View source for Leadership

{{Short description|Quality of an individual or group influencing or guiding others}}
{{Redirect|Leader||Leader (disambiguation)}}
{{other uses}}

[[File:Wishnu Wardhana - Opening APEC CEO Summit 2013.jpg|thumb|right|200px| An [[APEC]] leader setting the tone for the [[APEC Indonesia 2013|2013 APEC CEO summit]] with an opening speech]]
'''Leadership''', is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or [[organization]] to influence, or guide other individuals, [[team]]s, or [[organization]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-16 |title=Definition of LEADERSHIP |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/leadership |access-date=2024-10-20 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Raymond |first=Walter John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dtn0olA8PcC&dq=dictionary%20of%20politics&pg=PA276 |title=Dictionary of Politics: Selected American and Foreign Political and Legal Terms |date=1992 |publisher=Brunswick Publishing Corp |isbn=978-1-55618-008-8 |language=en}}</ref>

"Leadership" is a contested term.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book |last= Grint|first=Keith|title= Leadership: Limits and Possibilities |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-333-96387-6|location=London| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Tf3ZCgAAQBAJ|quote=Moral leadership is not the way to secure democracy, morality and justice because morality, like power and leadership is an [[essentially contested concept]]....}}{{dead link|date=August 2023}}
|2={{Cite book|last=Western|first= Simon|title=Leadership: A critical text |publisher= Sage|year= 2013|isbn= 978-1-4462-9420-8|location=London|page=26|quote=Leadership is a contested term with multiple meanings and diverse practical applications.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnDAQAAQBAJ}} }}</ref> Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the concept, sometimes contrasting [[Eastern world|Eastern]] and [[Western world|Western]] approaches to leadership, and also (within the West) [[North America]]n versus [[Europe]]an approaches.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Grosset
 |first1               = Serge
 |year                 = 1970
 |title                = Management: European and American Styles
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=03xEAAAAIAAJ
 |publication-place    = Belmont, California
 |publisher            = Wadsworth Publishing Company
 |access-date          = 20 August 2023
}}
</ref>

Some U.S. academic environments define leadership as "a process of [[social influence]] in which a person can enlist the aid and [[Peer support|support]] of others in the accomplishment of a common and [[Ethics|ethical]] [[task (project management)|task]]".<ref>{{Cite book |title= An integrative theory of leadership |last= Chemers |first= M. |publisher= Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers |year=1997 |isbn= 978-0-8058-2679-1}}</ref> In other words, leadership is an influential [[Power (social and political)|power]]-relationship in which the power of one party (the "leader") promotes movement/change in others (the "followers").<ref>{{cite book |last1= Northouse |first1= Peter G. |title= Leadership: Theory and Practice |date= 2018 |publisher=Sage Publication|location=California|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=HJ08DwAAQBAJ|edition= 8th|quote= ...some define leadership in terms of the power relationship that exists between leaders and followers.|isbn= 978-1-5063-6229-8}}</ref> Some have challenged the more traditional [[managerial]] views of leadership (which portray leadership as something possessed or owned by one individual due to their role or [[Authority (sociology)|authority]]), and instead advocate the complex nature of leadership which is found at all levels of institutions, both within [[Professional|formal]]<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237345189|chapter= Institutional Leadership: past, present, and future|first1= Marvin|last1= Washington|first2= Kimberly|last2= Boal |first3= John|last3= Davis|title= The Sage Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism|year= 2020 |editor-first1= Royston|editor-last1= Greenwood|editor-first2= Christine|editor-last2= Oliver|editor-first3= Thomas B|editor-last3= Lawrence|editor-first4= Renate E.|editor-last4= Meyer|isbn= 978-1-5297-1211-7|pages= 719–733|publisher=Sage Publications }}</ref> and informal roles.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Goleman|first1= D.|last2= Boyatzis|first2= R.E. |last3=McKee|first3=A.|year=2003|title=The New Leaders: Transforming the art of leadership. London: Sphere |publisher= Sphere |isbn=978-0-7515-3381-1}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2023}}{{request quotation|date=November 2021}}

[[Leadership studies|Studies of leadership]] have produced theories involving (for example) [[Trait leadership|trait]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |title= Leadership: Do traits matter? |first1= Shelley A. |last1= Kirkpatrick |first2= Edwin A. |last2=Locke |author2-link = Edwin A. Locke |journal=Academy of Management Executive |volume= 5|issue= 2|year= 1991 |url = http://sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/Org_Mgmt_Materials/Leadership%20-%20Do%20Traits%20Matgter.pdf |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100627235908/http://sbuweb.tcu.edu/jmathis/Org_Mgmt_Materials/Leadership%20-%20Do%20Traits%20Matgter.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-27}}
</ref> situational interaction,<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Seyranian
 |first1               = Viviane
 |editor-last1         = Levine
 |editor-first1        = John M
 |editor-last2         = Hogg
 |editor-first2        = Michael A.
 |editor-link2         = Michael Hogg
 |year                 = 2010
 |series               = Sage reference
 |chapter              = Interactionist Theories of Leadership
 |title                = Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=wrQ5DQAAQBAJ
 |volume               = 1
 |publication-place    = Los Angeles
 |publisher            = Sage
 |page                 = 458
 |isbn                 = 978-1-4129-4208-9
 |access-date          = 20 August 2023
 |quote                = Interactionist leadership scholars also have argued that trait-based or situational accounts of leadership ignore how a leader can affect a situation or how a situation may influence leaders. [...] Interactionist theories of leadership link person–situation variables in a network of multidirectional relationships that attempt to capture the evolving nature of leadership.
}}
</ref>
function, [[behavior]],<ref>{{cite web|last= Goldsmith|first= Marshall|editor-last= Dekel|editor-first= Gil|url= https://www.designtoolbox.co.uk/strategies/leaders-make-values-visible/|title= Leaders Make Values Visible|year= 2016|website= Design Toolbox|access-date= 2023-08-08|archive-date= 2023-08-10|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230104/https://www.designtoolbox.co.uk/strategies/leaders-make-values-visible/|url-status= live}}</ref> [[Power (social and political)|power]], [[goal|vision]],<ref>{{cite book
 |last1       = Saffold
 |first1      = Guy
 |chapter     = Leadership Through Vision
 |title       = Strategic Planning: Leadership through Vision
 |year        = 2005
 |url         = https://books.google.com/books?id=RKhizYSv9RoC
 |location    = Nairobi
 |publisher   = Evangel Publishing House
 |page        = 137
 |isbn        = 978-9966-20-122-5
 |access-date = 11 November 2021
 |quote       = ...leadership is about the future; and the future is about vision.
}}</ref> [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]],<ref>{{cite book
 |last1         = Richards
 |first1        = Dick
 |last2         = Engel
 |first2        = Sarah
 |editor-last1  = Adams
 |editor-first1 = John D.
 |orig-date     = 1986
 |chapter       = After the vision: suggestions to corporate visionaries and vision champions
 |title         = Transforming Leadership
 |date          = 2005
 |url           = https://books.google.com/books?id=Im7BBAAAQBAJ
 |edition       = 2nd
 |location      = New York
 |publisher     = Cosimo
 |page          = 206
 |isbn          = 978-1-59605-365-6
 |access-date   = 11 November 2021
 |quote         =
}}</ref> [[charismatic leadership|charisma]], and [[intelligence]],<ref>
{{cite book
 |editor-last1         = Riggio
 |editor-first1        = Ronald E.
 |editor-last2         = Murphy
 |editor-first2        = Susan Elaine
 |editor-last3         = Pirozzolo
 |editor-first3        = Francis J.
 |year                 = 2001
 |title                = Multiple Intelligences and Leadership
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=YSx5AgAAQBAJ
 |series               = Organization and Management Series
 |publication-place    = Mahwah, New Jersey
 |publisher            = Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
 |isbn                 = 978-1-135-66243-1
 |access-date          = 20 August 2023
}}
</ref>
among others.<ref name="Chin 2015">{{Cite journal |last=Chin |first=Roger |year=2015 |title=Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management |journal=Team Performance Management |volume=21 |issue=3/4 |pages=199–216 |doi=10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037}}</ref>

==Historical views==
The Chinese doctrine of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] postulated the need for rulers to govern justly, and the right of subordinates to overthrow [[emperor]]s who appeared to lack divine sanction.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Guo
 | first1 = Xuezhi
 | chapter = Traditional Political Thought and Imperial Legacy
 | title = The Politics of the Core Leader in China: Culture, Institution, Legitimacy, and Power
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hm2MDwAAQBAJ
 | location = Cambridge
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 | date = 2019
 | page = 139
 | isbn = 978-1-108-48049-9
 | access-date = 17 May 2019
 | quote = The Mandate of Heaven implies that the legitimacy of political leadership as well as its leading figures come from not only their political power derived from their positions and ''de facto'' dominance in the leadership but also their roles in bringing voluntary compliance from the high-ranking leaders and the population at large.
}}</ref>

Pro-[[aristocracy]] thinkers<ref>For example:
{{cite book
 | last1 = Gupta
 | first1 = Ashok Kumar
 | title = Emerging Pattern of Political Leadership: A Case Study of Punjab
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PJEXDF7XxzUC
 | location = New Delhi
 | publisher = Mittal Publications
 | date = 1991
 | page = 12
 | isbn = 978-81-7099-256-1
 | access-date = 17 May 2019
 | quote = The main theme of [José Ortega y Gasset's] theory of elite is that 'when the masses in a country believe that they can do without aristocracy, the nation inevitably declines. In their disillusionment the masses again turn to the new leadership and a new aristocracy emerges.'
}}</ref>
have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or [[gene]]s.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Marstiller
 | first1 = James K.
 | last2 = Joerding Fickeler
 | first2 = Jennifer
 | title = The Power to Innovate: Rewiring the Minds of Individuals and Organizations
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YUCzmu3_5vsC
 | location = Bloomington, Indiana
 | publisher = AuthorHouse
 | date = 2005
 | page = 169
 | isbn = 978-1-4208-3510-6
 | access-date = 17 May 2019
 | quote = Throughout the ages it was believed that leaders were born, that the ability to lead was somehow inherited through the blood. [...] In spite of many examples throughout history of blue-blood leadership ineptitude, birthright and competency became intertwined in the human psyche. This perception remained until the 20th century.
}}</ref>
[[Monarchy]] takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanction (see the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]]). On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of [[meritocracy|meritocratic]] leaders, such as the [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleonic]] marshals profiting from [[career]]s open to [[skill|talent]].<ref>{{Cite book |title= Transformation Of An Individual Family Community Nation And The World |last= Cano |first= Librado F. |publisher= Trafford Publishing |year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1-4269-4766-7 |page= 134 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8D8sanxRQR8C}}</ref>

