfn|Claudio|Godwin|Magyar|2002|pp=1–144}} This leads to the [[inert-pair effect]], where the 6s electrons are less likely to participate in bonding. The result is stabilization of the +2 [[oxidation state]] and unusually long distances between nearest atoms in [[crystal]]line lead.{{sfn|Norman|1996|p=36}}

Lighter carbon-group [[congener (chemistry)|congeners]] of lead form stable or metastable [[Allotropy|allotropes]] with the tetrahedrally coordinated, [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] [[diamond cubic]] structure. In these elements, the [[Atomic orbital|s-]] and [[Atomic orbital|p-orbital]] energy levels are close enough to allow mixing into four [[orbital hybridisation|hybrid]] sp<sup>3</sup> orbitals. In lead, however, the inert pair effect increases the separation between s- and p-orbitals so much that the energy gain from hybridization is insufficient to overcome this gap.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|pp=226–227, 374}} Instead of a diamond cubic arrangement, lead forms [[metallic bonding|metallic bonds]] in which only the p-electrons are delocalized and shared among Pb<sup>2+</sup> ions. Consequently, lead adopts a [[cubic crystal system|face-centered cubic]] structure,{{sfn|Christensen|2002|p=867}} similar to the{{sfn|Slater|1964}} [[Valence (chemistry)|divalent]] metals [[calcium]] and [[strontium]].{{sfn|Considine|Considine|2013|pp=501, 2970}}{{efn|The tetrahedral allotrope of tin is called α- or gray tin and is stable only at or below 13.2&nbsp;°C (55.8&nbsp;°F). The stable form of tin above this temperature is called β- or white tin and has a distorted face centered cubic (tetragonal) structure which can be derived by compressing the tetrahedra of gray tin along their cubic axes. White tin effectively has a structure intermediate between the regular tetrahedral structure of gray tin, and the regular face centered cubic structure of lead, consistent with the general trend of increasing metallic character going down any representative group.{{sfn|Parthé|1964|p=13}}}}{{efn|A [[quasicrystal]]line [[thin-film]] allotrope of lead, with pentagonal symmetry, was reported in 2013. The allotrope was obtained by depositing lead atoms on the surface of an [[icosahedron|icosahedral]] silver-[[indium]]-[[ytterbium]] quasicrystal. Its conductivity was not recorded.{{sfn|Sharma|Nozawa|Smerdon|Nugent|2013}}{{sfn|Sharma|Smerdon|Nugent|Ribeiro|2014|p=174710}}}}{{efn|Diamond cubic structures with lattice parameters around the lattice parameter of silicon exists both in thin lead and tin films, and in massive lead and tin, freshly solidified in vacuum of ~5 x 10<sup>−6</sup> Torr. Experimental evidence for almost identical structures of at least three oxide types is presented, demonstrating that lead and tin behave like silicon not only in the initial stages of crystallization, but also in the initial stages of oxidation.{{sfn|Peneva|Djuneva|Tsukeva|1981}}}}

=== Bulk ===
Pure lead has a bright, shiny gray appearance with a faint blue tint.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=372}} It tarnishes when exposed to moist air, developing a dull surface whose color depends on environmental conditions. Lead is characterized by high [[density]], malleability, ductility, and resistance to [[corrosion]] due to [[passivation (chemistry)|passivation]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|pp=372–373}}

[[Image:Angeln zubehoer grundblei 01.jpg|thumb|left|Lead fishing weights]]
Its close-packed face-centered cubic structure and high atomic mass give lead a density{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=6}} of 11.34&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, greater than that of common metals such as [[iron]] (7.87&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>), [[copper]] (8.93&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>), and [[zinc]] (7.14&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>).{{sfn|Lide|2005|pp=12–35, 12–40}} This high density is the origin of the idiom ''to go over like a lead balloon''.{{sfn|Brenner|2003|p=396}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=42}}{{efn|[[British English]]: ''to go down like a lead balloon''.}} Some rarer metals are denser: [[tungsten]] and [[gold]] are both 19.3&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, while [[osmium]]—the densest known metal—has a density of 22.59&nbsp;g/cm<sup>3</sup>, nearly twice that of lead.{{sfn|Lide|2005|pp=4–13, 4–21, 4–33}}

Lead is soft, with a [[Mohs scale|Mohs hardness]] of 1.5, and can be scratched with a fingernail.{{sfn|Vogel|Achilles|2013|p=8}} It is very malleable and moderately ductile.{{sfn|Anderson|1869|pp=341–343}}{{efn|Malleability describes how easily it deforms under compression, whereas ductility means its ability to stretch.}} Its [[bulk modulus]]—a measure of resistance to compression—is 45.8&nbsp;[[Pascal (unit)|GPa]], compared with 75.2&nbsp;GPa for [[aluminium]], 137.8&nbsp;GPa for copper, and 160–169&nbsp;GPa for [[Carbon steel|mild steel]].{{sfn|Gale|Totemeier|2003|pp=15–2–15–3}} Lead's [[Ultimate tensile strength|tensile strength]] is low, at 12–17 MPa (around six times lower than aluminium, ten times lower than copper, and fifteen times lower than mild steel). Strength can be increased by alloying with small amounts of copper or [[antimony]].{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=8}}

[[File:Lead-2.jpg|thumb|left|A sample of lead solidified from the molten state|alt=A disk of metal]]
Lead melts at 327.5&nbsp;°C (621.5&nbsp;°F),{{sfn|Lide|2005|p=12-219<!--do not correct punctuation here, please; it's a hyphen, that's how numeration of pages runs in the source. This is not a range of pages; this is one page.-->}} a relatively low melting point compared to most metals,{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=6}}{{efn|A (wet) finger can be dipped into molten lead without risk of a burning injury.{{sfn|Willey|1999}}}} and has a [[boiling point]] of 1749&nbsp;°C (3180&nbsp;°F),{{sfn|Lide|2005|p=12-219}} the lowest among the carbon-group elements. Its [[Electrical resistivity and conductivity|electrical resistivity]] at 20&nbsp;°C is 192 [[ohm|nanoohm]]-meters, almost an [[order of magnitude]] higher than that of good conductors (copper: {{val|15.43|u=nΩ·m}}; gold: {{val|20.51|u=nΩ·m}}; aluminium: {{val|24.15|u=nΩ·m}}).{{sfn|Lide|2005|p=12-45}} Lead becomes a [[Superconductivity|superconductor]] below 7.19&nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]],{{sfn|Blakemore|1985|p=272}} which is the highest [[Superconductivity#phase transition|critical temperature]] among [[type-I superconductor]]s and the third highest among the elemental superconductors.{{sfn|Webb|Marsiglio|Hirsch|2015}}

=== Isotopes ===
{{Main|Isotopes of lead}}
Natural lead consists of four stable [[isotope]]s with mass numbers 204, 206, 207, and 208,{{sfn|IAEA - Nuclear Data Section|2017}} along with traces of six short-lived radioisotopes with mass numbers 209–214. The relatively high number of isotopes is consistent with lead's even [[atomic number]].{{efn|An even number of either protons or neutrons generally increases the nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of isotopes of all elements, ten.{{sfn|IAEA - Nuclear Data Section|2017}} See [[Even and odd atomic nuclei]] for more details.}} Lead has a [[magic number (physics)|magic number]] of protons (82), making its nucleus especially stable according to the [[nuclear shell model]].{{sfn|Stone|1997}} Lead-208 also has 126 neutrons, another magic number, which may account for its exceptional stability.{{sfn|Stone|1997}}

With its high atomic number, lead is the heaviest element whose natural isotopes are considered stable; lead-208 is the heaviest stable nucleus known. This distinction previously belonged to [[bismuth]] (atomic number 83) until its sole [[primordial nuclide|primordial isotope]], bismuth-209, was found in 2003 to decay extremely slowly.{{efn|The half-life found in the experiment was 1.9{{e|19}} years.{{sfn|de Marcillac|Coron|Dambier|Leblanc|2003|pp=876–78}} A kilogram of natural bismuth would have an activity value of approximately 0.003 [[becquerel]]s (decays per second). For comparison, the activity value of natural radiation in the human body is around 65 becquerels per kilogram of body weight (4500 becquerels on average).{{sfn|World Nuclear Association|2015}} }} Although the four stable isotopes of lead could theoretically undergo [[alpha decay]] to [[mercury (element)|mercury]] isotopes with an energy release, no such decay has been observed; their predicted half-lives range from 10<sup>35</sup> to 10<sup>189</sup> years,{{sfn|Beeman|Bellini|Cardani|Casali|2013}} at least 10<sup>25</sup> times the current age of the universe.

[[File:Holsinger Meteorite.jpg|thumb|left|The Holsinger meteorite, the largest piece of the [[Canyon Diablo (meteorite)|Canyon Diablo]] meteorite. [[Uranium–lead dating]] and [[lead–lead dating]] on this meteorite allowed refinement of the [[Age of Earth|age of the Earth]] to 4.55&nbsp;billion ±&nbsp;70&nbsp;million years.|alt=A piece of a gray meteorite on a pedestal]]
Three of lead's stable isotopes—lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—are the end products of the three major natural [[decay chain]]s: the [[uranium chain]] (from [[uranium-238]]), the [[actinium chain]] [[uranium-235|(from uranium-235]]), and the [[thorium chain]] [[thorium-232|(from thorium-232)]], respectively.{{sfn|Radioactive Decay Series|2012}}{{sfn|Committee on Evaluation of EPA Guidelines for Exposure to Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials|Commission on Life Sciences|Division on Earth and Life Studies|National Research Council|1999}} The isotopic composition of a rock sample depends on the presence of these parent isotopes; for example, lead-208 abundance can vary from about 52% in ordinary samples to as much as 90% in thorium ores.{{sfn|Smirnov|Borisevich|Sulaberidze|2012}} For this reason, the standard atomic weight of lead is reported to only one decimal place.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=368}} Over time, the ratios of these isotopes to lead-204 increase as they are produced by radioactive decay. These variations allow for [[lead–lead dating|lead–lead]] and [[uranium–lead dating]].{{sfn|Levin|2009|pp=40–41}} Lead-207 exhibits [[nuclear magnetic resonance]], a property used to study its compounds in both solution and solid states,{{sfn|Webb|2000|p=115}}{{sfn|Wrackmeyer|Horchler|1990}} including in biological systems such as the human body.{{sfn|Cangelosi|Pecoraro|2015}}

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== Chemistry ==
[[File:FlammenfärbungPb.png|thumb|right|upright=0.5|[[Flame test]]: lead colors flame pale blue|alt=A flame with a small metal rod penetrating it; the flame near the rod is pale blue.]]
When exposed to moist air, bulk lead develops a protective surface layer of variable composition. [[Lead carbonate|Lead(II) carbonate]] is a common constituent,{{sfn|Thürmer|Williams|Reutt-Robey|2002|pp=2033–2035}}{{sfn|Tétreault|Sirois|Stamatopoulou|1998|pp=17–32}}{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=10–11}} and in urban or maritime environments, lead(II) [[lead(II) sulfate|sulfate]] or lead(II) [[lead(II) chloride|chloride]] may also be present.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} This layer renders bulk lead effectively inert under atmospheric conditions.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} In contrast, finely powdered lead, like many metals, is [[pyrophoricity|pyrophoric]]{{sfn|Bretherick|2016|p=1442}} and burns with a bluish-white flame.{{sfn|Harbison|Bourgeois|Johnson|2015|p=132}}

Lead reacts with [[fluorine]] at room temperature to form [[lead(II) fluoride]]. Its reaction with [[chlorine]] is similar but requires heating, as the resulting chloride layer reduces further reactivity.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} Molten lead combines with the [[chalcogen]]s to produce lead(II) chalcogenides.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=374}}

The metal resists attack by [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[phosphoric acid]]s but not by [[hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] or [[nitric acid]]s; the difference arises from the insolubility and subsequent passivation of certain lead salts.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=11–12}} Organic acids, such as [[acetic acid]], dissolve lead in the presence of oxygen.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} Concentrated [[alkali]]s can also dissolve lead, producing [[plumbite]]s.{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=20}}