In the [[autocracy|autocratic]]/[[paternalism|paternalistic]] strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman {{lang|la|[[pater familias]]}}. [[Feminism|Feminist]] thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual [[empathy|empathetic]] guidance, which is sometimes associated with [[matriarchy|matriarchies]]".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite book |title= Human Behaviour |last1= Singh |first1= Ravinder |first2= Ajita |last2= Rani |publisher= Notion Press |year= 2017 |isbn= 978-1-946983-31-2 | quote = ...emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies, where the women rule. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GZKiDgAAQBAJ}}
|2={{cite book
 | last1 = Baym
 | first1 = Nina
 | author-link1 = Nina Baym
 | chapter = Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Mother: A Biographical Speculation
 | title = Feminism and American Literary History: Essays
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EnglvDhekpIC
 | series = Women's studies / American literature
 | location = New Brunswick, New Jersey
 | publisher = Rutgers University Press
 | year = 1992
 | page = 53
 | isbn = 978-0-8135-1855-8
 | access-date = 23 July 2020
 | quote = The image [...] is the Garden of Eden, the benign matriarchy.
}} }}</ref>

{{blockquote|Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of [[Confucianism]] on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety.|P.K. Saxena<ref>{{Cite book |title= Principles of Management, A Modern Approach |last= Saxena |first= P.K. |publisher= Global India Publications PVT LTD |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-81-907941-5-2 |location= New Delhi |pages= 30 | quote = Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety. | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dudAB3uReq4C}}</ref>}}

{{blockquote|Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader.|Jia Lin, in commentary on [[Sun Tzu]], ''Art of War''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Art of War: Complete Texts and Commentaries|title-link=The Art of War|author=[[Sun Tzu]]|year=2003|translator-first=Thomas|translator-last=Cleary|publisher=Shambhala|isbn=978-1-59030-054-1}}</ref>}}

Machiavelli's ''[[The Prince]]'', written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers to acquire royal authority and found lasting regimes.<ref>Rahe, P.A. (Ed.). (2005). ''Machiavelli's liberal republican legacy''. Cambridge University Press, p. 3 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Prior to the 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today's society expected, and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen, and slave-masters. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821, when the term referred to the position or office of a designated leader.<ref>
{{oed | leadership}} – "1821 [...] Tierney has regularly resigned the Leadership of the Opposition."
</ref>
The abstract notion of "leadership" as embodying the qualities and behaviors associated with leaders and influencers developed only later during the 19th and 20th centuries – possibly traceable from 1870 onwards.<ref>
{{oed | leadership}} – "1870 [...] Nothing is wanted but military leadership and military means."
</ref>
Historically, [[industrialization]], opposition to the {{lang|fr|[[ancien regime]]}}, and the phasing out of chattel [[slavery]] meant that some newly developing [[organization]]s ([[nation-state]] [[republic]]s, commercial [[corporation]]s) evolved a need for a new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers – thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership".<ref>
Note the relative changes in terminology in American English since 1800: {{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?year_end=2019&year_start=1800&corpus=28&content=leader%2Cmaster%2Cleadership&smoothing=3&direct_url=t1%3B%2Cleader%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cmaster%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cleadership%3B%2Cc0#t1%3B%2Cleader%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cmaster%3B%2Cc0%3B.t1%3B%2Cleadership%3B%2Cc0|title=leader, master, leadership – 1800–2019|website=Google Books Ngram Viewer}}</ref>
The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain,<ref>
For example:
{{cite book
 | last1 = Wells
 | first1 = Carl
 | title = Is Slavery Christian?
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OHWJtzdeyeEC
 | year = 2012
 | page = 71
 | publisher = AuthorHouse
 | isbn = 978-1-4772-7495-8
 | access-date = 23 July 2020
 | quote = Any of a dozen factors can make the position of master, employer, or leader, very difficult and frustrating. How refreshing it must be for a slave master, or employer, or leader to run into a person who treats him with respect whether he's present or absent, who works diligently at all times, who need not be watched like a hawk, who is a self-started with a tongue well under control: the Christian slave or worker! What honor to Christ is brought by such a slave or worker! Such a person's Christianity is real.}}</ref>
but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed.

Starting in the 19th century, the elaboration of [[anarchism|anarchist]] thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of [[élitism]] came with [[Leninism]] – [[Lenin]] (1870–1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined [[professional revolutionaries|cadres]] to act as the [[vanguard party|vanguard]] of a socialist revolution, which was to bring into existence the [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].{{cn|date=September 2025}}

Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of [[Caesaro-papism]] have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. [[Christian]] thinking on leadership has often emphasized [[stewardship]] of divinely-provided resources – human and material – and their deployment in accordance with a [[Divine plan]]. Compare this with [[servant leadership]].<ref>{{cite book
|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AfjUgMJlDK4C
|title= Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness
|publisher= Paulist Press|orig-date= 1977|isbn= 978-0-8091-0554-0
|location= Mahwah, New Jersey|year= 2002
|last1= Greenleaf|first1= Robert K.|author-link1= Robert K. Greenleaf
|access-date= 2014-07-21}}</ref>

==Theories==
Anecdotal and incidental observations aside, the serious discipline of theorising leadership began in the 19th century.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Ledlow
 |first1               = Gerald (Jerry) R.
 |last2                = Coppola
 |first2               = M. Nicholas
 |date                 =  2010
 |title                = Leadership for Health Professionals: Theory, Skills, and Applications
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=53wEIUfjSmUC
 |publication-place    = Sudbury, Massachusetts
 |publisher            = Jones & Bartlett Publishers
 |page                 = 6
 |isbn                 = 978-1-4496-1960-2
 |access-date          = 9 June 2024
 |quote                = [...] leadership theory and research is a relatively modern discipline. Indeed, the first relevant theories were not proposed until the mid-1800s.
}}
</ref>

===Early Western history===

The search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]''<ref>Benjamin Jowett's translation of Plato's ''Republic'' does not use the word "leadership"; Plato discusses primarily a "[[Philosopher king|guardian]]" class. See {{cite book| author = Plato| author-link1 = Plato| title = The Dialogues of Plato translated into English with Analyses and Introductions by B. Jowett, M.A.| url = https://archive.org/stream/dialoguesofplato02platuoft| volume = 3| publisher = Oxford University Press| date = 1892| access-date = 2014-09-12}}</ref> to [[Plutarch's]] ''[[Parallel Lives|Lives]]'' have explored the question "What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader?" Underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/business-learn-from-ancient-philosophers|title=What can business leaders learn from ancient philosophers?|last=Evans|first=Jules|date=2012-05-04|newspaper=The Guardian|language=en|access-date=2018-11-07}}</ref> and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the "[[trait leadership|trait theory of leadership]]".

A number of works in the 19th century – when the traditional authority of monarchs, lords, and bishops had begun to wane – explored the trait theory at length: especially the writings of [[Thomas Carlyle]] and of [[Francis Galton]]. In ''Heroes and Hero Worship'' (1841), Carlyle identified the talents, skills, and physical characteristics of men who rose to power. Galton's ''Hereditary Genius'' (1869) examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, Galton concluded that leadership was inherited.

[[Cecil Rhodes]] (1853–1902) believed that public-spirited leadership could be nurtured by identifying young people with "moral force of character and instincts to lead", and educating them in contexts (such as the collegiate environment of the [[University of Oxford]]) that further developed such characteristics. International networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help "render war impossible". This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the [[Rhodes Scholarships]], which have helped to shape notions of leadership since their creation in 1903.<ref>See {{cite book | author=[[Donald Markwell]] | title='Instincts to lead': on leadership, peace, and education | publisher=[[Connor Court Publishing]] | publication-place=Australia | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-922168-70-2 | oclc=865544191 | url=https://archive.org/details/instinctstoleado0000mark }}</ref>

===Rise of alternative theories===

In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a series of qualitative reviews<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Bird|first=Charles|year=1940|title=Social Psychology|location=New York|publisher=Appleton-Century|series=The Century Psychology Series|url=https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000bird}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Stogdill | first1 = R. M. | year = 1948 | title = Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature | journal = Journal of Psychology | volume = 25 | pages = 35–71 | doi=10.1080/00223980.1948.9917362| pmid = 18901913 }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Mann | first1 = R. D. | year = 1959 | title = A review of the relationship between personality and performance in small groups | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-bulletin_1959-07_56_4/page/241 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 56 | issue = 4| pages = 241–270 | doi=10.1037/h0044587}} }}</ref> prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. In reviewing the extant literature, Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that people who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an enduring individual trait – situational approaches (see alternative leadership theories below) posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations, but not others. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the leader behaviors that were effective. This approach dominated much of the leadership theory and research for the next few decades.

===Reemergence of trait theory===

New methods and measurements were developed after these influential reviews that would ultimately reestablish [[trait theory]] as a viable approach to the study of leadership. For example, improvements in researchers' use of the [[Round-robin test|round-robin research design methodology]] allowed researchers to see that individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983">{{cite journal | last1 = Kenny | first1 = D.A. | last2 = Zaccaro | first2 = S.J. | year = 1983 | title = An estimate of variance due to traits in leadership | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 68 | issue = 4| pages = 678–685 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.68.4.678}}</ref> Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]], in which they could quantitatively analyze and summarize the findings from a wide array of studies. This advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following:
* Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.<ref name="Kenny, D.A. 1983"/>
* Significant relationships exist between leadership emergence and such individual traits as:
:*[[Intelligence]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986">{{cite journal | last1 = Lord | first1 = R.G. | last2 = De Vader | first2 = C.L. | last3 = Alliger | first3 = G.M. | year = 1986 | title = A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leader perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 71 | issue = 3| pages = 402–410 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.71.3.402| url = https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1488086 }}</ref>
:*[[Adjustment (psychology)|Adjustment]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
:*[[Extraversion]]<ref name="Lord, R.G. 1986"/>
:*[[Conscientiousness]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Arvey | first1 = R. D. | last2 = Rotundo | first2 = M. | last3 = Johnson | first3 = W. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = Z. | last5 = McGue | first5 = M. | year = 2006 | title = The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | pages = 1–20 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.009| citeseerx = 10.1.1.333.3080 }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Tagger | first1 = S. | last2 = Hackett | first2 = R. | last3 = Saha | first3 = S. | year = 1999 | title = Leadership emergence in autonomous work teams: Antecedents and outcomes | journal = [[Personnel Psychology]] | volume = 52 | issue = 4| pages = 899–926 | doi = 10.1111/j.1744-6570.1999.tb00184.x | doi-access = free}} }}</ref><ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002">{{cite journal | last1 = Judge | first1 = T.A. | last2 = Bono | first2 = J.E. | last3 = Ilies | first3 = R. | last4 = Gerhardt | first4 = M. W. | year = 2002 | title = Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 4| pages = 765–780 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.4.765| pmid = 12184579 }}</ref>
:*[[Openness to experience]]<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kickul | first1 = J. | last2 = Neuman | first2 = G. | year = 2000 | title = Emergence leadership behaviors: The function of personality and cognitive ability in determining teamwork performance and KSAs | journal = Journal of Business and Psychology | volume = 15 | pages = 27–51 | doi = 10.1023/A:1007714801558 | s2cid = 141377956 }}</ref>
:*General [[self-efficacy]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 1998 | title = A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 147–160 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9}}</ref><ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007"/>

While the trait theory of leadership has certainly regained popularity, its reemergence has not been accompanied by a corresponding increase in sophisticated conceptual frameworks.<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Zaccaro | first1 = S. J. | year = 2007 | title = Trait-based perspectives of leadership | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 62 | issue = 1| pages = 6–16 | doi=10.1037/0003-066x.62.1.6| pmid = 17209675 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.475.9808 | s2cid = 2762932 }}</ref>

Specifically, [[Stephen Zaccaro]] noted that trait theories still:<ref name="Zaccaro, S. J. 2007"/>
* focus on a small set of individual attributes such as the "[[Big Five personality traits|Big Five]]" personality traits, to the neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, [[social skills]], expertise, and problem-solving skills
* fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes
* do not distinguish between the leadership attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences
* do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership

===Attribute pattern approach===

Considering the criticisms of the trait theory outlined above, several researchers adopted a different perspective of leader individual differences – the leader-attribute-pattern approach.<ref name="Foti, R.J. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Foti | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Hauenstein | first2 = N.M.A. | year = 2007 | title = Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 92 | issue = 2| pages = 347–355 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.347| pmid = 17371083 }}</ref><ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Zaccaro|first1=S. J.|last2=Gulick|first2=L. M. V.|last3=Khare|first3=V. P.|year=2008|chapter=Personality and leadership|editor-first1=C. J.|editor-last1=Hoyt|editor-first2=G. R. |editor-last2=Goethals |editor-first3= D.R. |editor-last3=Forsyth
|title=Leadership at the crossroads|volume=1|pages=13–29|location=Westport, Conn.|publisher= Praeger}}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Gershenoff | first1 = A. G. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 2003 | title = Leader emergence and gender roles in all-female groups: A contextual examination | journal = Small Group Research | volume = 34 | issue = 2| pages = 170–196 | doi=10.1177/1046496402250429| s2cid = 145054262 }}
|3={{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = J.A. | last2 = Foti | first2 = R.J. | year = 1998 | title = A pattern approach to the study of leader emergence | journal = Leadership Quarterly | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 147–160 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(98)90002-9}} }}</ref><ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000">{{cite journal | last1 = Mumford | first1 = M.D. | last2 = Zaccaro | first2 = S.J. | last3 = Harding | first3 = F.D. | last4 = Jacobs | first4 = T. O. | last5 = Fleishman | first5 = E.A. | year = 2000 | title = Leadership skills for a changing world solving complex social problems | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 11 | pages = 11–35 | doi=10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00041-7}}</ref> In contrast to the traditional approach, the leader-attribute-pattern approach is based on theorists' arguments that the influence of individual characteristics on outcomes is best understood by considering the person as an integrated totality rather than a summation of individual variables.<ref name="Mumford, M. D. 2000"/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Magnusson|first1= D.|year=1995|chapter=Holistic interactionism: A perspective for research on personality development|editor-first1=L.A.|editor-last1=Pervin |editor-first2=O.P. |editor-last2=John |title=Handbook of personality: Theory and research|pages=219–247|location= New York |publisher=Guilford Press}}</ref> In other words, the leader-attribute-pattern approach argues that integrated constellations or combinations of individual differences may explain substantial variance in both leader emergence and leader effectiveness beyond that explained by single attributes, or by additive combinations of multiple attributes.

===Behavioral and style theories===
{{Main|Managerial grid model}}

In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began to research leadership as a set of behaviors by evaluating the behavior of successful leaders, determining a behavior taxonomy, and identifying broad leadership styles.<ref>{{cite journal |title = Towards a theory of leadership practice |first3=John B. |last3=Diamond |first1=James P. |first2=Richard |last2=Halverson |last1=Spillane |journal = Journal of Curriculum Studies |volume= 36 | issue = 1 |pages=3–34 |year=2004 |doi=10.1080/0022027032000106726|s2cid=3094291}}
</ref> [[David McClelland]], for example, posited that leadership requires a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego. To lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horton|first=Thomas|location=New York|title=The CEO Paradox|publisher=American Management Association|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8144-5093-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/ceoparadoxprivil00hort}}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Management Grid.PNG|right|thumb|200px|A graphical representation of the managerial grid model]]

[[Kurt Lewin]], Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles and performance. The researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate. In each, the leader exercised his influence regarding the type of [[group decision making]], [[praise]] and [[criticism]] ([[feedback]]), and the management of the group tasks ([[project management]]) according to three styles: [[#Autocratic or authoritarian|authoritarian]], [[#Participative or democratic|democratic]], and [[#Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership|laissez-faire]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lewin |first1 = Kurt |author1-link = Kurt Lewin |last2 = Lippitt |first2 = Ronald |last3 = White | first3 = Ralph | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates |journal = [[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |pages = 271–301 |year = 1939 }}
</ref>

In 1945, Ohio State University conducted a study which investigated observable behaviors portrayed by effective leaders. They identified particular behaviors that were reflective of leadership effectiveness. They narrowed their findings to two dimensions.<ref>"Ohio State Leadership Studies Explained with Examples" (2017){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref> The first dimension, "initiating structure", described how a leader clearly and accurately communicates with the followers, defines goals, and determines how tasks are performed. These are considered "task oriented" behaviors. The second dimension, "consideration", indicates the leader's ability to build an interpersonal relationship with their followers, and to establish a form of mutual trust. These are considered "social oriented" behaviors.<ref>AAmodt (2015){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The Michigan State Studies, which were conducted in the 1950s, made further investigations and findings that positively correlated behaviors and leadership effectiveness. Although they had similar findings as the Ohio State studies, they also contributed an additional behavior identified in leaders: participative behavior (also called "servant leadership"), or allowing the followers to participate in group decision making and encouraged subordinate input. This entails avoiding controlling types of leadership and allows more personal interactions between leaders and their subordinates.<ref>Stoker (2016){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>

The managerial grid model is also based on a behavioral theory. The model was developed by [[Robert Blake (management)|Robert Blake]] and [[Jane Mouton]] in 1964. It suggests five different leadership styles, based on the leaders' concern for people and their concern for goal achievement.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blake |first1=R. |last2=Mouton |first2=J.|title = The Managerial Grid: The Key to Leadership Excellence |year=1964 |publisher=Gulf Publishing Co. |location=Houston, TX }}</ref>

====Positive reinforcement====
[[B. F. Skinner]] is the father of [[behavior modification]] and developed the concept of [[positive reinforcement]]. Positive reinforcement occurs when a positive stimulus is presented in response to a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.<ref>{{cite book|last=Miltenberger|first=R.G.|year=2004|title=Behavior Modification Principles and Procedures|edition=3rd|location=Belmont, California|publisher=Wadsworth/Thomson Learning}}</ref> The following is an example of how positive reinforcement can be used in a business setting. Assume [[praise]] is a positive reinforcer for a particular employee. This employee does not show up to work on time every day. The manager decides to praise the employee for showing up on time every day the employee actually shows up to work on time. As a result, the employee comes to work on time more often because the employee likes to be praised. In this example, praise (the stimulus) is a positive reinforcer for this employee because the employee arrives at work on time (the behavior) more frequently after being praised for showing up to work on time.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html | title=Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) | website=Simply Psychology | year=2007 | last1=McLeod | first1=Saul | access-date=2020-11-24 | archive-date=2019-08-24 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824221536/https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

Positive reinforcement is a successful technique used by leaders to motivate and attain desired behaviors from subordinates. Organizations such as Frito-Lay, 3M, Goodrich, Michigan Bell, and Emery Air Freight have all used reinforcement to increase productivity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lussier|first1=R.N.|last2=Achua|first2=C. F.|year=2010|title=Leadership, Theory, Application, & Skill Development|edition=4th|location=Mason, Ohio|publisher=South-Western Cengage Learning}}</ref> Empirical research covering the last 20 years{{update inline|reason="last" ending when?|date=August 2023}} suggests that applying [[reinforcement theory]] leads to a 17 percent increase in performance. Additionally, many reinforcement techniques such as the use of praise are inexpensive, providing higher performance for lower costs.

===Situational and contingency theories===
{{Main|Fiedler contingency model|Vroom–Yetton decision model|path–goal theory|Substitutes for Leadership Theory}}

Situational theory is another reaction to the trait theory of leadership. [[social science|Social scientists]] argued that history was more than the result of intervention of [[Great man theory|great men]] as [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]] suggested. [[Herbert Spencer]] (1884) (and [[Karl Marx]]) said that the times produce the person and not the other way around.<ref>{{multiref2
|1= {{cite book |last=Spencer |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Spencer |title=The Study of Sociology |year=1841|location=New York|publisher=D.A. Appleton |isbn=978-0-314-71117-5}}
|2= {{cite book |last=Heifetz|first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald A. Heifetz |title=Leadership without Easy Answers |year=1994 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] |isbn=978-0-674-51858-2 |page=16 |url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/leadershipwithou00heif}} }}</ref> This theory assumes that different situations call for different characteristics: no single optimal psychographic profile of a leader exists. According to the theory, "what an individual actually does when acting as a leader is in large part dependent upon characteristics of the situation in which he functions."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hemphill |first1 = John K. |title=Situational Factors in Leadership |year=1949 |publisher=Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research |location=Columbus, Ohio}}</ref>

Some theorists synthesized the trait and situational approaches. Building upon the research of Lewin et al.,<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Lewin |first1 = Kurt |author1-link = Kurt Lewin |last2 = Lippitt |first2 = Ronald |last3 = White | first3 = Ralph | title = Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates |journal = [[The Journal of Social Psychology]] |pages = 271–301 |year = 1939}}</ref> academics normalized the descriptive models of leadership climates, defining three leadership styles and identifying which situations each style works better in. The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to win the "hearts and minds" of followers in day-to-day management; the democratic leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the laissez-faire leadership style is appreciated for the degree of freedom it provides, but as the leaders do not "take charge", they can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny organizational problems.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Wormer |first1=Katherine S. |last2=Besthorn |first2=Fred H. |last3=Keefe |first3= Thomas |title=Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Macro Level: Groups, Communities, and Organizations |year=2007|location=US|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518754-0|page=198}}</ref> Theorists defined the style of leadership as contingent to the situation; this is sometimes called [[contingency theory]]. Three contingency leadership theories are the Fiedler contingency model, the Vroom-Yetton decision model, and the path-goal theory.