=== Inorganic compounds ===
{{see also|Lead compounds}}

Lead exhibits two principal oxidation states: +4 and +2. While the [[Valence (chemistry)|tetravalent]] state is characteristic of the carbon group, the divalent state is rare for [[carbon]] and [[silicon]], less common for germanium, significant but not dominant for tin, and the most prevalent for lead.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} This predominance is linked to [[relativistic quantum chemistry|relativistic effects]]—specifically the [[Inert-pair effect|inert pair effect]]—which occurs when there is a large [[electronegativity]] difference between lead and anions such as [[oxide]], [[halide]], or [[nitride]]. In such cases, lead develops a pronounced partial positive charge, causing a stronger contraction of the 6s orbital compared to the 6p orbital and rendering it relatively unreactive in ionic compounds. The inert pair effect is less pronounced in compounds where lead forms covalent bonds with elements of similar electronegativity, such as carbon in organolead compounds. In these, the 6s and 6p orbitals remain comparable in size, and sp<sup>3</sup> hybridization remains energetically favorable, making lead predominantly tetravalent in such cases.{{sfn|Kaupp|2014|pp=9–10}}

The electronegativity values further reflect this behavior: lead(II) has a value of 1.87, and lead(IV) has 2.33. This represents a reversal in the general trend of increasing stability of the +4 oxidation state down the carbon group; by comparison, tin has electronegativities of 1.80 (+2 state) and 1.96 (+4 state).{{sfn|Dieter|Watson|2009|p=509}}

==== Lead(II) ====
[[File:Oxid_olovnatý.JPG|left|thumb|[[Lead(II) oxide]]|alt=Cream powder]]Lead(II) compounds are characteristic of the inorganic chemistry of lead. Even strong [[oxidizing agent]]s like fluorine and chlorine react with lead to give only [[Lead(II) fluoride|PbF<sub>2</sub>]] and [[Lead(II) chloride|PbCl<sub>2</sub>]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=373}} Lead(II) ions are usually colorless in solution,{{sfn|Hunt|2014|p=215}} and partially hydrolyze to form Pb(OH)<sup>+</sup> and finally [Pb<sub>4</sub>(OH)<sub>4</sub>]<sup>4+</sup> (in which the [[Hydroxy group|hydroxyl]] ions act as [[bridging ligand]]s),{{sfn|King|1995|pp=43–63}}{{sfn|Bunker|Casey|2016|p=89}} but are not [[reducing agent]]s as tin(II) ions are. [[Qualitative inorganic analysis|Techniques]] for identifying the presence of the Pb<sup>2+</sup> ion in water generally rely on the precipitation of lead(II) chloride using dilute hydrochloric acid. As the chloride salt is sparingly soluble in water, in very dilute solutions the precipitation of [[lead(II) sulfide]] is instead achieved by bubbling [[hydrogen sulfide]] through the solution.{{sfn|Whitten|Gailey|David|1996|pp=904–905}}

[[Lead(II) oxide|Lead monoxide]] exists in two [[Crystal polymorphism|polymorphs]], [[litharge]] α-PbO (red) and [[massicot]] β-PbO (yellow), the latter being stable only above around 488&nbsp;°C. Litharge is the most commonly used inorganic compound of lead.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=384}} There is no lead(II) hydroxide; increasing the pH of solutions of lead(II) salts leads to hydrolysis and condensation.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=387}} Lead commonly reacts with heavier chalcogens. [[Lead sulfide]] is a [[semiconductor]], a [[Photoconductivity|photoconductor]], and an extremely sensitive [[Particle detector|infrared radiation detector]]. The other two chalcogenides, [[lead selenide]] and [[lead telluride]], are likewise photoconducting. They are unusual in that their color becomes lighter going down the group.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=389}}

[[File:Red-lead-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|right|thumb|upright| Lead and [[oxygen]] in a tetragonal [[Crystal structure#Unit cell|unit cell]] of [[lead(II,IV) oxide]]|alt=Alternating dark gray and red balls connected by dark gray-red cylinders]]
Lead dihalides are well-characterized; this includes the diastatide{{sfn|Zuckerman|Hagen|1989|p=426}} and mixed halides, such as PbFCl. The relative insolubility of the latter forms a useful basis for the [[Gravimetric analysis|gravimetric]] determination of fluorine. The difluoride was the first solid [[Ionic conductivity (solid state)|ionically conducting]] compound to be discovered (in 1834, by [[Michael Faraday]]).{{sfn|Funke|2013}} The other dihalides decompose on exposure to ultraviolet or visible light, especially [[Lead(II) iodide|the diiodide]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=382}} Many lead(II) [[Pseudohalogen|pseudohalides]] are known, such as the cyanide, cyanate, and [[Lead(II) thiocyanate|thiocyanate]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=389}}{{sfn|Bharara|Atwood|2006|p=4}} Lead(II) forms an extensive variety of halide [[coordination complex]]es, such as [PbCl<sub>4</sub>]<sup>2−</sup>, [PbCl<sub>6</sub>]<sup>4−</sup>, and the [Pb<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>9</sub>]<sub>''n''</sub><sup>5''n''−</sup> chain anion.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=382}}

[[Lead(II) sulfate]] is insoluble in water, like the sulfates of other heavy divalent [[Ion|cations]]. [[Lead(II) nitrate]] and [[lead(II) acetate]] are very soluble, and this is exploited in the synthesis of other lead compounds.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=388}}

==== Lead(IV) ====
Few inorganic lead(IV) compounds are known. They are only formed in highly oxidizing solutions and do not normally exist under standard conditions.{{sfn|Toxicological Profile for Lead|2007|p=277}} Lead(II) oxide gives a mixed oxide on further oxidation, Pb<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>. It is described as [[lead(II,IV) oxide]], or structurally 2PbO·PbO<sub>2</sub>, and is the best-known mixed valence lead compound. [[Lead dioxide]] is a strong oxidizing agent, capable of oxidizing hydrochloric acid to chlorine gas.{{sfn|Downs|Adams|2017|p=1128}} This is because the expected PbCl<sub>4</sub> that would be produced is unstable and spontaneously decomposes to PbCl<sub>2</sub> and Cl<sub>2</sub>.{{sfn|Brescia|2012|p=234}} Analogously to [[Lead(II) oxide|lead monoxide]], lead dioxide is capable of forming [[plumbate]] anions. [[Lead(IV) sulfide|Lead disulfide]]{{sfn|Macintyre|1992|p=3775}} and lead diselenide{{sfn|Silverman|1966|pp=2067–2069}} are only stable at high pressures. [[Lead tetrafluoride]], a yellow crystalline powder, is stable, but less so than the [[Lead(II) fluoride|difluoride]]. [[Lead(IV) chloride|Lead tetrachloride]] (a yellow oil) decomposes at room temperature, lead tetrabromide is less stable still, and the existence of lead tetraiodide is questionable.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=381}}

==== Other oxidation states ====
{{see also|Plumbide}}

[[File:Nonaplumbide-anion-from-xtal-3D-balls.png|thumb|left|upright|The [[gyroelongated square pyramid|capped square antiprismatic]] anion [Pb<sub>9</sub>]<sup>4−</sup> from [K(18-crown-6)]<sub>2</sub>K<sub>2</sub>Pb<sub>9</sub>·(en)<sub>1.5</sub>{{sfn|Yong|Hoffmann|Fässler|2006|pp=4774–4778}}|alt=Nine dark gray spheres connected by cylinders of the same color forming a convex shape]]

Some lead compounds exist in formal oxidation states other than +4 or +2. Lead(III) may be obtained, as an intermediate between lead(II) and lead(IV), in larger organolead complexes; this oxidation state is not stable, as both the lead(III) ion and the larger complexes containing it are [[radical (chemistry)|radicals]].{{sfn|Becker|Förster|Franzen|Hartrath|2008|pp=9965–9978}}{{sfn|Mosseri|Henglein|Janata|1990|pp=2722–2726}}{{sfn|Konu|Chivers|2011|pp=391–392}} The same applies for lead(I), which can be found in such radical species.{{sfn|Hadlington|2017|p=59}}

Numerous mixed lead(II,IV) oxides are known. When PbO<sub>2</sub> is heated in air, it becomes Pb<sub>12</sub>O<sub>19</sub> at 293&nbsp;°C, Pb<sub>12</sub>O<sub>17</sub> at 351&nbsp;°C, Pb<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> at 374&nbsp;°C, and finally PbO at 605&nbsp;°C. A further [[sesquioxide]], Pb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, can be obtained at high pressure, along with several non-stoichiometric phases. Many of them show defective [[fluorite]] structures in which some oxygen atoms are replaced by vacancies: PbO can be considered as having such a structure, with every alternate layer of oxygen atoms absent.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|pp=384–386}}

Negative oxidation states can occur as [[Zintl phase]]s, as either free lead anions, as in Ba<sub>2</sub>Pb, with lead formally being <!--to avoid false positives in search for 'being led/lead' typo -->lead(−IV),{{sfn|Röhr|2017}} or in oxygen-sensitive ring-shaped or polyhedral cluster ions such as the [[trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry|trigonal bipyramidal]] Pb<sub>5</sub><sup>2−</sup> ion, where two lead atoms are lead(−I) and three are lead(0).{{sfn|Alsfasser|2007|pp=261–263}} In such anions, each atom is at a polyhedral vertex and contributes two electrons to each covalent bond along an edge from their sp<sup>3</sup> hybrid orbitals, the other two being an external [[lone pair]].{{sfn|King|1995|pp=43–63}} They may be made in [[Ammonia|liquid ammonia]] via the reduction of lead by [[sodium]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=393}}

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=== Organolead ===
{{Main|Organolead compound}}

[[File:Tetraethyllead-3D-balls.png|right|thumb|upright|Structure of a [[tetraethyllead]] molecule:<br />
{{Color box|#505050}} [[Carbon]]<br />
{{Color box|#eeeeee}} [[Hydrogen]]<br />
{{Color box|#577179}} Lead|alt=A gray-green sphere linked to four black spheres, each, in turn, linked also to three white ones]]

Lead can form [[catenation|multiply-bonded chains]], a property it shares with its lighter [[Homologous series|homologs]] in the carbon group. Its capacity to do so is much less because the Pb–Pb [[bond energy]] is over three and a half times lower than that of the [[C–C bond]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=374}} With itself, lead can build metal–metal bonds of an order up to three.{{sfn|Stabenow|Saak|Weidenbruch|2003}} With carbon, lead forms organolead compounds similar to, but generally less stable<!--as can be seen below--> than, typical organic compounds{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=43}} (due to the Pb–C bond being rather weak).{{sfn|King|1995|pp=43–63}} This makes the [[organometallic chemistry]] of lead far less wide-ranging than that of tin.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=404}} Lead predominantly forms organolead(IV) compounds, even when starting with inorganic lead(II) reactants; very few organolead(II) compounds are known. The most well-characterized exceptions are Pb[CH(SiMe<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>]<sub>2</sub> and [[plumbocene]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=404}}