The [[Fiedler contingency model]] bases the leader's effectiveness on what [[Fred Fiedler]] called ''situational contingency''. This results from the interaction of leadership style and situational favorability (later called ''situational control''). The theory defines two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented).<ref>{{cite book |last = Fiedler |first = Fred E. |author-link = Fred Fiedler |title = A theory of leadership effectiveness |publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc. |year = 1967 |location = McGraw-Hill}}</ref> According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.

[[Victor Vroom]], in collaboration with Phillip Yetton<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vroom|first1=Victor H.|author-link1=Victor Vroom|last2=Yetton|first2=Phillip W.|title=Leadership and Decision-Making| year=1973|location=Pittsburgh|publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=978-0-8229-3266-6}}</ref> and later with Arthur Jago,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Vroom|first1=Victor H. |author1-link = Victor Vroom |last2=Jago|first2=Arthur G. |title=The New Leadership: Managing Participation in Organizations|year=1988|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |publisher=Prentice-Hall|isbn=978-0-13-615030-5|url-access=registration |url = https://archive.org/details/newleadershipman0000vroo }}</ref> developed a [[Taxonomy (general)|taxonomy]] for describing leadership situations. They used this in a normative [[Vroom-Yetton decision model|decision model]] in which leadership styles were connected to situational variables, defining which approach was more suitable to which situation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Theoretical Letters: The person versus the situation in leadership |first1=Victor H. |last1=Vroom |author1-link = Victor Vroom |last2=Sternberg|first2=Robert J. |journal=[[Leadership (journal)|Leadership]]|volume= 13 |pages=301–323|year=2002 |doi=10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00101-7 |issue=3}}</ref> This approach supported the idea that a manager could rely on different [[group decision making]] approaches depending on the attributes of each situation. This model was later referred to as situational contingency theory.<ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Jay W. Lorsch|last=Lorsch|first=J.W.|date=Spring 1974|title=Book Review: ''Leadership and Decision Making'' by Vroom & Yetton|journal=[[MIT Sloan Management Review]]|volume=15|number=3|page=100}}</ref>

The [[path-goal theory]] of leadership was developed by Robert House and was based on the [[expectancy theory]] of [[Victor Vroom]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = House| first = Robert J. | title = A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness | journal = [[Administrative Science Quarterly]] |volume=16 | pages = 321–339 | year = 1971 | doi = 10.2307/2391905 | issue = 3 | jstor = 2391905}}</ref> According to House, "leaders, to be effective, engage in behaviors that complement subordinates' environments and abilities in a manner that compensates for deficiencies and is instrumental to subordinate satisfaction and individual and work unit performance".<ref>{{cite journal | last = House| first = Robert J.| title = Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and a reformulated theory | journal = [[Leadership (journal)|Leadership Quarterly]]|volume=7 |issue=3 | pages = 323–352 | year = 1996 | doi = 10.1016/S1048-9843(96)90024-7 }}</ref> The theory identifies four leader behaviors, ''achievement-oriented'', ''directive'', ''participative'', and ''supportive'', that are contingent to environment factors and follower characteristics. In contrast to the [[Fiedler contingency model]], the path-goal model states that the four leadership behaviors are fluid, and that leaders can adopt any of the four depending on what the situation demands. The path-goal model can be classified both as a [[Contingency leadership theory|contingency theory]], as it depends on the circumstances, and as a [[Transactional leadership|transactional leadership theory]], as the theory emphasizes the reciprocity behavior between the leader and the followers.

===Functional theory===
{{Main|Functional leadership model}}
[[File:Defense.gov News Photo 100805-F-7552L-211 - Commander of the International Security Assistance Force Gen. David H. Petraeus center U.S. Army talks with U.S. soldiers of the 2nd Battalion.jpg|thumb|General [[David Petraeus]] talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan.]]
Functional leadership theory<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P.S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}}
|2=[[McGrath]], 1962{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3=Adair, 1988{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|4=Kouzes & Posner, 1995{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} }}</ref> addresses specific leader behaviors that contribute to organizational or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion.<ref>{{multiref2
|1=Fleishman et al., 1991{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|2=Hackman & Wageman, 2005{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P. S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}} }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} While functional leadership theory has most often been applied to team leadership,<ref>Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2001{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} it has also been effectively applied to broader organizational leadership as well.<ref>Zaccaro, 2001{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} In summarizing literature on functional leadership, researchers<ref>{{multiref2
|1=Kozlowski et al. (1996){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|2=Zaccaro et al. (2001){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|3={{cite book|last1=Hackman|first1=J.R.|last2=Walton|first2=R.E.|year=1986|chapter=Leading groups in organizations|editor-first=P. S.|editor-last=Goodman|display-editors=etal|title=Designing influential workgroups}}
|4=Hackman & Wageman (2005){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|5=morge (2005){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
|6=Klein, Zeigert, Knight, and Xiao (2006) {{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} }}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} observed five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness. These functions include environmental monitoring, organizing subordinate activities, teaching and coaching subordinates, motivating others, and intervening actively in the group's work.

Various leadership behaviors facilitate these functions. In initial work identifying leader behavior, Fleishman observed that subordinates perceived their supervisors' behavior in terms of two broad categories referred to as [[consideration and initiating structure]].<ref>Fleishman (1953){{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Consideration includes behavior involved in fostering effective relationships. Examples of such behavior would include showing concern for a subordinate or acting in a supportive manner towards others. Initiating structure involves the actions of the leader focused specifically on task accomplishment. This could include role clarification, setting performance standards, and holding subordinates accountable to those standards.

===Integrated psychological theory===
{{Main|Three Levels of Leadership model}}

The Integrated Psychological Theory of leadership attempts to integrate the strengths of the older theories (i.e. traits, behavioral/styles, situational and functional) while addressing their limitations, introducing a new element – the need for leaders to develop their leadership presence, attitude toward others, and behavioral flexibility by practicing psychological mastery. It also offers a foundation for leaders wanting to apply the philosophies of [[servant leadership]] and [[authentic leadership]].

Integrated psychological theory began to attract attention after the publication of James Scouller's [[Three Levels of Leadership model]] (2011).<ref name=Scouller>{{cite book|last=Scouller|first=James|year=2011|title=The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill|location=Cirencester|publisher=Management Books 2000|isbn=978-1-85252-681-8}}</ref>
Scouller argued that older theories offered only limited assistance in developing a person's ability to lead effectively.{{r|Scouller|pages=34–35}} He pointed out, for example, that:
* Traits theories, which tend to reinforce the idea that leaders are born not made, might help us select leaders, but they are less useful for developing leaders.
* An ideal style (e.g. Blake & Mouton's team style) would not suit all circumstances.
* Most of the situational/contingency and functional theories assume that leaders can change their behavior to meet differing circumstances or widen their behavioral range at will, when in practice many find it hard to do so because of unconscious beliefs, fears, or ingrained habits. Thus, he argued, leaders need to work on their inner psychology.
* None of the older theories successfully addressed the challenge of developing "[[Three Levels of Leadership model#Leadership presence|leadership presence]]" – that certain "something" in leaders that commands attention, inspires people, wins their trust, and makes followers want to work with them.

Scouller's model aims to summarize what leaders have to do, not only to bring leadership to their group or organization, but also to develop themselves technically and psychologically as leaders. The three levels in his model are public, private, and personal leadership:
* The first two – public and private leadership – are "outer" or behavioral levels. These behaviors address what Scouller called "the four dimensions of leadership". These dimensions are: (1) a shared, motivating group purpose; (2) action, progress and results; (3) collective unity or team spirit; and (4) individual selection and motivation. [[Three Levels of Leadership model#Public leadership|Public leadership]] focuses on the 34 behaviors involved in influencing two or more people simultaneously. [[Three Levels of Leadership model#Private leadership|Private leadership]] covers the 14 behaviors needed to influence individuals one-to-one.
* The third – [[Three Levels of Leadership model#Personal leadership|personal leadership]] – is an "inner" level and concerns a person's growth toward greater leadership presence, know-how, and skill. Working on one's personal leadership has three aspects: (1) Technical know-how and skill, (2) Developing the right attitude toward other people, which is the basis of servant leadership, and (3) Psychological self-mastery, the foundation for authentic leadership.

Scouller argued that self-mastery is the key to growing one's leadership presence, building trusting relationships with followers, and dissolving one's limiting beliefs and habits. This enables behavioral flexibility as circumstances change, while staying connected to one's core values (that is, while remaining authentic). To support leaders' development, he introduced a new model of the human psyche and outlined the principles and techniques of self-mastery, which include the practice of [[Mindfulness#Mindfulness meditation in organizations|mindfulness meditation]].{{r|Scouller|pages=137–237}}

===Transactional and transformational theories===
{{Main|Transactional leadership|Transformational leadership}}

[[Bernard Bass]] and colleagues developed the idea of two different types of leadership: ''transactional'' which involves exchange of labor for rewards, and ''transformational'' which is based on concern for employees, intellectual stimulation, and providing a group vision.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Bass | first1 = B. M. | last2 = Avolio | first2 = B. J. | last3 = Atwater | first3 = L. E. | year = 1996 | title = The transformational and transactional leadership of men and women | journal = Applied Psychology: An International Review | volume = 45 | pages = 5–34 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00847.x}}
|2={{cite book|last1=Bass|first1=B. M.|last2=Riggio|first2=R. E.|year=2006|title=Transformational leadership|edition=2nd|location=Mahwah, New Jersey|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers}} }}</ref>

The transactional leader<ref name="Burns">{{cite book| last = Burns| first = J. M.| author-link =James MacGregor Burns| title = Leadership| url = https://archive.org/details/leadership00burn_0| url-access = registration| publisher = Harper and Row Publishers Inc.| year = 1978| location = New York| isbn = 978-0-06-010588-4}}</ref> is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct, and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level, and reward effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