The lead analog of the simplest [[organic compound]], [[methane]], is [[plumbane]]. Plumbane may be obtained in a reaction between metallic lead and atomic hydrogen.{{sfn|Wiberg|Wiberg|Holleman|2001|p=918}} Two simple derivatives, [[tetramethyllead]] and [[tetraethyllead]], are the best-known [[Organolead chemistry|organolead]] compounds. These compounds are relatively stable: tetraethyllead only starts to decompose if heated{{sfn|Toxicological Profile for Lead|2007|p=287}} or if exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light.{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=44}}{{efn|[[Tetraphenyllead]] is even more thermally stable, decomposing at 270&nbsp;°C.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=404}}}} With sodium metal, lead readily forms an equimolar alloy that reacts with [[Haloalkane|alkyl halides]] to form [[Organometallic chemistry|organometallic]] compounds such as tetraethyllead.{{sfn|Windholz|1976}} The oxidizing nature of many organolead compounds is usefully exploited: [[Lead(IV) acetate|lead tetraacetate]] is an important laboratory reagent for oxidation in organic synthesis.{{sfn|Zýka|1966|p=569}} Tetraethyllead, once added to automotive gasoline, was produced in larger quantities than any other organometallic compound,{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1998|p=404}} and is still widely used in [[avgas|fuel for small aircraft]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flyingmag.com/when-will-we-see-unleaded-av-gas/|title=When will we see unleaded AvGas?|work=FLYING Magazine |date=5 August 2019 |access-date=2024-05-26}}</ref>
Other organolead compounds are less chemically stable.{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=43}} For many organic compounds, a lead analog does not exist.{{sfn|Wiberg|Wiberg|Holleman|2001|p=918}}

== Origin and occurrence ==

{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-right:15px; margin-down:0; font-size:10pt; line-height:11pt;"
|+ style="margin-bottom: 5px;" | Solar System abundances{{sfn|Lodders|2003|pp=1222–1223}}
! style="text-align:center;" | Atomic<br />number
! style="width:45%;"| Element
! style="padding-right: 5px; padding-left: 10px;" | Relative<br />amount
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 42
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Molybdenum]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|0.798
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 46
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Palladium]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|0.440
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 50
| style="text-align:center; "| [[Tin]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|1.146<!--
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align:center;"| ...
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 76
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Osmium]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|0.207-->
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 78
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Platinum]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|0.417
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 80
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|0.127
|- style="background:#ff9;"
| style="text-align:center;" | ''82''
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Lead''
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"|''1''
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 90
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Thorium]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"| 0.011
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | 92
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Uranium]]
| style="padding-right:5px; text-align:right;"| 0.003
|}

=== In space ===

Lead's per-particle abundance in the [[Solar System]] is 0.121&nbsp;[[Parts-per notation|ppb]] (parts per billion).{{sfn|Lodders|2003|pp=1222–1223}}{{efn|Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 10<sup>6</sup> parts of silicon is 2.6682{{e|10}} parts; lead comprises 3.258 parts.}} This figure is two and a half times higher than that of [[platinum]], eight times more than [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], and seventeen times more than [[gold]].{{sfn|Lodders|2003|pp=1222–1223}} The amount of lead in the [[universe]] is slowly increasing{{sfn|Roederer|Kratz|Frebel|Christlieb|2009|pp=1963–1980}} as most heavier atoms (all of which are unstable) gradually decay to lead.{{sfn|Lochner|Rohrbach|Cochrane|2005|p=12}} The abundance of lead in the Solar System since its formation 4.5&nbsp;billion years ago has increased by about 0.75%.{{sfn|Lodders|2003|p=1224}} The Solar System abundances table shows that lead, despite its relatively high atomic number, is more prevalent than most other elements with atomic numbers greater than 40.{{sfn|Lodders|2003|pp=1222–1223}}

Primordial lead—which comprises the isotopes lead-204, lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208—was mostly created as a result of repetitive neutron capture processes occurring in stars. The two main modes of capture are the [[s-process|s-]] and [[r-process]]es.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|pp=608–615}}

In the s-process (s is for "slow"), captures are separated by years or decades, allowing less stable nuclei to undergo [[beta decay]].{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|p=551}} A stable thallium-203 nucleus can capture a neutron and become thallium-204; this undergoes beta decay to give stable lead-204; on capturing another neutron, it becomes lead-205, which has a half-life of around 17&nbsp;million years. Further captures result in lead-206, lead-207, and lead-208. On capturing another neutron, lead-208 becomes lead-209, which quickly decays into bismuth-209. On capturing another neutron, bismuth-209 becomes bismuth-210, and this beta decays to polonium-210, which alpha decays to lead-206. The cycle hence ends at lead-206, lead-207, lead-208, and bismuth-209.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|pp=608–609}}

[[File:S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Chart of the final part of the [[s-process]], from [[mercury (element)|mercury]] to [[polonium]]. Red lines and circles represent [[neutron capture]]s; blue arrows represent [[beta decay]]s; the green arrow represents an [[alpha decay]]; cyan arrows represent [[electron capture]]s.|alt=Uppermost part of the nuclide chart, with only practically stable isotopes and lead-205 shown, and the path of the s-process overlaid on it as well that of the cycle on lead, bismuth, and polonium]]
In the r-process (r is for "rapid"), captures happen faster than nuclei can decay.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|p=553}} This occurs in environments with a high neutron density, such as a [[supernova]] or the merger of two [[neutron star]]s. The neutron flux involved may be on the order of 10<sup>22</sup> neutrons per square centimeter per second.{{sfn|Frebel|2015|pp=114–115}} The r-process does not form as much lead as the s-process.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|pp=608–610}} It tends to stop once neutron-rich nuclei reach 126 neutrons.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|p=595}} At this point, the neutrons are arranged in complete shells in the atomic nucleus, and it becomes harder to energetically accommodate more of them.{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|p=596}} When the neutron flux subsides, these nuclei beta decay into stable isotopes of [[osmium]], [[iridium]], [[platinum]].{{sfn|Burbidge|Burbidge|Fowler|Hoyle|1957|pp=582, 609–615}}

=== On Earth ===
[[File:Lingot de plomb de l'époque romaine. Mines de Cartagène Espagne.jpg|thumb|Lead ingot from Roman times, Cartagena, Spain]]
Lead is classified as a [[Goldschmidt classification#Chalcophile elements|chalcophile]] under the [[Goldschmidt classification]], meaning it is generally found combined with sulfur.{{sfn|Langmuir|Broecker|2012|pp=183–184}} It rarely occurs in its [[native metal|native]], metallic form.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|pp=4–5}} Many lead minerals are relatively light and, over the course of the Earth's history, have remained in the [[Earth's crust|crust]] instead of sinking deeper into the Earth's interior. This accounts for lead's relatively high [[Abundance of elements in Earth's crust|crustal abundance]] of 14&nbsp;ppm; it is the 36th most [[Abundances of the elements (data page)|abundant]] element in the crust.{{sfn|Emsley|2011|pp=286, passim}}{{efn|Elemental abundance figures are estimates and their details may vary from source to source.{{sfn|Cox|1997|p=182}}}}

The main lead-bearing mineral is [[galena]] (PbS), which is mostly found with zinc ores.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=4}} Most other lead minerals are related to galena in some way; [[boulangerite]], Pb<sub>5</sub>Sb<sub>4</sub>S<sub>11</sub>, is a mixed sulfide derived from galena; [[anglesite]], PbSO<sub>4</sub>, is a product of galena oxidation; and [[cerussite]] or white lead ore, PbCO<sub>3</sub>, is a [[Chemical decomposition|decomposition]] product of galena. [[Arsenic]], [[tin]], [[antimony]], [[silver]], [[gold]], [[copper]], [[bismuth]] are common impurities in lead minerals.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=4}}

[[File:Elemental abundances.svg|thumb|left|upright=1.15|Lead is a fairly common element in the [[Earth's crust]] for its high atomic number (82). Most elements of atomic number greater than 40 are less abundant.|alt=A line chart generally declining towards its right]]
World lead resources exceed two billion tons. Significant deposits are located in Australia, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, United States. Global reserves—resources that are economically feasible to extract—totaled 88&nbsp;million tons in 2016, of which [[Australia]] had 35&nbsp;million, China 17&nbsp;million, Russia 6.4&nbsp;million.{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2017|p=97}}

Typical background concentrations of lead do not exceed 0.1&nbsp;μg/m<sup>3</sup> in the atmosphere; 100&nbsp;mg/kg in soil; 4&nbsp;mg/kg in vegetation, 5&nbsp;μg/L in fresh water and seawater.{{sfn|Rieuwerts|2015|p=225}}

== Etymology ==
The modern English word ''lead'' is of Germanic origin; it comes from the [[Middle English]] {{lang|enm|leed}} and [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|lēad}} (with the [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] above the "e" signifying that the vowel sound of that letter is long).{{sfn|Merriam-Webster}} The Old English word is derived from the hypothetical reconstructed [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] {{lang|mis|*lauda-}} ('lead').{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|loc=*lauda-}} According to linguistic theory, this word bore descendants in multiple Germanic languages of exactly the same meaning.{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|loc=*lauda-}}

There is no consensus on the origin of the Proto-Germanic {{lang|mis|*lauda-}}. One hypothesis suggests it is derived from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] {{lang|mis|*lAudh-}} ('lead'; capitalization of the vowel is equivalent to the macron).{{sfn|Nikolayev|2012}}<!--this is a worthy ref, based on a very respected dictionary; the database itself has been mentioned in Proto-IE-related works--> Another hypothesis suggests it is borrowed from [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] {{lang|mis|*ɸloud-io-}} ('lead'). This word is related to the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|plumbum}}, which gave the element its [[chemical symbol]] ''Pb''. The word {{lang|mis|*ɸloud-io-}}<!-- Proto-Celtic --> is thought to be the origin of Proto-Germanic {{lang|mis|*bliwa-}} (which also means 'lead'), from which stemmed the German {{lang|de|Blei}}.{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|loc=*bliwa- 2}}

The name of the chemical element is not related to the verb of the same spelling, which is derived from Proto-Germanic {{lang|mis|*laidijan-}} ('to lead').{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|loc=*laidijan-}}

{{Clear}}

== History ==
=== Prehistory and early history ===
[[File:Lead production graph.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|World lead production peaking in the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] period and the [[Industrial Revolution]]{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}|alt=A line chart generally growing to its right]]Metallic lead beads [[metals of antiquity|dating back to 7000–6500 BC]] have been found in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]] and may represent the first example of metal [[smelting]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=4}} At that time, lead had few (if any) applications due to its softness and dull appearance.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=4}} The major reason for the spread of lead production was its association with silver, which may be obtained by burning galena (a common lead mineral).{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians were the first to use lead minerals in cosmetics, an application that spread to [[Ancient Greece]] and beyond;{{sfn|History of Cosmetics}} the Egyptians had used lead for sinkers in [[fishing net]]s, [[Compacted oxide layer glaze|glazes]], [[glass]]es, [[Vitreous enamel|enamels]], [[Ornament (art)|ornaments]].{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} Various civilizations of the [[Fertile Crescent]] used lead as a [[writing material]], as [[coin]]s,{{sfn|Chapurukha Kusimba|2017}} and as a [[List of building materials|construction material]].{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} Lead was used by the ancient Chinese as a [[stimulant]],{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} as [[currency]],{{sfn|Yu|Yu|2004|p=26}} as [[Birth control|contraceptive]],{{sfn|Toronto museum explores|2003}} and in [[chopsticks]].{{sfn|Neiburger|2018}} The [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]] and the [[Mesoamerica]]ns used it for making [[amulet]]s;{{sfn|Winder|1993b}} and the eastern and southern Africans used lead in [[wire drawing]].{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|p=105}}

=== Classical era ===
Because silver was extensively used as a decorative material and an exchange medium, lead deposits came to be worked in Asia Minor from 3000&nbsp;BC; later, lead deposits were developed in the [[Aegean Islands|Aegean]] and [[Lavrio|Laurion]].{{sfn|Wood|Hsu|Bell|2021}} These three regions collectively dominated production of mined lead until {{Circa|1200&nbsp;BC}}.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=5}} Beginning c. 2000&nbsp;BC, the [[Phoenicia]]ns worked deposits in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]]; by 1600&nbsp;BC, lead mining existed in [[Cyprus]], [[Greece]], and [[Sardinia]].{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|1973}}

[[File:Sling bullets BM GR1842.7-28.550 GR1851.5-7.11.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Greek lead sling bullets with a winged thunderbolt molded on one side and the inscription {{lang|grc|ΔΕΞΑΙ}} ("take that") on the other side{{sfn|Lead sling bullet}}]]

[[Roman Republic|Rome's]] territorial expansion in Europe and across the Mediterranean, and its development of mining, led to it becoming the greatest producer of lead during the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]], with an estimated annual output peaking at 80,000 tonnes. Like their predecessors, the Romans obtained lead mostly as a by-product of silver smelting.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}{{sfn|de Callataÿ|2005|pp=361–372}} Lead mining occurred in [[central Europe]], [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Balkans]], [[Greece]], [[Anatolia]], [[Hispania]], the latter accounting for 40% of world production.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–1843}}
[[File:Bleiplatte von Magliano B.jpg|thumb|The [[Lead Plaque of Magliano]], Italy, bears an Etruscan inscription from mid-5th century BC.|alt=A vaguely round plate illuminated from a side to increase the contrast. The characters curl around the contour.]]
Lead tablets were commonly used as a material for letters.{{sfn|Ceccarelli|2013|p=35}} Lead coffins, cast in flat sand forms and with interchangeable motifs to suit the faith of the deceased, were used in ancient [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Ossuaries and Sarcophagi}} Lead was used to make sling bullets from the 5th century BC. In Roman times, lead sling bullets were amply used, and were effective at a distance of between 100 and 150 meters. The [[Balearic slinger]]s, used as mercenaries in Carthaginian and Roman armies, were famous for their shooting distance and accuracy.{{sfn|Calvo Rebollar|2019|p=45}}

[[File:Grosvenor Museums - Wasserröhren.jpg|thumb|left|Roman lead pipes{{efn|The [[Roman lead pipe inscription|inscription]] reads: "Made when the Emperor [[Vespasian]] was consul for the ninth term and the Emperor Titus was consul for the seventh term, when [[Gnaeus Iulius Agricola]] was imperial governor (of Britain)."}}|alt=Ancient pipes in a museum case]]

Lead was used for making water pipes in the [[Roman Empire]]; the [[Latin]] word for the metal, {{lang|la|plumbum}}, is the origin of the English word "[[plumbing]]". Its ease of working, its low melting point enabling the easy fabrication of completely waterproof welded joints, and its resistance to corrosion{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=6}} ensured its widespread use in other applications, including pharmaceuticals, roofing, currency, warfare.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=179–184}}{{sfn|Bisel|Bisel|2002|pp=459–460}}{{sfn|Retief|Cilliers|2006|pp=149–151}} Writers of the time, such as [[Cato the Elder]], [[Columella]], and [[Pliny the Elder]], recommended lead (and lead-coated) vessels for the preparation of [[Grape syrup|sweeteners and preservatives]] added to wine and food. The lead conferred an agreeable taste due to the formation of "sugar of lead" ([[lead(II) acetate]]), whereas [[copper]] vessels imparted a bitter flavor through [[verdigris]] formation.{{sfn|Grout|2017}}<!--Grout's work, the Encyclopaedia Romana, is cited by other reliable sources e.g. Davies ME & Swain H 2010, Aspects of Roman history 82 BC--AD 14: A source-based approach, Routledge, p. 388; Bakken C 2013, Honey, olives, octopus: Adventures at the Greek table, University of California, p. 61; Tschen-Emmons JB 2015, Artefacts from ancient Rome, Greenwood, p. 302-->

{{Quote box
|quote = This metal was by far the most used material in classical antiquity, and it is appropriate to refer to the (Roman) Lead Age. Lead was to the Romans what plastic is to us.
|salign=right| source = Heinz Eschnauer and Markus Stoeppler<br />"Wine—An enological specimen bank", 1992{{sfn|Eschnauer|Stoeppler|1992|p=58}}
|bgcolor = Cornsilk
|quoted = 1
|width = 25em
|align = right
}}

The Roman author [[Vitruvius]] reported the [[Roman lead poisoning theory|health dangers of lead]]{{sfn|Hodge|1981|pp=486–491}}<ref>{{cite book |last1= Marcus Vitruvius Pollio |title={{transliteration|la|[[De architectura]]}}|date=1914 |orig-date=c. 15 BC| series=Book 8, 10–11 [[:Wikisource:Ten Books on Architecture/Book VIII|fulltext]]|author1-link=Marcus Vitruvius Pollio }}</ref> and modern writers have suggested that lead poisoning played a major role in the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|decline of the Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Gilfillan|1965|pp=53–60}}{{sfn|Nriagu|1983|pp=660–663}}{{efn|The fact that [[Julius Caesar]] fathered only one child, as well as the alleged sterility of his successor, [[Caesar Augustus]], have been attributed to lead poisoning.{{sfn|Frankenburg|2014|p=16}}}} Other researchers have criticized such claims, pointing out, for instance, that not all [[abdominal pain]] is caused by lead poisoning.{{sfn|Scarborough|1984}}{{sfn|Waldron|1985|pp=107–108}} According to archaeological research, Roman [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|lead pipes]] increased lead levels in tap water but such an effect was "unlikely to have been truly harmful".{{sfn|Reddy|Braun|2010|p=1052}}{{sfn|Delile|Blichert-Toft|Goiran|Keay|2014|pp=6594–6599}} When lead poisoning did occur, victims were called "saturnine", dark and cynical, after the ghoulish father of the gods, [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]. By association, lead was considered the father of all metals.{{sfn|Finger|2006|p=184}} Its status in Roman society was low as it was readily available{{sfn|Lewis|1985|p=15}} and cheap.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=183}}

==== Confusion with tin and antimony ====
Since the [[Bronze Age]], metallurgists and engineers have understood the difference between rare and valuable [[tin]], essential for alloying with copper to produce tough and corrosion resistant [[bronze]], and 'cheap and cheerful' lead. However, the nomenclature in some languages is similar.  Romans called lead {{lang|la|plumbum nigrum}} ("black lead"), and tin {{lang|la|plumbum candidum}} ("bright lead"). The association of lead and tin can be seen in other languages: the word {{lang|cs|olovo}} in [[Czech language|Czech]] translates to "lead", but in Russian, its [[cognate]] {{lang|ru|олово}} ({{lang|ru-Latn|olovo}}) means "tin".{{sfn|Polyanskiy|1986|p=8}} To add to the confusion, lead bore a close relation to antimony: both elements commonly occur as sulfides (galena and [[stibnite]]), often together. Pliny incorrectly wrote that stibnite would give lead on heating, instead of antimony.{{sfn|Thomson|1830|p=74}} In countries such as Turkey and India, the originally Persian name {{lang|fa-Latn|surma}} ({{langx|fa|سرمه}}) came to refer to either antimony sulfide or lead sulfide,{{sfn|Oxford English Dictionary|loc=surma}} and in some languages, such as Russian, gave its name to antimony ({{lang|ru|сурьма}}).{{sfn|Vasmer|1986–1987|loc=сурьма}}

=== Middle Ages and the Renaissance ===
[[File:Nicholas Hilliard (called) - Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Elizabeth I|Elizabeth I of England]] was commonly depicted with a whitened face. Lead in face whiteners is thought to have contributed to her death.{{sfn|Kellett|2012|pp=106–107}}|alt=A white-faced woman in red clothes]]

Lead mining in Western Europe declined after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], with [[Al-Andalus]] being the only region having a significant output.{{sfn|Winder|1993a}}{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=7}} The largest production of lead occurred in South Asia and East Asia, especially China and India, where lead mining grew rapidly.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=7}}

In Europe, lead production began to increase in the 11th and 12th centuries, when it was again used for roofing and piping. Starting in the 13th century, lead was used to create [[medieval stained glass|stained glass]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=8}} In the [[Alchemy#Medieval Europe|European]] and [[Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world|Muslim]] traditions of [[alchemy]], lead (symbol ♄ in the European tradition){{sfn|Ede|Cormack|2016|p=54}} was considered an impure [[base metal]] which, by the separation, purification and balancing of its constituent essences, could be transformed to pure and incorruptible gold.{{sfn|Cotnoir|2006|p=35}} During the period, lead was used increasingly for [[Adulterant|adulterating]] wine. The use of such wine was forbidden for use in Christian rites by a [[papal bull]] in 1498, but it continued to be imbibed and resulted in mass poisonings up to the late 18th century.{{sfn|Winder|1993a}}{{sfn|Samson|1885|p=388}} Lead was a key material in parts of the [[printing press]], and lead dust was commonly inhaled by print workers, causing lead poisoning.{{sfn|Sinha|Shelly|Sharma|Meenakshi|1993}} Lead also became the chief material for making bullets for firearms: it was cheap, less damaging to iron gun barrels, had a higher density (which allowed for better retention of velocity), and its lower melting point made the production of bullets easier as they could be made using a wood fire.{{sfn|Ramage|1980|p=8}} Lead, in the form of [[Venetian ceruse]], was extensively used in cosmetics by Western European aristocracy as whitened faces were regarded as a sign of modesty.{{sfn|Tungate|2011|p=14}}{{sfn|Donnelly|2014|pp=171–172}} This practice later expanded to white wigs and eyeliners, and only faded out with the [[French Revolution]] in the late 18th century. A similar fashion appeared in Japan in the 18th century with the emergence of the [[geisha]]s, a practice that continued long into the 20th century. The white faces of women "came to represent their feminine virtue as Japanese women",{{sfn|Ashikari|2003|p=65}} with lead commonly used in the whitener.{{sfn|Nakashima|Hayashi|Tashiro|Matsushita|1998|p=59}}

=== Outside Europe and Asia ===
In the [[New World]], lead production was recorded soon after the arrival of European settlers. The earliest record dates to 1621 in the English [[Colony of Virginia]], fourteen years after its foundation.{{sfn|Rabinowitz|1995|p=66}} In Australia, the first mine opened by colonists on the continent was a lead mine, in 1841.{{sfn|Gill|Libraries Board of South Australia|1974|p=69}} In Africa, lead mining and smelting were known in the [[Benue Trough]]{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|p=85}} and the lower [[Congo Basin]], where lead was used for trade with Europeans, and as a currency by the 17th century,{{sfn|Bisson|Vogel|2000|pp=131–132}} well before the [[scramble for Africa]].

=== Industrial Revolution ===
[[File:Lead mining Barber 1865p321cropped.jpg|thumb|left|Lead mining in the upper [[Mississippi River]] region in the United States in 1865|alt=A black-and-white drawing of men working in a mine]]

In the second half of the 18th century, Britain, and later continental Europe and the United States, experienced the [[Industrial Revolution]]. This was the first time during which lead production rates exceeded those of Rome.{{sfn|Hong|Candelone|Patterson|Boutron|1994|pp=1841–43}} Britain was the leading producer, losing this status by the mid-19th century with the depletion of its mines and the development of lead mining in Germany, Spain, and the United States.{{sfn|Lead mining}} By 1900, the United States was the leader in global lead production, and other non-European nations—Canada, Mexico, and Australia—had begun significant production; production outside Europe exceeded that within.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=11}} A great share of the demand for lead came from plumbing and painting—[[lead paint]]s were in regular use.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}} At this time, more (working class) people were exposed to the metal and lead poisoning cases escalated. This led to research into the effects of lead intake. Lead was proven to be more dangerous in its fume form than as a solid metal. Lead poisoning and [[gout]] were linked; British physician [[Alfred Baring Garrod]] noted a third of his gout patients were plumbers and painters. The effects of chronic ingestion of lead, including mental disorders, were also studied in the 19th century. The first laws aimed at decreasing lead poisoning in factories were enacted during the 1870s and 1880s in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}}

=== Modern era ===
[[File:Dutch_boy_collier_white_lead.png|thumb|right|upright|Promotional poster for [[Dutch Boy Paint|Dutch Boy]] lead paint, United States, 1912|alt=A promotional poster for "COLLIER White Lead" (these words are highlighted) featuring a large image of a boy]]Further evidence of the threat that lead posed to humans was discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Mechanisms of harm were better understood, lead blindness was documented, and the element was phased out of public use in the United States and Europe. The United Kingdom introduced mandatory factory inspections in 1878 and appointed the first Medical Inspector of Factories in 1898; as a result, a 25-fold decrease in lead poisoning incidents from 1900 to 1944 was reported.{{sfn|Hernberg|2000|p=246}} Most European countries banned lead paint—commonly used because of its opacity and water resistance{{sfn|Crow|2007}}—for interiors by 1930.{{sfn|Markowitz|Rosner|2000|p=37}}