===Leader–member exchange theory===
{{Main|Leader–member exchange theory}}
Leader–member exchange (LMX) theory addresses a specific aspect of the leadership process,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Graen | first1 = G.B. | last2 = Novak | first2 = M. A. | last3 = Sommerkamp | first3 = P. | year = 1982 | title = The effects of leader-member exchange and job design on productivity and satisfaction: Testing a dual attachment model | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 30 | issue = 1| pages = 109–131 | doi = 10.1016/0030-5073(82)90236-7 }}</ref> which evolved from an earlier theory called the vertical dyad linkage model.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dansereau | first1 = F. | last2 = Graen | first2 = G. | last3 = Haga | first3 = W.J. | year = 1975 | title = A vertical dyad linkage approach to leadership within formal organizations: A longitudinal investigation of the role making process | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Performance | volume = 13 | issue = 1| pages = 46–78 | doi=10.1016/0030-5073(75)90005-7}}</ref> Both of these models focus on the interaction between leaders and individual followers. Similar to the transactional approach, this interaction is viewed as a fair exchange whereby the leader provides certain benefits such as task guidance, advice, support, and/or significant rewards and the followers reciprocate by giving the leader respect, cooperation, commitment to the task and good performance. However, LMX recognizes that leaders and individual followers will vary in the type of exchange that develops between them.<ref name="Howell, Jon P.">{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Jon P.|title=Snapshots of Great Leadership|year=2012|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London|isbn=978-0-203-10321-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/16 16–17]|url=https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/16}}</ref> LMX theorizes that the type of exchanges between the leader and specific followers can lead to the creation of ''in-groups'' and ''out-groups''. In-group members are said to have ''high-quality exchanges'' with the leader, while out-group members have ''low-quality exchanges'' with the leader.<ref>{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Jon P.|title=Snapshots of Great Leadership|year=2012|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London, GBR|isbn=978-0-203-10321-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/17 17]|url=https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/17}}</ref>

====In-group members====

[[In-group]] members are perceived by the leader as being more experienced, competent, and willing to assume responsibility than other followers. The leader begins to rely on these individuals to help with especially challenging tasks. If the follower responds well, the leader rewards them with extra coaching, favorable job assignments, and developmental experiences. If the follower shows high commitment and effort followed by additional rewards, both parties develop mutual trust, influence, and support of one another. Research shows the in-group members usually receive higher performance evaluations from the leader, higher satisfaction, and faster promotions than out-group members.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/> In-group members are also likely to build stronger bonds with their leaders by sharing the same social backgrounds and interests.

====Out-group members====

[[Ingroups and outgroups|Out-group]] members often receive less time and more distant exchanges than their in-group counterparts. With out-group members, leaders expect no more than adequate [[job performance]], good attendance, reasonable respect, and adherence to the job description in exchange for a [[living wage|fair wage]] and standard benefits. The leader spends less time with out-group members, they have fewer developmental experiences, and the leader tends to emphasize his/her formal authority to obtain compliance to leader requests. Research shows that out-group members are less satisfied with their job and organization, receive lower performance evaluations from the leader, see their leader as less fair, and are more likely to file grievances or leave the organization.<ref name="Howell, Jon P."/>

===Emotions===
{{see also|Emotional intelligence}}
Leadership can be an emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = George | first1 = J. M. | year = 2000 | title = Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_human-relations_2000-08_53_8/page/1027 | journal = Human Relations | volume = 53 | issue = 8| pages = 1027–1055 | doi=10.1177/0018726700538001| s2cid = 145349886 }}</ref> A leader's mood affects his/her group. These effects can be described in three levels:<ref name=cote>{{cite journal| last1=Sy| first1=T.| last2=Cote| first2=S.| last3=Saavedra| first3=R.| year=2005| title=The contagious leader: Impact of the leader's mood on the mood of group members, group affective tone, and group processes| journal=Journal of Applied Psychology| volume=90| issue=2| pages=295–305| url=http://www-2.rotman.utoronto.ca/~scote/SyetalJAP.pdf| doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295| pmid=15769239| archive-date=2019-11-13| access-date=2016-03-02| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113140902/http://www-2.rotman.utoronto.ca/~scote/SyetalJAP.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>
; The mood of individual group members : Members of groups whose leaders are in a positive mood experience more positive mood than do group members with leaders in a negative mood. Leaders transmit their moods to other group members through the mechanism of [[emotional contagion]].<ref name=cote/> Mood contagion may be one of the psychological mechanisms by which [[charismatic]] leaders influence followers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bono | first1 = J. E. | last2 = Ilies | first2 = R. | year = 2006 | title = Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_leadership-quarterly_2006-08_17_4/page/317 | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | issue = 4| pages = 317–334 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.04.008}}</ref>
; The affective tone of the group : [[Group affective tone]] represents the consistent or homogeneous affective reactions within a group. Group affective tone is an aggregate of the moods of the individual members of the group and refers to mood at the group level of analysis. Groups with leaders in a positive mood have a more positive affective tone than do groups with leaders in a negative mood.<ref name=cote/>
; Group processes like coordination, effort expenditure, and [[Task (project management)|task]] [[strategy]] : Public expressions of mood impact how group members think and act. When people experience and express mood, they send signals to others. Leaders signal their goals, intentions, and attitudes through their expressions of moods. For example, expressions of positive moods by leaders signal that leaders deem progress toward goals to be good. The group members respond to those signals cognitively and behaviorally in ways that are reflected in the group processes.<ref name=cote/>
In research about client service, it was found that expressions of positive mood by the [[leader]] improve the performance of the group, although in other sectors there were other findings.<ref name=george>{{cite journal | last1 = George | first1 = J.M. | year = 2006 | title = Leader Positive Mood and Group Performance: The Case of Customer Service | journal = Journal of Applied Social Psychology | volume = 25 | issue = 9| pages = 778–794 | doi = 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1995.tb01775.x }}</ref>

Beyond the leader's mood, her/his behavior is a source for employee positive and negative [[emotions]] at work. The leader's behavior creates situations and events that lead to emotional response, for example by giving feedback, allocating tasks, and distributing resources. Since employee behavior and productivity are affected by their emotional states, it is imperative to consider employee emotional responses to organizational leaders.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dasborough | first1 = M. T. | year = 2006 | title = Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_leadership-quarterly_2006-04_17_2/page/163 | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 163–178 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.004}}</ref> Emotional intelligence – the ability to understand and manage moods and emotions in the self and others – contributes to effective leadership within organizations.<ref name=george/>

===Neo-emergent theory===
{{Main|Functional leadership model}}

The neo-emergent leadership theory (from the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme<ref>{{cite book
 | last1 = Sadler
 | first1 = Philip
 | year = 2003
 | chapter = The development process
 | title = Leadership
 | url =  https://books.google.com/books?id=JVWBQwxR7UoC
 | series = MBA masterclass series
 | edition = 2nd
 | location = London
 | publisher = Kogan Page Publishers
 | publication-date = 2003
 | page = 108
 | isbn = 978-0-7494-3919-4
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = Templeton College has developed a course for very senior managers, known as the Oxford Strategic Leadership Programme.
}}</ref>)
sees leadership as an impression formed through the communication of [[public relations|information]] by the leader or by other stakeholders,<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Ola
 | first1 = Bolarinde
 | chapter = A Critique of Conceptual Leadership Styles'
 | editor1-last = Godbole
 | editor1-first = Prasad
 | editor2-last = Burke
 | editor2-first = Derek
 | editor3-last = Aylott
 | editor3-first = Jill
 | title = Why Hospitals Fail: Between Theory and Practice
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xjUqDwAAQBAJ
 | location = Cham (Switzerland)
 | publisher = Springer International Publishing
 | date = 2017
 | page = 59
 | isbn = 978-3-319-56224-7
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = Neo-emergent theory describes the use of intelligent information management to account for stewardship to benefit the leader. The practice is widespread, where for example, a leader or other stakeholders use sponsored advertisements, press releases and blogs on social media to create a good impression of leadership.
}}</ref> not through the actions of the leader.{{citation needed|date= August 2014}} In other words, the reproduction of information or [[narrative|stories]] form the basis of the perception of leadership by the majority. It is well known by historians that the naval hero [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson|Lord Nelson]] often wrote his own versions of battles he was involved in, so that when he arrived home in England, he would receive a true hero's welcome.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Palmer|first=Michael A.|date=1988|title=Lord Nelson: Master of Command|journal=Naval War College Review|volume=41|issue=1|pages=105–116|jstor=44636707}}</ref> In modern society, various media outlets, including the press and blogs, present their own interpretations of leaders. These depictions can stem from actual circumstances, but they might also arise from political influences, monetary incentives, or the personal agendas of the author, media, or leader. Consequently, the impression of leaders is often constructed and may not accurately mirror their genuine leadership attributes. This highlights the historical role of concepts like [[royal blood|royal lineage]], which once stood as a substitute for evaluating or comprehending adept governance abilities.

=== Constructivist analysis ===
Some [[social constructivism|constructivist]]s question whether leadership exists, or suggest that (for example) leadership "is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs".<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book
 | last1 = Elgie
 | first1 = Robert
 | author-link1 = Robert Elgie (academic)
 | year = 2015
 | title = Studying Political Leadership: Foundations and Contending Accounts
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=W1jeCgAAQBAJ
 | series = Palgrave Studies in Political Leadership
 | publisher = Springer
 | publication-date = 2016
 | isbn = 978-1-137-34708-4
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = [...] some constructivists [...] question whether any such thing as leadership exists out there in the world. So for Gemmill and Oakley (2002), leadership is a myth equivalent to a belief in UFOs. For Spoelstra (2013), leadership is an invisible, non-objective phenomenon.}}
|2={{cite book
 | last1 = Vasconcelos e Sá
 | first1 = Jorge
 | title = There is no leadership: only effective management: Lessons from Lee's Perfest Battle, Xenophon's Cyrus the Great and the practice of the best managers in the world
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rhIpAwAAQBAJ
 | location = Porto
 | publisher = Vida Economica Editorial
 | date = 2012
 | page = 19
 | isbn = 978-972-788-601-2
 | access-date = 15 December 2019
 | quote = [...] to ask what is leadership about [...] is a false question. The right question is: what is ''effective management?''
}} }}</ref>

=== Ontological-phenomenological model ===
[[Werner Erhard]], [[Michael C. Jensen]], Steve Zaffron, and Kari Granger described leadership as "an exercise in language that results in the realization of a future that was not going to happen anyway, which future fulfills (or contributes to fulfilling) the concerns of the relevant parties." In this definition leadership concerns the future and includes the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties. This differs from relating to the relevant parties as "followers" and calling up an image of a single leader with others following. Rather, a future that fulfills the fundamental concerns of the relevant parties indicates the future that was not going to happen is not the "idea of the leader", but rather is what emerges from digging deep to find the underlying concerns of those who are impacted by the leadership.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Erhard |first1=Werner |title=The Handbook for Teaching Leadership |last2=Jensen |first2=Michael C. |last3=Granger |first3=Kari |publisher=Sage Publications |year=2011 |editor-last1=Snook |editor-first1=Scott |chapter=Creating Leaders: An Ontological/Phenomenological Model |editor-last2=Nohria |editor-first2=Nitin |editor-last3=Khurana |editor-first3=Rakesh}}</ref>

== Leadership emergence ==
Leadership emergence is the idea that people born with specific characteristics become leaders, and those without these characteristics do not become leaders.

Many personality characteristics are reliably associated with leadership emergence.<ref name="Forsyth-2010">{{Cite book|title=Group Dynamics|author-link1=Donelson R. Forsyth|last=Forsyth|first=Donelson|publisher=Wadsworth|year=2010|location=Belmont, California}}</ref> The list includes, but is not limited to: assertiveness, authenticity, Big Five personality factors, birth order, character strengths, dominance, emotional intelligence, gender identity, intelligence, narcissism, self-efficacy for leadership, self-monitoring, and social motivation.<ref name="Forsyth-2010" />
Other areas of study in relation to how and why leaders emerge include narcissistic traits, absentee leaders, and participation.{{vague|date=August 2023}} Today's sophisticated research methods look at personality characteristics in combination to determine patterns of leadership emergence.<ref name="Forsyth-2009">{{cite book|last=Forsyth|first=D. R.|title=Group dynamics|year=2009|publisher=Wadsworth|location=New York|isbn=978-0-495-59952-4}}</ref>

Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln, and Nelson Mandela share traits that an average person does not. Research indicates that up to 30% of leader emergence has a genetic basis.<ref>{{cite book|last=Aamodt|first=M.G.|year=2010|title=I/O applications workbook: Industrial/organizational psychology an applied approach|location=Belmont, CA|publisher=Wadsworth}}</ref> No research has found a "leadership gene"; instead we inherit certain traits that might influence our decision to seek leadership. Anecdotal and empirical evidence support a stable relationship between specific traits and leadership behavior.<ref>Law, J.R. (1996). ''Rising to the occasion: foundations, processes, and outcomes of emergent leadership''.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Using a large international sample researchers found three factors that motivate leaders: affective identity (enjoyment of leading), non-calculative (leading earns reinforcement), and social-normative (sense of obligation).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chan | first1 = K. | last2 = Drasgow | first2 = F. | year = 2001 | title = Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: Understanding the motivation to lead | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-applied-psychology_2001-06_86_3/page/481 | journal = Journal of Applied Psychology | volume = 86 | issue = 3| pages = 481–498 | doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.481 | pmid = 11419808 }}</ref> Recent scholarship emphasizes the importance of strong theoretical foundations in leadership studies, advocating for clearer links between formal theory and empirical research to enhance both scientific rigor and practical relevance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Antonakis |first=John |last2=Dessi |first2=Roberta |last3=Fischer |first3=Thomas |last4=Foss |first4=Nicolai |last5=Haslam |first5=S. Alexander |last6=Kvaløy |first6=Ola |last7=Lonati |first7=Sirio |last8=Muthukrishna |first8=Michael |last9=Schöttner |first9=Anja |date=2024-02-01 |title=Theory in leadership and management |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1048984323000620 |journal=The Leadership Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |article-number=101736 |doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101736 |issn=1048-9843}}</ref>

=== Assertiveness ===

The relationship between [[assertiveness]] and leadership emergence is curvilinear: individuals who are either low in assertiveness or very high in assertiveness are less likely to be identified as leaders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ames|first1=Daniel R.|last2=Flynn|first2=Francis J.|title=What breaks a leader: The curvilinear relation between assertiveness and leadership.|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_2007-02_92_2/page/307|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=92|issue=2|pages=307–324|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.307|pmid=17279851|year=2007}}</ref>

=== Authenticity ===
{{Further|authentic leadership}}

Individuals who are more aware of their personality qualities, including their values and beliefs, and are less biased when processing self-relevant information, are more likely to be accepted as leaders.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ilies|first1=Remus|last2=Morgeson|first2=Frederick P.|author2-link=Frederick P. Morgeson|last3=Nahrgang|first3=Jennifer D.|date=2005-06-01|title=Authentic leadership and eudaemonic well-being: Understanding leader–follower outcomes|url=https://scholars.opb.msu.edu/en/publications/authentic-leadership-and-eudaemonic-well-being-understanding-lead-2|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|volume=16|issue=3|pages=373–394|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.03.002|issn=1048-9843|citeseerx=10.1.1.318.5548|access-date=2017-02-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216130505/https://scholars.opb.msu.edu/en/publications/authentic-leadership-and-eudaemonic-well-being-understanding-lead-2|archive-date=2017-02-16}}</ref>

=== Big Five personality factors ===

Those who emerge as leaders tend to be more extroverted, conscientious, emotionally stable, and open to experience, although these tendencies are stronger in laboratory studies of leaderless groups.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/> However, introversion–extroversion appears to be the most influential quality in leadership emergence; specifically, leaders tend to be high in extroversion.<ref name="Forsyth-2009" /> Introversion–extroversion is also the quality that can be judged most easily among those in the Big Five Traits.<ref name="Forsyth-2009" /> Agreeableness, the last factor of the Big Five personality traits, does not seem to play any meaningful role in leadership emergence.<ref name="Judge, T.A. 2002"/>

=== Birth order ===

Those born first in their families, and only children, are hypothesized to be more driven to seek leadership and control in social settings. Middle-born children tend to accept follower roles in groups, and later-borns are thought to be rebellious and creative.<ref name="Forsyth-2010" />

=== Character strengths ===

Those seeking leadership positions in a military organization had elevated scores on a number of indicators of strength of character, including honesty, hope, bravery, industry, and teamwork.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Matthews|first1=Michael D.|last2=Eid|first2=Jarle|last3=Kelly|first3=Dennis|last4=Bailey|first4=Jennifer K. S.|last5=Peterson|first5=Christopher|title=Character strengths and virtues of developing military leaders: An international comparison|journal=Military Psychology|volume=18|issue=Suppl|pages=S57–S68|doi=10.1207/s15327876mp1803s_5|year=2006|s2cid=144181852}}</ref>

=== Dominance ===

Individuals with dominant personalities (they describe themselves as high in the desire to control their environment and influence other people, and are likely to express their opinions in a forceful way) are more likely to act as leaders in small-group situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Jeffrey A.|last2=Foti|first2=Roseanne J.|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984398900029|volume=9|number=2|year=1998|title=A pattern approach to leader emergence|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|pages=147–160|doi=10.1016/S1048-9843(98)90002-9|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Emotional intelligence ===

Individuals with high emotional intelligence have increased ability to understand and relate to people. They have skills in communicating and decoding emotions and they deal with others wisely and effectively.<ref name="Forsyth-2010" /> Such people communicate their ideas in more robust ways, are better able to read the politics of a situation, are less likely to lose control of their emotions, are less likely to be inappropriately angry or critical, and in consequence are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New leaders |isbn=978-0-7515-3381-1|oclc=891670377|last1 = Goleman|first1 = Daniel|last2=Boyatzis|first2=Richard E.|last3=McKee|first3=Annie|year=2003|publisher=Sphere }}</ref>

=== Intelligence ===

Individuals with higher intelligence exhibit superior judgement, higher verbal skills (both written and oral), quicker learning and acquisition of knowledge, and are more likely to emerge as leaders.<ref name="Forsyth-2010" /> Correlation between IQ and leadership emergence was found to be between .25 and .30.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: theory, research, and managerial applications|first1=Ralph Melvin|last1=Stogdill|first2=Bernard M.|last2=Bass|year=1990|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-02-901500-1|oclc=959443394}}</ref> However, groups generally prefer leaders that do not exceed in intelligence the prowess of average member by a wide margin, as they fear that high intelligence may be translated to differences in communication, trust, interests, and values.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Simonton|first=Dean K.|title=Intelligence and personal influence in groups: Four nonlinear models|journal=Psychological Review|volume=92|issue=4|pages=532–547|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.532|year=1985}}</ref>

=== Self-efficacy for leadership ===

An individual's belief in their ability to lead is associated with an increased willingness to accept a leadership role and find success in its pursuit.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hoyt|first1=C. L.|last2=Blascovich|first2=J.|date=2016-07-26|title=Leadership Efficacy and Women Leaders' Responses to Stereotype Activation|journal=Group Processes & Intergroup Relations|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|pages=595–616|doi=10.1177/1368430207084718|s2cid=53406267|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1368430207084718|archive-date=2023-08-10|access-date=2023-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810230420/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1368430207084718|url-status=live}}</ref>

There are no set conditions for this characteristic to become emergent. However, it must be sustained by an individual's belief that they have the ability to learn and improve it with time. Individuals partly evaluate their own capabilities by observing others; working with a superior who is seen as an effective leader may help the individual develop a belief that he or she can perform in a similar manner.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paglis|first1=L.L.|last2=Green|first2=S.G.|date=2002-03-01|title=Leadership Self-Efficacy and Managers' Motivation for Leading Change|journal=Journal of Organizational Behavior|language=en|volume=23|issue=2|pages=215–35|doi=10.1002/job.137 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Self-monitoring ===

Individuals who closely manage and adjust their behavior based on the social context, often referred to as high self-monitors, have a greater tendency to assume leadership roles within a group. This propensity is attributed to their heightened interest in elevating their status and their readiness to conform their actions to match the requirements of the given situation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bedeian|first1=Arthur G.|last2=Day|first2=David V.|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|volume=15|number=5|date=2004|pages=687–718|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984304000839|title=Can chameleons lead?|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.07.005|language=en|access-date=2017-02-16|url-access=subscription|archive-date=2023-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810232231/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984304000839|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Social motivation ===

People who exhibit both a drive for achievement and a desire for social connections tend to participate actively in group-based efforts to solve problems. Additionally, they have a higher likelihood of being chosen as leaders within these groups.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sorrentino|first1=Richard M.|last2=Field|first2=Nigel|title=Emergent leadership over time: The functional value of positive motivation|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=50|issue=6|pages=1091–1099|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.50.6.1091|year=1986}}</ref>

=== Narcissism, hubris and other negative traits ===

A number of negative traits of leadership have also been studied. Individuals who take on leadership roles in turbulent situations, such as groups facing a threat or ones in which status is determined by intense competition among rivals within the group, tend to be narcissistic: arrogant, self-absorbed, hostile, and very self-confident.<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Seth A.|last1=Rosenthal|first2=Todd L.|last2=Pittinsky|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|title=Narcissistic Leadership|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1048984306001111|year=2006|volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=617–633|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.005 |language=en|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

=== Absentee leader ===
Existing research has shown that absentee leaders – those who rise into power, but not necessarily because of their skills, and who are marginally engaging with their role – are actually worse than destructive leaders, because it takes longer to pinpoint their mistakes.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Gregory|first=Scott|date=2018-03-30|title=The Most Common Type of Incompetent Leader|work=Harvard Business Review|url=https://hbr.org/2018/03/the-most-common-type-of-incompetent-leader|access-date=2020-09-23|issn=0017-8012}}</ref>

=== Willingness to participate ===
A willingness to participate in a group can indicate a person's interest as well as their willingness to take responsibility for how the group performs.<ref name="Forsyth-2009" /> Those who do not say much during a group meeting are less likely to emerge as a leader than those who speak up.<ref name="Forsyth-2009" /> There is however some debate over whether the quality of participation in a group matters more than the quantity.