The last major human exposure to lead was the addition of [[tetraethyllead]] to gasoline as an [[antiknock agent]], a practice that originated in the United States in 1921. <!--The sale of leaded gasoline was temporarily phased out in some American cites from 1924, due to adverse press coverage, but reintroduced by no later than 1927 after scientific studies of the time found no good reasons for continuing the ban.{{sfn|Uekoetter|2004|p=132}}--> It was phased out in the United States and the [[European Union]] by 2000.{{sfn|Riva|Lafranconi|d'Orso|Cesana|2012|pp=11–16}}

In the 1970s, the United States and Western European countries introduced legislation to reduce lead air pollution.{{sfn|More|Spaulding|Bohleber|Handley|2017}}{{sfn|American Geophysical Union|2017}} The impact was significant: while a study conducted by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] in the United States in 1976–1980 showed that 77.8% of the population had elevated [[blood lead level]]s, in 1991–1994, a study by the same institute showed the share of people with such high levels dropped to 2.2%.{{sfn|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|1997}} The main product made of lead by the end of the 20th century was the [[lead–acid battery]].{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=117}}

From 1960 to 1990, lead output in the [[Western Bloc]] grew by about 31%.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=17}} The share of the world's lead production by the [[Eastern Bloc]] increased from 10% to 30%, from 1950 to 1990, with the [[Soviet Union]] being the world's largest producer during the mid-1970s and the 1980s, and China starting major lead production in the late 20th century.{{sfn|Rich|1994|pp=91–92}} Unlike the European communist countries, China was largely unindustrialized by the mid-20th century; in 2004, China surpassed Australia as the largest producer of lead.{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2005}} As was the case during European industrialization, lead has had a negative effect on health in China.{{sfn|Zhang|Yang|Li|Li|2012|pp=2261–2273}}

== Production ==
[[File:Evolution production plomb.svg|thumb|left|Primary production of lead since 1840|alt=A line chart of many lines, some longer than other, most generally growing towards its right]]
As of 2014, production of lead is increasing worldwide due to its use in lead–acid batteries.{{sfn|Tolliday|2014}} There are two major categories of production: primary from mined ores, and secondary from scrap. In 2014, 4.58&nbsp;million metric tons came from primary production and 5.64&nbsp;million from secondary production. The top three producers of mined lead concentrate in that year were China, Australia, and United States.{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2017|p=97}} The top three producers of refined lead were China, United States, and India.{{sfn|Guberman|2016|pp=42.14–15}} According to the [[Metal Stocks in Society report]] of 2010, the total amount of lead in use, stockpiled, discarded, or dissipated into the environment, on a global basis, is 8&nbsp;kg per capita. Much of this is in more developed countries (20–150&nbsp;kg per capita) rather than less developed ones (1–4&nbsp;kg per capita).{{sfn|Graedel|2010}}

The primary and secondary lead production processes are similar. Some primary production plants now supplement their operations with scrap lead, and this trend is likely to increase in the future. Given adequate techniques, lead obtained via secondary processes is indistinguishable from lead obtained via primary processes. Scrap lead from the building trade is usually fairly clean and is re-melted without the need for smelting, though refining is sometimes needed. Secondary lead production is therefore cheaper, in terms of energy requirements, than is primary production, often by 50% or more.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=56}}

{{Clear}}

=== Primary ===
Most lead ores contain a low percentage of lead (rich ores have a typical content of 3–8%) which must be concentrated for extraction.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=6}} During initial processing, ores typically undergo crushing, dense-medium separation, [[grinding (abrasive cutting)|grinding]], [[froth flotation]], [[drying]]. The resulting concentrate, which has a lead content of 30–80% by mass (regularly 50–60%),{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=6}} is then turned into (impure) lead metal.

There are two main ways of doing this: a two-stage process involving roasting followed by blast furnace extraction, carried out in separate vessels; or a direct process in which the extraction of the concentrate occurs in a single vessel. The latter has become the most common route, though the former is still significant.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=17}}
<div style="float: right; margin: 2px; font-size:85%; margin-left:18px; margin-bottom:18px>
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible"
|+'''World's largest mining countries of lead, 2016'''{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2017|p=97}}
! Country !! data-sort-type="number"|Output<br />(thousand<br /> tons)
|-
| {{flagu|China}} || align="right"|2,400
|-
| {{flagu|Australia}} || align="right"|500
|-
| {{flagu|United States}} || align="right"|335
|-
| {{flagu|Peru}} || align="right"|310
|-
| {{flagu|Mexico}} || align="right"|250
|-
| {{flagu|Russia}} || align="right"|225
|-
| {{flagu|India}} || align="right"|135
|-
| {{flagu|Bolivia}} || align="right"|80
|-
| {{flagu|Sweden}} || align="right"|76
|-
| {{flagu|Turkey}} || align="right"|75
|-
| {{flagu|Iran}} || align="right"|41
|-
| {{flagu|Kazakhstan}} || align="right"|41
|-
| {{flagu|Poland}} || align="right"|40
|-
| {{flagu|South Africa}} || align="right"|40
|-
| {{flagu|North Korea}} || align="right"|35
|-
| {{flagu|Ireland}} || align="right"|33
|-
| {{flagu|Macedonia}}<!--the country was not called North Macedonia in the year for which this data is provided--> || align="right"|33
|-
| Other countries || align="right"|170
|}
</div>

==== Two-stage process ====
First, the sulfide concentrate is [[Roasting (metallurgy)|roasted]] in air to oxidize the lead sulfide:{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=51}}

: 2&nbsp;PbS(s) + 3&nbsp;O<sub>2</sub>(g) → 2&nbsp;PbO(s) + 2&nbsp;SO<sub>2</sub>(g)↑

As the original concentrate was not pure lead sulfide, roasting yields not only the desired lead(II) oxide, but a mixture of oxides, sulfates, and silicates of lead and of the other metals contained in the ore.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|pp=11–12}} This impure lead oxide is reduced in a [[coke (fuel)|coke]]-fired blast furnace to the (again, impure) metal:{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=51–52}}

: 2&nbsp;PbO(s) + C(s) → 2&nbsp;Pb(s) + CO<sub>2</sub>(g)↑

Impurities are mostly arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. Typically they are removed in a series of [[Pyrometallurgy|pyrometallurgical processes]]. The melt is treated in a [[reverberatory furnace]] with air, steam, sulfur, which oxidizes the impurities except for silver, gold, bismuth. Oxidized contaminants float to the [[dross|top of the melt]] and are skimmed off.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=25}}{{sfn|Primary Lead Refining}} Metallic silver and gold are removed and recovered economically by means of the [[Parkes process]], in which zinc is added to lead. Zinc, which is immiscible in lead, dissolves the silver and gold. The zinc solution can be separated from the lead, and the silver and gold retrieved.{{sfn|Primary Lead Refining}}{{sfn|Pauling|1947}} De-silvered lead is freed of bismuth by the [[Betterton–Kroll process]], treating it with metallic [[calcium]] and [[magnesium]]. The resulting bismuth dross can be skimmed off.{{sfn|Primary Lead Refining}}

Alternatively to the pyrometallurgical processes, very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically using the [[Betts electrolytic process|Betts process]]. Anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead are placed in an electrolyte of lead [[Hexafluorosilicic acid|fluorosilicate]] (PbSiF<sub>6</sub>). Once electrical potential is applied, impure lead at the anode dissolves and plates onto the cathode, leaving the majority of the impurities in solution.{{sfn|Primary Lead Refining}}{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=34}} This is a high-cost process and thus mostly reserved for refining bullion containing high percentages of impurities.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=23}}

==== Direct process ====
In this process, lead bullion and [[slag]] is obtained directly from lead concentrates. The lead sulfide concentrate is melted in a furnace and oxidized, forming lead monoxide. Carbon (as coke or [[coal gas]]{{efn|Gaseous by-product of the coking process, containing [[carbon monoxide]], hydrogen and [[methane]]; used as a fuel.}}) is added to the molten charge along with [[flux (metallurgy)|fluxing agents]]. The lead monoxide is thereby reduced to metallic lead, in the midst of a slag rich in lead monoxide.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=17}}

If the input is rich in lead, as much as 80% of the original lead can be obtained as bullion; the remaining 20% forms a slag rich in lead monoxide. For a low-grade feed, all of the lead can be oxidized to a high-lead slag.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=17}} Metallic lead is further obtained from the high-lead (25–40%) slags via submerged fuel combustion or injection, reduction assisted by an electric furnace, or a combination of both.{{sfn|Davidson|Ryman|Sutherland|Milner|2014|p=17}}

==== Alternatives ====
Research on a cleaner, less energy-intensive lead extraction process continues; a major drawback is that either too much lead is lost as waste, or the alternatives result in a high sulfur content in the resulting lead metal. [[Hydrometallurgy|Hydrometallurgical]] extraction, in which [[anode]]s of impure lead are immersed into an [[electrolyte]] and pure lead is deposited ([[Electrowinning|electrowound]]) onto [[cathode]]s, is a technique that may have potential, but is not currently economical except in cases where electricity is very cheap.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|pp=52–53}}

=== Secondary ===
{{Further|Battery recycling#Lead–acid batteries}}
Smelting, which is an essential part of the primary production, is often skipped during secondary production. It is only performed when metallic lead has undergone significant oxidation.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=56}} The process is similar to that of primary production in either a [[blast furnace]] or a [[Rotary kiln|rotary furnace]], with the essential difference being the greater variability of yields: blast furnaces produce hard lead (10% antimony) while reverberatory and rotary kiln furnaces produce semisoft lead (3–4% antimony).{{sfn|United States Environmental Protection Agency|2010|p=1}}

The [[ISASMELT]] process is a more recent smelting method that may act as an extension to primary production; battery paste from spent lead–acid batteries (containing lead sulfate and lead oxides) has its sulfate removed by treating it with alkali, and is then treated in a coal-fueled furnace in the presence of oxygen, which yields impure lead, with antimony the most common impurity.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=57}} Refining of secondary lead is similar to that of primary lead; some refining processes may be skipped depending on the material recycled and its potential contamination.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=57}}

Of the sources of lead for recycling, lead–acid batteries are the most important; lead pipe, sheet, and cable sheathing are also significant.{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=56}}

== Applications ==
[[File:Lead shielding.jpg|thumb|left|Bricks of lead (alloyed with 4% antimony) are used as radiation shielding.{{sfn|Street|Alexander|1998|p=181}}|alt=A closed structure of black bricks]]

Contrary to popular belief, pencil leads in wooden pencils have never been made from lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of [[graphite]] used was named ''[[Graphite|plumbago]]'' (literally, ''lead mockup'').{{sfn|Evans|1908|pp=133–179}}

=== Elemental form ===
Lead metal has several useful mechanical properties, including high density, low melting point, ductility, and relative inertness. Many metals are superior to lead in some of these aspects but are generally less common and more difficult to extract from parent ores. Lead's toxicity has led to its phasing out for some uses.{{sfn|Baird|Cann|2012|pp=537–538, 543–547}}

Lead was used to cover the [[rampart]]s protecting the ascent to the [[Alamut Castle]] in Persia,<ref>{{cite book | last1=Willey | first1=Peter | title=Eagle's Nest: Ismaili Castles in Iran and Syria | date=25 November 2005 | publisher=Bloomsbury | isbn=978-0-85771-225-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CmCJDwAAQBAJ&dq=alamut+lead.+covered&pg=PA81 }}</ref> which could absorb attacks by [[siege engines]].