A hypothesis termed [[Babble hypothesis|the 'babble effect' or the 'babble hypothesis']] has been studied as a factor in the emergence of leaders.<ref name="MacLaren-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=MacLaren|first1=Neil G.|last2=Yammarino|first2=Francis J.|last3=Dionne|first3=Shelley D.|last4=Sayama|first4=Hiroki|last5=Mumford|first5=Michael D.|last6=Connelly|first6=Shane|last7=Martin|first7=Robert W.|last8=Mulhearn|first8=Tyler J.|last9=Todd|first9=E. Michelle|last10=Kulkarni|first10=Ankita|last11=Cao|first11=Yiding|date=October 2020|title=Testing the babble hypothesis: Speaking time predicts leader emergence in small groups|journal=The Leadership Quarterly|language=en|volume=31|issue=5|article-number=101409|doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101409|s2cid=213370303 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It posits that leader emergence is highly correlated with the quantity of speaking time – specifically, those who speak a lot in a group setting are more likely to become a group leader.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mast|first1=Marianne Schmid|last2=Hall|first2=Judith A.|year=2004 |title=Who Is the Boss and Who Is Not? Accuracy of Judging Status|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1023/B:JONB.0000039647.94190.21|journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=145–165 |doi=10.1023/B:JONB.0000039647.94190.21|s2cid=54492090 |issn=0191-5886|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="MacLaren-2020" />

The quantity of participation is more important that the quality of these contributions when it comes to leader emergence.<ref name="Forsyth-2009" /> However, some studies indicate that there must be some element of quality combined with quantity to support leader emergence. Thus, while sheer quantity does matter to leadership, when the contributions made are also of high-quality leader emergence is further facilitated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jones|first1=Eric E.|last2=Kelly|first2=Janice R.|date=2007|title=Contributions to a group discussion and perceptions of leadership: Does quantity always count more than quality?|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F1089-2699.11.1.15|journal=Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=15–30|doi=10.1037/1089-2699.11.1.15|issn=1930-7802|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Leadership styles==
{{Main|Leadership styles}}
{{see also|Forms of government}}
A leadership style is a leader's way of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. It is the result of the philosophy, personality, and experience of the leader. Rhetoric specialists have also developed models for understanding leadership.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|author-link=Robert Hariman|first=Robert|last=Hariman|title=Political Style|publisher=U. of Chicago Press|year=1995}}
|2={{cite book|author-link=Philippe-Joseph Salazar|first=Philippe-Joseph|last=Salazar|title=L'Hyperpolitique. Technologies politiques De La Domination|location=Paris|year=2009}} }}</ref>

Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of expertise, a more democratic or [[laissez-faire]] style may be more effective. The best style is one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing the interests of its individual members.<ref name=Lewin>{{cite journal| last1=Lewin | first1=K.| author-link=Kurt Lewin| last2=Lippitt | first2=R.| last3=White | first3=R. K.| year=1939| title=Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created social climates| journal=Journal of Social Psychology| volume=10| issue=2| pages=271–301| doi=10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366}}</ref>

A field in which leadership style has gained attention is that of military science, which expresses a holistic and integrated view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of physical presence are military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and acquire knowledge to do the job. A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and [[domain knowledge]]. Domain knowledge for leaders encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness.<ref>{{citation|author=Headquarters, Department of the Army|year=2006|title=Army Leadership: Competent, Confident, and Agile (FM 6-22)|location=Washington, D.C.|page=18}} Publication available at [https://www.us.army.mil Army Knowledge Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121203073841/http://www.us.army.mil/ |date=2012-12-03 }} and [https://www.train.army.mil General Dennis J. Reimer Training and Doctrine Digital Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423195428/https://www.train.army.mil/ |date=2022-04-23 }}.</ref>

===Autocratic or authoritarian===

Under the [[autocratic]] leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the leader, as with [[dictator]]s.

Autocratic leaders do not ask for or entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. Autocratic management can be successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each decision to themselves until they feel it needs to be shared with the rest of the group.<ref name=Lewin/>

===Participative or democratic===
The democratic or participative leadership style involves the leader actively sharing decision-making responsibilities with group members. This approach emphasizes collaboration and values the input of all team members, fostering a sense of ownership and inclusivity within the group. By promoting the interests and well-being of the team, democratic leaders encourage open communication and social equality. This style, also known as [[shared leadership]], distributes authority and decision-making power among all members rather than centralizing it with the leader alone. This method enhances team morale and engagement and leverages diverse perspectives to drive more well-rounded and informed decisions.

=== Laissez-faire or free-rein leadership ===
In laissez-faire or free-rein leadership, decision-making is passed on to the subordinates. (The phrase {{lang|fr|laissez-faire}} is French and literally means "let them do"). Subordinates are given the right and power to make decisions to establish goals and work out the problems or hurdles, and are given a high degree of independence and freedom to formulate their own objectives and ways to achieve them.<ref>{{Cite journal|first=Natalia V.|last=Samosudova|url=https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/abs/2017/20/matecconf_spbw2017_08062/matecconf_spbw2017_08062.html|title=Modern leadership and management methods for development organizations|journal=MATEC Web of Conferences|volume=106|number=8062|year=2017|page=08062|language=en|doi=10.1051/matecconf/201710608062|doi-access=free|archive-date=2023-08-11|access-date=2023-08-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811045018/https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/abs/2017/20/matecconf_spbw2017_08062/matecconf_spbw2017_08062.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Task-oriented===
{{Main|Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership}}
{{unreferenced section|date=October 2024}}
Task-oriented leadership is a style characterized by a leader's concentration on the necessary tasks to achieve specific production objectives. Leaders following this approach emphasize the creation of systematic solutions for given problems or goals, ensuring strict adherence to deadlines, and achieving targeted outcomes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Yukl |first=Gary |title=Effective Leadership Behavior: What We Know and What Questions Need More Attention |journal=Academy of Management Perspectives |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=66–85 |year=2012 |doi=10.5465/amp.2012.0088 |jstor=23412661 }}</ref>

Unlike leaders who prioritize accommodating group members, those with a task-oriented approach concentrate on obtaining precise solutions to fulfill production aims. Consequently, they are skilled at ensuring timely goal attainment, although the well-being of their group members might be compromised. These leaders maintain an unwavering focus on both the overall goal and the assigned tasks for each team member.

=== Relationship-oriented ===
{{Main|Task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership}}
Relationship-oriented leadership is a style in which the leader focuses on the relationships amongst the group and is generally more concerned with the overall well-being and satisfaction of group members.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Ronald J.|last1=Ebert|first2=Ricky W.|last2=Griffin|title=Business essentials|year=2010|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey|isbn=978-0-13-705349-0|pages=135–136|edition=8th}}</ref> Relationship-oriented leaders emphasize communication within the group, show trust and confidence in group members, and show appreciation for work done.

Relationship-oriented leaders are focused on developing the team and the relationships in it. The positives to having this kind of environment are that team members are more motivated and have support. However, the emphasis on relations as opposed to getting a job done might make productivity suffer.

===Paternalism===
{{Main|Paternalism}}
Paternalism leadership styles often reflect a father-figure mindset. The structure of team is organized hierarchically where the leader is viewed above the followers. The leader also provides both professional and personal direction in the lives of the members.<ref name="Aycan">{{cite book |last1=Aycan |first1=Z. |chapter=Paternalism: Towards conceptual refinement and operationalization |year=2006|editor-last1=Kim|editor-first1=U.|editor-last2=Yang|editor-first2=S.|editor-last3=Hwang|editor-first3=K.-K.|title=Indigenous and cultural psychology: Understanding people in context|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=London |pages=445–446}}</ref> Members' choices are limited due to the rigid direction given by the leader.

The term paternalism is from the Latin {{lang|la|pater}} meaning "father". The leader is most often a male. This leadership style is often found in Russia, Africa, and Pacific Asian Societies.<ref name="Aycan"/>

=== Transactional and Transformational Leadership ===
{{Main|Transactional leadership|Transformational leadership}}
[[Transactional leadership]] refers to an exchange relationship between a leader and followers in which they both strive to meet their own self-interests. The term transactional leadership was introduced by Weber in 1947.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joana |first1=Costa |last2=Mariana |first2=Pádua |last3=Moreira |first3=António Carrizo |title=Leadership Styles and Innovation Management: What Is the Role of Human Capital? |journal=Administrative Sciences}}</ref> There are several forms of transactional leadership, the first being contingent reward, in which the leader outlines what the follower must do to be rewarded for the effort. The second form of transactional leadership is [[Management by exception|management-by-exception]], in which the leader monitors performance of the follower and takes corrective action if standards are not met. Finally transactional leaders may be laissez-faire, avoiding taking any action at all.<ref name="Bass-1999">{{Cite journal |last=Bass |first=Bernard M. |date=1999 |title=Two Decades of Research and Development in Transformational Leadership |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/135943299398410 |journal=European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology |volume=8 |pages=10–11 |doi=10.1080/135943299398410 |s2cid=46265440 |via=Taylor & Francis Online|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Transformational leadership]] refers to a leader who moves beyond immediate self interests using idealized influence ([[charisma]]), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation ([[creativity]]), or individualized consideration. Idealized influence and inspirational motivation are when a leader is able to envision and communicate a mutually desirable future state. Intellectual stimulation is when a leader helps their followers to become more creative and innovative. Individualized consideration is when a leader pays attention to the developmental needs of their followers, supporting and coaching them.<ref name="Bass-1999" /> A transformational leader is one who lead others to lead themselves.

==Gender and leadership==
{{main|Sex and gender differences in leadership}}
The leadership dynamic is affected by the leader's [[gender]], gender diversity of groups, and the gendered nature of organizations, national cultures, and other contexts.