Lead has been used for bullets since their invention in the Middle Ages. It is inexpensive; its low melting point means small arms ammunition and shotgun pellets can be cast with minimal technical equipment; and it is denser than other common metals, which allows for better retention of velocity. It remains the main material for bullets, alloyed with other metals as hardeners.{{sfn|Ramage|1980|p=8}} Concerns have been raised that lead bullets used for hunting can damage the environment.{{efn|California began banning lead bullets for hunting on that basis in July 2015.{{sfn|California Department of Fish and Wildlife}}}} [[Shotgun]] [[Shotgun cartridge|cartridges]] used for [[waterfowl hunting]] must today be lead-free in the [[United States]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-19 |title=Nontoxic Shot Regulations For Hunting Waterfowl and Coots in the U.S. {{!}} U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service |url=https://www.fws.gov/story/2022-04/nontoxic-shot-regulations-hunting-waterfowl-and-coots-us |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=www.fws.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[Canada]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Canada |first=Environment and Climate Change |date=2018-04-05 |title=Moving towards using more lead-free ammunition |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/services/management-toxic-substances/list-canadian-environmental-protection-act/lead/using-more-lead-free-ammunition.html |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=www.canada.ca}}</ref> and in [[Europe]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Regulation - 2021/57 - EN - EUR-Lex |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/57/oj |access-date=2024-09-12 |website=eur-lex.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref>

Lead's high density and resistance to corrosion have been exploited in a number of related applications. It is used as [[ballast]] in sailboat keels; its density allows it to take up a small volume and minimize water resistance, thus counterbalancing the heeling effect of wind on the sails.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=194–195}} It is used in [[scuba diving]] [[diving weighting system|weight belts]] to counteract the diver's buoyancy.{{sfn|Krestovnikoff|Halls|2006|p=70}} In 1993, the base of the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] was stabilized with 600 tonnes of lead.{{sfn|Street|Alexander|1998|p=182}} Because of its corrosion resistance, lead is used as a protective sheath for underwater cables.{{sfn|Jensen|2013|p=136}}

[[File:Parc de Versailles, Bassin de Flore, Jean-Baptiste Tuby (1672-79) 07.jpg|right|thumb|alt=Yellow sculpture|A 17th-century gold-coated lead sculpture]]
Lead has many uses in the construction industry; lead sheets are used as [[architectural metals]] in [[Domestic roof construction|roofing material]], [[Cladding (construction)|cladding]], [[Flashing (weatherproofing)|flashing]], [[rain gutter|gutters]] and gutter joints, roof parapets.{{sfn|Think Lead research}}{{sfn|Weatherings to Parapets}} Lead is still used in statues and sculptures,{{efn|For example, a firm "...producing quality [lead] garden ornament from our studio in West London for over a century".{{sfn|Lead garden ornaments|2016}}}} including for [[armature (sculpture)|armatures]].{{sfn|Putnam|2003|p=216}} In the past it was often used to [[tire balance|balance the wheels of cars]]; for environmental reasons this use is being phased out in favor of other materials.{{sfn|United States Geological Survey|2017|p=97}}

Lead is added to copper alloys, such as [[brass]] and [[bronze]], to improve machinability and for its lubricating qualities. Being practically insoluble in copper, the lead forms solid globules in imperfections throughout the alloy, such as [[Grain boundary|grain boundaries]]. In low concentrations, as well as acting as a lubricant, the globules hinder the formation of [[swarf]] as the alloy is worked, thereby improving machinability. Copper alloys with larger concentrations of lead are used in [[Bearing (mechanical)|bearings]]. The lead provides lubrication, and the copper provides the load-bearing support.{{sfn|Copper Development Association}}

Lead's high density, atomic number, and formability form the basis for use of lead as a barrier that absorbs sound, vibration, and radiation.{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=101}} Lead has no natural resonance frequencies;{{sfn|Rich|1994|p=101}} as a result, sheet-lead is used as a sound deadening layer in the walls, floors, and ceilings of sound studios.{{sfn|Guruswamy|2000|p=31}} [[Organ pipe]]s are often made from a lead alloy, mixed with various amounts of tin to control the tone of each pipe.{{sfn|Audsley|1965|pp=250–251}}{{sfn|Palmieri|2006|pp=412–413}} Lead is an established [[lead shielding|shielding]] material from [[ionizing radiation|radiation]] in nuclear science and in X-ray rooms{{sfn|National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements|2004|p=16}} due to its denseness and high [[attenuation coefficient]].{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=7}} Molten lead has been used as a coolant for [[lead-cooled fast reactor]]s.{{sfn|Tuček|Carlsson|Wider|2006|p=1590}}

=== Batteries ===
The largest use of lead in the early 21st century is in [[lead–acid battery|lead–acid batteries]]. The lead in batteries undergoes no direct contact with humans, so there are fewer toxicity concerns.{{efn|Potential injuries to regular users of such batteries are not related to lead's toxicity.{{sfn|Concordia University|2016}}}} People who work in lead battery production or recycling plants may be exposed to lead dust and inhale it.{{sfn|Toxicological Profile for Lead|2007|pp=5–6}} The reactions in the battery between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid provide a reliable source of [[voltage]].{{efn|See{{sfn|Progressive Dynamics, Inc.}} for details on how a lead–acid battery works.}} [[Supercapacitor]]s incorporating lead–acid batteries have been installed in kilowatt and megawatt scale applications in Australia, Japan, and the United States in frequency regulation, solar smoothing and shifting, wind smoothing, and other applications.{{sfn|Olinsky-Paul|2013}} These batteries have lower energy density and charge-discharge efficiency than [[lithium-ion battery|lithium-ion batteries]], but are significantly cheaper.{{sfn|Gulbinska|2014}}

=== Coating for cables ===
Lead is used in high voltage power cables as shell material to prevent water diffusion into insulation; this use is decreasing as lead is being phased out.{{sfn|Rich|1994|pp=133–134}} Its use in [[solder]] for electronics is also being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of [[environmental hazard|environmentally hazardous]] waste.{{sfn|Zhao|2008|p=440}} Lead is one of three metals used in the [[Oddy test]] for museum materials, helping detect organic acids, aldehydes, acidic gases.{{sfn|Beiner|Lavi|Seri|Rossin|2015}}{{sfn|Szczepanowska|2013|pp=84–85}}

=== Compounds ===
[[File:Crystal_glass.jpg|thumb|[[Lead glass]]|alt=A crystal glass|left]]
[[File:PbCrO4 and PbCrO4•PbO.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Lead(II) chromate|Lead yellow]] and [[Lead(II,IV) oxide|lead red]]|right]]

In addition to being the main application for lead metal, lead–acid batteries are also the main consumer of lead compounds. The energy storage/release reaction used in these devices involves [[Lead(II) sulfate|lead sulfate]] and [[lead dioxide]]:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Reddy |first=Thomas B. |title=Linden's Handbook of Batteries |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=2011 |isbn=978-0071624213 |edition=4th}}</ref>
:{{chem|Pb}}(s) + {{chem|PbO|2}}(s) + 2{{chem|H|2|SO|4}}(aq) → 2{{chem|PbSO|4}}(s) + 2{{chem|H|2|O}}(l)

Other applications of lead compounds are very specialized and often fading. Lead-based coloring agents are used in [[ceramic glaze]]s and glass, especially for red and yellow shades.{{sfn|Burleson|2001|p=23}} While lead paints are phased out in Europe and North America, they remain in use in less developed countries such as China,{{sfn|Insight Explorer|IPEN|2016}} India,{{sfn|Singh|2017}} or Indonesia.{{sfn|Ismawati|Primanti|Brosché|Clark|2013|p=2}} Lead tetraacetate and lead dioxide are used as oxidizing agents in organic chemistry. Lead is frequently used in the [[polyvinyl chloride]] coating of electrical cords.{{sfn|Zweifel|2009|page=438}}{{sfn|Wilkes|Summers|Daniels|Berard|2005|p=106}} It can be used to treat candle wicks to ensure a longer, more even burn. Because of its toxicity, European and North American manufacturers use alternatives such as zinc.{{sfn|Randerson|2002}}{{sfn|Nriagu|Kim|2000|pp=37–41}} [[Lead glass]] is composed of 12–28% [[Lead(II) oxide|lead oxide]], changing its optical characteristics and reducing the transmission of ionizing radiation,{{sfn|Amstock|1997|pp=116–119}} a property used in old TVs and computer monitors with [[cathode-ray tube]]s. Lead-based [[semiconductor]]s such as [[lead telluride]] and [[lead selenide]] are used in [[Photovoltaics|photovoltaic]] cells and [[infrared]] detectors.{{sfn|Rogalski|2010|pp=485–541}}

== Biological effects ==
{{Main|Lead poisoning}}
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Lead has no confirmed biological role, and there is no confirmed safe level of lead exposure.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2018}} A 2009 Canadian–American study concluded that even at levels that are considered to pose little to no risk, lead may cause "adverse mental health outcomes".{{sfn|Bouchard|Bellinger|Weuve|Matthews-Bellinger|2009}} Its prevalence in the human body—at an adult average of 120&nbsp;mg{{efn|Rates vary greatly by country.{{sfn|World Health Organization|2000|pp=149–153}} }}—is nevertheless exceeded only by zinc (2500&nbsp;mg) and iron (4000&nbsp;mg) among the heavy metals.{{sfn|Emsley|2011|pp=280, 621, 255}} Lead [[Salt (chemistry)|salts]] are very efficiently absorbed by the body.{{sfn|Luckey|Venugopal|1979|pp=177–178}} A small amount of lead (1%) is stored in bones; the rest is excreted in urine and feces within a few weeks of exposure. Only about a third of lead is excreted by a child. Continual exposure may result in the [[bioaccumulation]] of lead.{{sfn|Toxic Substances Portal}}

=== Toxicity ===
Lead is a highly poisonous metal (whether inhaled or swallowed), affecting almost every organ and system in the human body.{{sfn|United States Food and Drug Administration|2015|p=42}} <!--The permitted daily exposure limit for lead of 5&nbsp;μg (five millionths of a gram) is a recommended test benchmark for pharmaceuticals.--> At airborne levels of 100&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>, it is [[Immediately dangerous to life or health|immediately dangerous to life and health]].{{sfn|National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health}} Most ingested lead is absorbed into the bloodstream.{{sfn|Occupational Safety and Health Administration}} The primary cause of its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of enzymes. It does so by binding to the [[Thiol|sulfhydryl groups]] found on many enzymes,{{sfn|Rudolph|Rudolph|Hostetter|Lister|2003|p=369}} or mimicking and displacing other metals that act as [[cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactors]] in many enzymatic reactions.{{sfn|Dart|Hurlbut|Boyer-Hassen|2004|p=1426}} The essential metals that lead interacts with include calcium, iron, and zinc.{{sfn|Kosnett|2006|p=238}} High levels of calcium and iron tend to provide some protection from lead poisoning; low levels cause increased susceptibility.{{sfn|Luckey|Venugopal|1979|pp=177–178}}

=== Effects ===
Lead can cause severe damage to the brain and kidneys and, ultimately, death. By mimicking calcium, lead can cross the [[blood–brain barrier]]. It degrades the [[myelin]] sheaths of [[neuron]]s, reduces their numbers, interferes with [[neurotransmitter|neurotransmission]] routes, and decreases neuronal growth.{{sfn|Rudolph|Rudolph|Hostetter|Lister|2003|p=369}} In the human body, lead inhibits [[Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase|porphobilinogen synthase]] and [[ferrochelatase]], preventing both [[porphobilinogen]] formation and the incorporation of iron into [[protoporphyrin IX]], the final step in [[heme]] synthesis. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and [[microcytic anemia]].{{sfn|Cohen|Trotzky|Pincus|1981|pp=904–906}}
<!--At lower levels, it acts as a calcium analog, interfering with ion channels during nerve conduction. This is one of the mechanisms by which it interferes with cognition.-->

[[File:Symptoms of lead poisoning (raster).png|thumb|left|Symptoms of lead poisoning|alt=A chart of a human body with arrows pointing pieces of text to different parts of the body]]

Symptoms of lead poisoning include [[Kidney disease|nephropathy]], [[colic]]-like abdominal pains, and possibly weakness in the fingers, wrists, or ankles. Small blood pressure increases, particularly in middle-aged and older people, may be apparent and can cause [[anemia]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dart |first=Richard C. |title=Medical Toxicology |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |year=2004 |isbn=978-0781728454 |edition=3rd}}</ref> Several studies, mostly cross-sectional, found an association between increased lead exposure and decreased heart rate variability.{{sfn|Navas-Acien|2007}} In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males.{{sfn|Sokol|2005|p=133, passim}}

In a child's developing brain, lead interferes with [[synapse]] formation <!-- "syaptic modeling" --> in the [[cerebral cortex]], [[neurochemical]] development (including that of neurotransmitters), and the organization of [[ion channel]]s.{{sfn|Mycyk|Hryhorczuk|Amitai|2005|p=462}} Early childhood exposure has been linked with an increased risk of sleep disturbances and excessive daytime drowsiness in later childhood.{{sfn|Liu|Liu|Pak|Wang|2015|pp=1869–1874}} High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls.{{sfn|Schoeters|Den Hond|Dhooge|Van Larebeke|2008|pp=168–175}} The rise and fall in exposure to airborne lead from the combustion of tetraethyl lead in gasoline during the 20th century [[Lead–crime hypothesis|has been linked with historical increases and decreases in crime levels]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blumstein |first1=Alfred |title=The Crime Drop in America |last2=Wallman |first2=Joel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0521797122}}</ref>

=== Exposure sources ===
Lead exposure is a global issue since lead mining and smelting, and battery manufacturing, disposal, and [[Battery recycling#Lead.E2.80.93acid batteries|recycling]], are common in many countries. Lead enters the body via inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Almost all inhaled lead is absorbed into the body; for ingestion, the rate is 20–70%, with children absorbing a higher percentage than adults.{{sfn|Tarragó|2012|p=16}}

Poisoning typically results from ingestion of food or water contaminated with lead, and less commonly after accidental ingestion of contaminated soil, dust, or lead-based paint.{{sfn|Toxicological Profile for Lead|2007|p=4}} Seawater products can contain lead if affected by nearby industrial waters.{{sfn|Bremner|2002|p=101}} Fruit and vegetables can be contaminated by high levels of lead in the soils they were grown in. Soil can be contaminated through particulate accumulation from lead in pipes, [[lead paint]], residual emissions from leaded gasoline.{{sfn|Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|2007}}

The use of lead for water pipes is [[plumbosolvency|a problem in areas with soft or acidic water]].{{sfn|Thornton|Rautiu|Brush|2001|p=17}} Hard water forms insoluble protective layers on the inner surface of the pipes, whereas soft and acidic water dissolves the lead pipes.{{sfn|Moore|1977|pp=109–115}} Dissolved [[carbon dioxide]] in the carried water may result in the formation of soluble lead [[bicarbonate]]; oxygenated water may similarly dissolve lead as [[lead(II) hydroxide]]. Drinking such water, over time, can cause health problems due to the toxicity of the dissolved lead. The [[hard water|harder the water]] the more [[calcium bicarbonate]] and [[calcium sulfate|sulfate]] it contains, and the more the inside of the pipes are coated with a protective layer of lead carbonate or lead sulfate.{{sfn|Wiberg|Wiberg|Holleman|2001|p=914}}

[[File:Kymographic recording of the effect of lead on frog heart..jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Kymograph]]ic recording of the effect of lead acetate on frog heart experimental set up]]

Ingestion of applied lead-based paint is the major source of exposure for children: a direct source is chewing on old painted window sills. Additionally, as lead paint on a surface deteriorates, it peels and is pulverized into dust. The dust then enters the body through hand-to-mouth contact or contaminated food or drink. Ingesting certain [[Traditional medicine#Home remedies|home remedies]] may result in exposure to lead or its compounds.{{sfn|Tarragó|2012|p=11}}

Inhalation is the second major exposure pathway, affecting smokers and especially workers in lead-related occupations.{{sfn|Occupational Safety and Health Administration}} [[Tobacco smoke|Cigarette smoke]] contains, among other toxic substances, radioactive [[Isotopes of lead|lead-210]].{{sfn|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|2015}} "As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts, levels of lead in the air [in the United States] decreased by 86 percent between 2010 and 2020."<ref name="EPSLAP">{{cite web |title=Lead (Pb) Air Pollution |url=https://www.epa.gov/lead-air-pollution |website=epa.gov |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=July 22, 2022 |date=July 8, 2022 |quote=As a result of EPA's regulatory efforts, levels of lead in the air nationally decreased by 86 percent between 2010 and 2020.}}</ref> The concentration of lead in the air in the United States fell below the national standard of 0.15&nbsp;μg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name="EPAleadStandards">{{cite web |title=NAAQS Table |url=https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table#1 |website=epa.gov |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |access-date=July 22, 2022 |date=April 5, 2022 |quote=National Ambient Air Quality Standards (40 CFR part 50) for six principal pollutants}}</ref> in 2014.<ref name="EPALeadTrends">{{cite web |title=Lead Trends |url=https://www.epa.gov/air-trends/lead-trends |website=epa.gov |publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>

Skin exposure may be significant for people working with organic lead compounds. The rate of skin absorption is lower for inorganic lead.{{sfn|Wani|Ara|Usman|2015|pp=57, 58}}

==== Lead in foods ====
Lead may be found in food when food is grown in soil that is high in lead, airborne lead contaminates the crops, animals eat lead in their diet, or lead enters the food either from what it was stored or cooked in.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Castellino |first1=Nicolo |last2=Sannolo |first2=Nicola |last3=Castellino |first3=Pietro | name-list-style = vanc |title=Inorganic Lead Exposure and Intoxications|date=1994|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9780873719971|page=86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=059oObc8X48C&pg=PA86|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105194927/https://books.google.com/books?id=059oObc8X48C&pg=PA86|archive-date=2017-11-05}}</ref> Ingestion of lead paint and batteries is also a route of exposure for livestock, which can subsequently affect humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hesami |first1=Reza |last2=Salimi |first2=Azam |last3=Ghaderian |first3=Seyed Majid |date=2018-01-10 |title=Lead, zinc, and cadmium uptake, accumulation, and phytoremediation by plants growing around Tang-e Douzan lead–zinc mine, Iran |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-1156-y |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=25 |issue=9 |pages=8701–8714 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-1156-y |pmid=29322395 |bibcode=2018ESPR...25.8701H |s2cid=3938066 |issn=0944-1344|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Milk produced by contaminated cattle can be diluted to a lower lead concentration and sold for consumption.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mielke |first1=Howard W. |last2=Reagan |first2=Patrick L. |date=February 1998 |title=Soil Is an Important Pathway of Human Lead Exposure |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=106 |issue=Suppl 1 |pages=217–229 |doi=10.2307/3433922 |jstor=3433922 |pmid=9539015 |pmc=1533263 |issn=0091-6765 }}</ref>

In Bangladesh, lead compounds have been added to [[turmeric]] to make it more yellow.<ref name=Stan2019>{{cite news |last1=Jordan |first1=Rob |title=Lead found in turmeric |url=https://news.stanford.edu/2019/09/24/lead-found-turmeric/ |access-date=25 September 2019 |work=Stanford News |date=24 September 2019}}</ref> This is believed to have started in the 1980s and continues {{as of|2019|lc=y}}.<ref name=Stan2019/> It is believed to be one of the main sources of high lead levels in the country.<ref>{{cite news |title=Researchers find lead in turmeric |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-09-turmeric.html |date= September 24, 2019  |access-date=25 September 2019 |work=phys.org}}</ref> In Hong Kong the maximum allowed lead level in food is 6&nbsp;parts per million in solids and 1&nbsp;part per million in liquids.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maximum Permitted Concentration of Certain Metals Present in Specified Foods |url=https://www.elegislation.gov.hk/hk/cap132V!en@2019-09-19T00:00:00?INDEX_CS=N&xpid=ID_1438402695833_003 |work= Cap. 132V Food Adulteration (Metallic Contamination) Regulations [Past Version] |publisher=Hong Kong e-Legislation |access-date=15 April 2020}}</ref>

Lead-containing dust can settle on drying cocoa beans when they are set outside near polluting industrial plants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-02-01 |title=Dark chocolate is high in cadmium and lead. How much is safe to eat? |url=https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2023/02/01/dark-chocolate-lead-cadmium |website=Here & Now |publisher=WBUR |first1=Robin |last1=Young |first2=Karyn |last2=Miller-Medzon  |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208134257/https://www.wbur.org/hereandnow/2023/02/01/dark-chocolate-lead-cadmium |archive-date= Feb 8, 2024 }}</ref> In December 2022, [[Consumer Reports]] tested 28 [[dark chocolate]] brands and found that 23 of them contained potentially harmful levels of lead, [[cadmium]] or both. They have urged the chocolate makers to reduce the level of lead which could be harmful, especially to a developing fetus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Consumer Reports urges dark chocolate makers to reduce lead, cadmium levels |url=https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/consumer-reports-urges-dark-chocolate-155747068.html |access-date=2023-01-28 |website=Yahoo Life |agency=Reuters |first1=Jonathan |last1=Stempel |date=23 January 2023 |language=en-US}}</ref>

In March 2024, the US [[Food and Drug Administration]] recommended a voluntary recall on 6 brands of [[cinnamon]] due to contamination with lead,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/alerts-advisories-safety-information/fda-alert-concerning-certain-cinnamon-products-due-presence-elevated-levels-lead|title=FDA Alert Concerning Certain Cinnamon Products Due to Presence of Elevated Levels of Lead|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |date=6 March 2024|access-date=27 May 2024}}</ref> after 500 reports of child lead poisoning.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://apnews.com/article/cinnamon-lead-applesauce-wanabana-fda-344066a22a729d176c0c732180f48247|title=Lead-tainted cinnamon has been recalled. Here's what you should know|last=Aleccia|first=Jonel|date=8 March 2024|access-date=27 May 2024}}</ref> The FDA determined that cinnamon was adulterated with [[lead chromate]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/outbreaks-foodborne-illness/investigation-elevated-lead-chromium-levels-cinnamon-applesauce-pouches-november-2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240110030942/https://www.fda.gov/food/outbreaks-foodborne-illness/investigation-elevated-lead-chromium-levels-cinnamon-applesauce-pouches-november-2023|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 January 2024|title=Investigation of Elevated Lead & Chromium Levels: Cinnamon Applesauce Pouches (November 2023)|website=[[Food and Drug Administration]] |date=16 April 2024|access-date=27 May 2024}}</ref>

==== Lead in plastic toys ====
According to the United States [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]], the use of lead in plastics has not been banned as of 2024. Lead softens the plastic and makes it more flexible so that it can go back to its original shape. Habitual chewing on colored plastic insulation from stripped electrical wires was found to cause elevated lead levels in a 46-year-old man.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lead Intoxication Associated with Chewing Plastic Wire Coating – Ohio |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00020984.htm |access-date=8 June 2024 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>  Lead may be used in plastic toys to stabilize molecules from heat. Lead dust can be formed when plastic is exposed to sunlight, air, and detergents that break down the chemical bond between the lead and plastics.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 April 2024 |title=About Lead in Consumer Products {{!}} Exposure {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/lead-prevention/prevention/consumer-products.html |access-date=8 June 2024 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>

=== Treatment ===
{{See also|Chelation therapy}}
Treatment for lead poisoning normally involves the administration of [[dimercaprol]] and [[succimer]].{{sfn|Prasad|2010|pp=651–652}} Acute cases may require the use of [[Sodium calcium edetate|disodium calcium edetate]], the calcium [[Chelation|chelate]], and the disodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ([[Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid|EDTA]]). It has a greater affinity for lead than calcium, with the result that lead chelate is formed by exchange and excreted in the urine, leaving behind harmless calcium.{{sfn|Masters|Trevor|Katzung|2008|pp=481–483}}

== Environmental effects ==
[[File:Batteries at Thiaroye.jpg|thumb|left|Battery collection site in [[Dakar]], Senegal, where at least 18 children died of lead poisoning in 2008|alt=A dusty dump]]

The extraction, production, use, and disposal of lead and its products have caused significant contamination of the Earth's soils and waters. Atmospheric emissions of lead were at their peak during the Industrial Revolution, and the leaded gasoline period in the second half of the twentieth century.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2010|p=4}}

Lead releases originate from natural sources (i.e., concentration of the naturally occurring lead), industrial production, incineration and recycling, and mobilization of previously buried lead.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2010|p=4}}  In particular, as lead has been phased out from other uses, in the Global South, lead recycling operations designed to extract cheap lead used for global manufacturing have become a well documented source of exposure.{{sfn|Renfrew|2019|p=8}} Elevated concentrations of lead persist in soils and sediments in post-industrial and urban areas; industrial emissions, including those arising from coal burning,{{sfn|Trace element emission|2012}} continue in many parts of the world, particularly in the developing countries.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2010|p=6}}

Lead can accumulate in soils, especially those with a high organic content, where it remains for hundreds to thousands of years. Environmental lead can compete with other metals found in and on plant surfaces potentially inhibiting [[photosynthesis]] and at high enough concentrations, negatively affecting plant growth and survival. Contamination of soils and plants can allow lead to ascend the food chain affecting microorganisms and animals. In animals, lead exhibits toxicity in many organs, damaging the nervous, [[kidney|renal]], reproductive, [[Haematopoiesis|hematopoietic]], and cardiovascular systems after ingestion, inhalation, or skin absorption.{{sfn|Assi|Hezmee|Haron|Sabri|2016}} Fish uptake lead from both water and sediment;{{sfn|World Health Organization|1995}} bioaccumulation in the food chain poses a hazard to fish, birds, and sea mammals.{{sfn|UK Marine SACs Project|1999}}

Anthropogenic lead includes lead from [[Shot (pellet)|shot]] and [[Fishing sinker|sinkers]]. These are among the most potent sources of lead contamination along with lead production sites.{{sfn|United Nations Environment Programme|2010|p=9}} Lead was banned for shot and sinkers in the United States in 2017,{{sfn|McCoy|2017}} although that ban was only effective for a month,{{sfn|Cama|2017}} and a similar ban is being considered in the European Union.{{sfn|Layton|2017}}

Analytical methods for the determination of lead in the environment include [[spectrophotometry]], [[X-ray fluorescence]], [[atomic spectroscopy]], and [[electrochemistry|electrochemical methods]]. A specific [[ion-selective electrode]] has been developed based on the ionophore ''S'',''S'''-methylenebis(''N'',''N''-diisobutyl[[dithiocarbamate]]).{{sfn|Hauser|2017|pp=49–60}} An important biomarker assay for lead poisoning is [[δ-aminolevulinic acid]] levels in plasma, serum, and urine.{{sfn|Lauwerys|Hoet|2001|pp=115, 116–117}}

== Restriction and remediation ==
[[File:1plombs chasse cygne condé2.jpg|right|thumb|Radiography of a swan found dead in [[Condé-sur-l'Escaut]] (northern France), highlighting lead shot. There are hundreds of lead pellets (a dozen is enough to kill an adult swan within a few days). Such bodies are sources of environmental contamination by lead.|alt=An X-ray picture with numerous small pellets highlighted in white]]

By the mid-1980s, there was significant decline in the use of lead in industry.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.epa.gov/archive/epa/aboutepa/lead-poisoning-historical-perspective.html | title=Lead Poisoning: A Historical Perspective }}</ref> In the United States, environmental regulations reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. [[Scrubber|Particulate control devices]] were installed in [[Coal-fired power station|coal-fired power plants]] to capture lead emissions.{{sfn|Trace element emission|2012}} In 1992, U.S. Congress required the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce the blood lead levels of the country's children.{{sfn|Auer|Kover|Aidala|Greenwood|2016|p=4}} Lead use was further curtailed by the European Union's 2003 [[Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive]].{{sfn|Petzel|Juuti|Sugimoto|2004|pp=122–124}} A large drop in lead deposition occurred in the Netherlands after the 1993 national ban on use of lead shot for hunting and sport shooting: from 230 tonnes in 1990 to 47.5 tonnes in 1995.{{sfn|Deltares|Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research|2016}} The usage of lead in [[Avgas#100LL (blue)|Avgas 100LL]] for [[general aviation]] is allowed in the EU as of 2022.<ref name="q566">{{cite web | last=Calderwood | first=Dave | title=Europe moves to ban lead in avgas | website=FLYER | date=8 March 2022 | url=https://flyer.co.uk/europe-moves-to-ban-lead-in-avgas/ | access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref>

In the United States, the [[permissible exposure limit]] for lead in the workplace, comprising metallic lead, inorganic lead compounds, and lead soaps, was set at 50&nbsp;μg/m<sup>3</sup> over an 8-hour workday, and the [[blood lead level]] limit at 5&nbsp;μg per 100&nbsp;g of blood in 2012.{{sfn|Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry|2017}} Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware,{{sfn|Grandjean|1978|pp=303–321}} [[Vinyl group|vinyl]]{{sfn|Levin|Brown|Kashtock|Jacobs|2008|p=1288}} (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and Chinese brass.{{efn|An alloy of [[brass]] (copper and zinc) with lead, iron, tin, and sometimes antimony.{{sfn|Duda|1996|p=242}}}} Old houses may still contain lead paint.{{sfn|Levin|Brown|Kashtock|Jacobs|2008|p=1288}} White lead paint has been [[White Lead (Painting) Convention, 1921|withdrawn from sale]] in industrialized countries, but specialized uses of other pigments such as yellow [[Lead(II) chromate|lead chromate]] remain,{{sfn|Crow|2007}} especially in road pavement marking paint.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lead Chromate: Why it is Banned in Most Industries Apart From Road Markings |url=https://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/contractors/road_marking/prismo2/pressreleases/presslead-chromate-why-it-is-banned-in-most-industries-apart-from-road-markings/ |website=Road Traffic Technology |publisher=Verdict Media Limited |access-date=2024-05-27 |archive-date=5 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240305012833/https://www.roadtraffic-technology.com/contractors/road_marking/prismo2/pressreleases/presslead-chromate-why-it-is-banned-in-most-industries-apart-from-road-markings/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> 
Stripping old paint by sanding produces dust which can be inhaled.{{sfn|Marino|Landrigan|Graef|Nussbaum|1990|pp=1183–1185}} [[Lead abatement]] programs have been mandated by some authorities in properties where young children live.{{sfn|Schoch|1996|p=111}} The usage of lead in [[Avgas#100LL (blue)|Avgas 100LL]] for [[general aviation]] is generally allowed in United States as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Leaded Aviation Fuel and the Environment {{!}} Federal Aviation Administration |author= |work=faa.gov |date=20 November 2019 |access-date=19 March 2025 |url= https://www.faa.gov/newsroom/leaded-aviation-fuel-and-environment}}</ref>

Lead waste, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the waste, may be treated as household waste (to facilitate lead abatement activities),{{sfn|United States Environmental Protection Agency|2000}} or potentially hazardous waste requiring specialized treatment or storage.{{sfn|Lead in Waste|2016}} Lead is released into the environment in shooting places and a number of lead management practices have been developed to counter the lead contamination.{{sfn|United States Environmental Protection Agency|2005|p=I-1}} Lead migration can be enhanced in acidic soils; to counter that, it is advised soils be treated with lime to [[Neutralization (chemistry)|neutralize]] the soils and prevent leaching of lead.{{sfn|United States Environmental Protection Agency|2005|p=III-5–III-6}}

Research has been conducted on how to remove lead from [[BioSystems|biosystems]] by biological means: Fish bones are being researched for their ability to [[bioremediation|bioremediate]] lead in contaminated soil.{{sfn|Freeman|2012|pp=a20–a21}}{{sfn|Young|2012}} The fungus ''[[Aspergillus versicolor]]'' is effective at absorbing lead ions from industrial waste before being released to water bodies.{{sfn|Acton|2013|pp=94–95}} Several bacteria have been researched for their ability to remove lead from the environment, including the [[Sulfate-reducing microorganism|sulfate-reducing bacteria]] ''[[Desulfovibrio]]'' and ''[[Desulfotomaculum]]'', both of which are highly effective in aqueous solutions.{{sfn|Park|Bolan|Meghara|Naidu|2011|pp=162–174}} Millet grass ''[[Urochloa ramosa]]'' has the ability to accumulate significant amounts of metals such as lead and [[zinc]] in its shoot and root tissues making it an important plant for remediation of contaminated soils.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lakshmi |first1=P.M. |last2=Jaison |first2=S. |last3=Muthukumar |first3=T. |last4=Muthukumar |first4=M. |title=Assessment of metal accumulation capacity of Brachiaria ramosa collected from cement waste dumping area for the remediation of metal contaminated soil. |journal=Ecological Engineering |date=1 November 2013 |volume=60 |pages=96–98 |doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.07.043|bibcode=2013EcEng..60...96L }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Derek Bryce-Smith|Derek Bryce-Smith&nbsp;]]– one of the earliest campaigners against lead in petrol in the UK
* [[Thomas Midgley Jr.]]&nbsp;– discovered that the addition of [[tetraethyllead]] to gasoline prevented [[Engine knocking|"knocking"]] in [[internal combustion engine]]s
* [[Clair Patterson|Clair Cameron Patterson]]&nbsp;– instrumental in the banning of tetraethyllead in gasoline in the US and lead solder in food cans.
* [[Robert A. Kehoe]]&nbsp;– foremost medical advocate for the use of tetraethyllead as an additive in gasoline.

== Notes ==
{{notelist|30em}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|22em}}

== Bibliography ==
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{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |publisher=De Gruyter |date=2017 |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences |volume=17 |title=Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health |editor1-last=Astrid |editor1-first=S. |editor2-last=Helmut |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Sigel |editor3-first=R. K. O. |isbn=978-3-11-044107-9}} [https://www.degruyter.com/viewbooktoc/product/460569 Table of contents]
* {{cite book |editor1-first=J. S. |editor1-last=Casas |editor2-first=J. |editor2-last=Sordo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D9nYWCv_FE4C |title=Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental Impacts and Health Effects |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-52945-9}}
* {{cite journal | title=Toxicologic and epidemiologic clues from the characterization of the 1952 London smog fine particulate matter in archival autopsy lung tissues| year=2003| pmid=12842775| last1=Hunt| first1=A.| last2=Abraham| first2=J. L.| last3=Judson| first3=B.| last4=Berry| first4=C. L.| journal=Environmental Health Perspectives| volume=111| issue=9| pages=1209–1214| doi=10.1289/ehp.6114| pmc=1241576| bibcode=2003EnvHP.111.1209H}}
* Ingalls, Walter Renton (1865-), [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63784  Lead Smelting and Refining, With Some Notes on Lead Mining]
* {{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1011134414001286 | title=Assessing the mechanism of DNA damage induced by lead through direct and indirect interactions| year=2014| doi=10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2014.04.020| last1=Zhang| first1=Hao| last2=Wei| first2=Kai| last3=Zhang| first3=Mengyu| last4=Liu| first4=Rutao| last5=Chen| first5=Yadong| journal=Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology| volume=136| pages=46–53| pmid=24844619| bibcode=2014JPPB..136...46Z| url-access=subscription}}

==External links==
{{AmCyc Poster}}
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons}}
*[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Catherine_Hammett-Stabler/publication/288272623_The_Toxicology_of_Heavy_Metals_Getting_the_Lead_Out/links/572748fd08ae586b21e28b65.pdf The Toxicology of Heavy Metals: Getting the Lead Out], [[American Society for Clinical Pathology]]
* [[usgs.gov]]: [https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2025/mcs2025.pdf#page=106 Lead] (Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025)

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