Much research has focused on gender of the leader, with an emphasis on women's leadership.<ref name="carli-eagly-2011">{{cite book |last1=Carli |first1=Linda L. |last2=Eagly |first2=Alice |chapter=Gender and Leadership |editor1-last=Bryman |editor1-first=Alan |editor2-last=Collinson |editor2-first=David L. |editor3-last=Grint |editor3-first=Keith |editor4-last=Jackson |editor4-first=Brad |editor5-last=Uhl-Bien |editor5-first=Mary |title=SAGE Handbook of Gender and Leadership |date=2011 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-84860-146-8 |pages=103–117 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/284026493}}</ref><ref name="Buss-et-al-2024">{{cite journal |last1=Buss |first1=Martin |last2=Andler |first2=Sophie |last3=Tiberius |first3=Victor |title=Female leadership: An integrative review and research framework |journal=The Leadership Quarterly |date=December 2024 |volume=36 |issue=3 |article-number=101858 |doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2024.101858}}</ref> Women continue to be underrepresented in leadership positions, experience a [[gender pay gap]], and face discrimination and stereotypes that limit their emergence as leaders.<ref name="carli-eagly-2011" /> And yet, scholars have often found women to be equal if not more effective as leaders than men.<ref name="p-u-et-al-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Paustian-Underdahl |first1=Samantha C. |last2=Walker |first2=Lisa Slattery |last3=Woehr |first3=David J. |title=Gender and perceptions of leadership effectiveness: A meta-analysis of contextual moderators. |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |date=November 2014 |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=1129–1145 |doi=10.1037/a0036751 |pmid=24773399 |url=https://scholar.archive.org/work/asjkm4unkrfojhzyww6x64m67m/access/wayback/http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/apl-a0036751.pdf}}</ref> Major topics of interest have included [[Trait leadership|leadership traits]], behaviors, styles, emergence, and effectiveness, as well as the situational, cultural, and individual variables that moderate gender difference effects.<ref name="bass-2008">{{Cite book |last1=Bass |first1=Bernard M.  |title=The Bass handbook of leadership: theory, research, and managerial applications |last2=Bass |first2=Ruth |last3=Bass |first3=Bernard M. |date=2008 |publisher=Free Press |isbn=978-0-7432-1552-7 |edition=4th|location=New York |oclc=148740433}}</ref><ref name="shen-joseph-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Winny |last2=Joseph |first2=Dana L. |title=Gender and leadership: A criterion-focused review and research agenda |journal=Human Resource Management Review |date=June 2021 |volume=31 |issue=2 |article-number=100765 |doi=10.1016/j.hrmr.2020.100765}}</ref> Scholars are increasingly interested in and beginning to include [[intersex]], [[Non-binary gender|nonbinary]] and [[transgender]] leaders,<ref name="tan-defrank-cole-2023-book">{{cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Sherylle J. |last2=DeFrank-Cole |first2=Lisa |title=A research agenda for gender and leadership |date=2023 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |location=Cheltenham, UK; Northampton, MA |isbn=978-1-80088-382-6}}</ref> men as gendered leaders,<ref name="collinson-et-al-2023-oa">{{cite journal |last1=Collinson |first1=David |last2=Aavik |first2=Kadri |last3=Hearn |first3=Jeff |last4=Thym |first4=Anika |title=Men, masculinities, and leadership: emerging issues |journal=A Research Agenda for Gender and Leadership |date=10 March 2023 |pages=87–106 |doi=10.4337/9781800883826.00010 |isbn=978-1-80088-382-6 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/369471335}}</ref> and how intersections between gender and other social identities affect leadership.<ref name="parker-2005">{{cite book |last1=Parker |first1=Patricia Sue |title=Race, gender, and leadership: re-envisioning organizational leadership from the perspectives of African American women executives |date=2005 |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum |location=Mahwah, NJ; London |isbn=978-0-8058-4919-6}}</ref><ref name="tan-defrank-cole-2023-book" />

Less research has been conducted regarding how the [[Team diversity|gender diversity of teams]] and organizations affects the leadership dynamic. Contextual factors greatly influence research results. Studies have found that gender diversity can both help and hinder team performance, or have neutral effects.<ref name="kelemen-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Kelemen |first1=Thomas K. |last2=Matthews |first2=Samuel H. |last3=Zhang |first3=Xin-an |last4=Bradley |first4=Bret H. |last5=Liu |first5=Huihua |title=When does gender diversity enhance team performance? The dual need for visionary leadership and team tenure |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology |date=September 2020 |volume=50 |issue=9 |pages=501–511 |doi=10.1111/jasp.12690 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342345585}}</ref> A leaders' communication of vision can improve the benefits of gender-diverse teams.<ref name="kelemen-et-al-2020" /> [[Joan Acker]] identified how organizations can embed gender into organizational [[Organizational culture|cultures]], practices, structures, interactions, identity, and organizational logic.<ref name="acker-1990">{{cite journal |last1=Acker |first1=Joan |title=Hierarchies, Jobs, Bodies: A Theory of Gendered Organizations |journal=Gender & Society |date=June 1990 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=139–158 |doi=10.1177/089124390004002002 |url=http://ereserve.library.utah.edu/Annual/COMM/3070/Russo/hierarchiesjobsbodies.pdf}}</ref> Acker's work initiated a great deal of theoretical interest, but empirical studies using the gendered organization theory are still emerging.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bates |first=Trudy |date=2022 |title=Rethinking how we work with Acker's theory of gendered organizations: An abductive approach for feminist empirical research |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gwao.12795 |journal=Gender, Work & Organization |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=1041–1064 |doi=10.1111/gwao.12795 |issn=0968-6673|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[Globalization]] and national culture also affect the leadership dynamic.<ref name="bass-2008" /> Women have less access to [[Women in positions of power#Contemporary examples|positions of power]] in some countries. Scholars have discovered some universality in the traits and qualities deemed necessary for leadership across cultures, but greater variance when it comes to leader-follower relationships, perceptions, and stereotypes.<ref name="bass-2008" />{{rp|1047}} Countries differ in the degree to which men differ from women about the stereotypes about men and women leaders, and masculine and feminine leadership.<ref name="Sczesny-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Sczesny |first1=Sabine |last2=Bosak |first2=Janine |last3=Neff |first3=Daniel |last4=Schyns |first4=Birgit |title=Gender Stereotypes and the Attribution of Leadership Traits: A Cross-Cultural Comparison |journal=Sex Roles |date=December 2004 |volume=51 |issue=11–12 |pages=631–645 |doi=10.1007/s11199-004-0715-0 |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30934613.pdf |archive-date=2025-04-30 |access-date=2025-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250430194619/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/30934613.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> For example, in one study, when asked to envision a leader, German women imagined a male executive, while Australian and Indian women imagined both men and women.<ref name="Sczesny-2004" /> The nation in which leadership takes place may also affect men's and women's leadership behaviors, although the effect of nationality has been stronger than the effect of gender in multiple studies.<ref name="Zander-Romani-2004">{{cite journal |last1=Zander |first1=Lena |last2=Romani |first2=Laurence |title=When Nationality Matters: A Study of Departmental, Hierarchical, Professional, Gender and Age-based Employee Groupings' Leadership Preferences across 15 Countries |journal=International Journal of Cross Cultural Management |date=1 December 2004 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=291–315 |doi=10.1177/1470595804047811}}</ref><ref name="van-Emmerik-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |last1=van Emmerik |first1=IJ. Hetty |last2=Euwema |first2=Martin C. |last3=Wendt |first3=Hein |title=Leadership Behaviors around the World: The Relative Importance of Gender versus Cultural Background |journal=International Journal of Cross Cultural Management |date=December 2008 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=297–315 |doi=10.1177/1470595808096671 |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=bfdb4b5ec2e972608e749fa378410836c8daf255|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Scholars acknowledge more research is needed on [[cross-cultural leadership]].<ref name="Buss-et-al-2024" /><ref name="carli-eagly-2011" /><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Tsui |author2=Nifadkar |author3=Ou |title=Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior Research: Advances, Gaps, and Recommendations |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-management_2007-06_33_3/page/426 |journal=Journal of Management |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=426–478 |doi=10.1177/0149206307300818 |year=2007|s2cid=18344501 }}</ref>

==Performance==
Some researchers argued that the influence of leaders on organizational outcomes is overrated and romanticized as a result of biased attributions about leaders.<ref>Meindl & Ehrlich, 1987{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Despite these assertions, however, it is largely recognized and accepted by practitioners and researchers that leadership is important, and research supports the notion that leaders do contribute to key organizational outcomes.<ref>Day & Lord, 1988.{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}{{request quotation|date=April 2021}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}
<ref name=Kaiser08>{{cite journal
 |last1        = Kaiser
 |first1       = Robert B.
 |last2        = Hogan
 |first2       = Robert
 |author-link2 = Robert Hogan (psychologist)
 |last3        = Craig
 |first3       = S. Bartholomew
 |title        = Leadership and the fate of organizations
 |url          = https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.63.2.96
 |journal      = American Psychologist
 |year         = 2008
 |volume       = 63
 |issue        = 2
 |pages        = 96–110
 |doi          = 10.1037/0003-066X.63.2.96
 |pmid         = 18284278
 |access-date  = 21 April 2021
 |quote        = [Abstract:] The authors propose conceptualizing leadership and evaluating leaders in terms of the performance of the team or organization for which they are responsible. The authors next offer a taxonomy of the dependent variables used as criteria in leadership studies. A review of research using this taxonomy suggests that the vast empirical literature on leadership may tell us more about the success of individual managerial careers than the success of these people in leading groups, teams, and organizations. The authors then summarize the evidence showing that leaders do indeed affect the performance of organizations--for better or for worse--and conclude by describing the mechanisms through which they do so.
 |url-access   = subscription
 |archive-date = 10 August 2023
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231834/https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037/0003-066X.63.2.96
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref> To facilitate successful leadership [[performance]] it is important to understand and accurately measure it.

[[Job performance]] generally refers to behavior that contributes to organizational success.<ref>Campbell, 1990{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Campbell identified a number of specific types of performance dimensions; leadership was one of them. There is no consistent, overall definition of leadership performance.<ref>Yukl, 2006{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Many distinct conceptualizations are often lumped together under the umbrella of leadership performance.{{r|Kaiser08}} "Leadership performance" may refer to the career success of the individual leader, performance of the group or organization, or even leader emergence. Each of these measures can be considered conceptually distinct. While they may be related, they are different outcomes and their inclusion should depend on the applied or research focus.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite journal|last1=Jung|first1=Dong I.|last2=Sosik|first2=John J.|date=2002|title=Transformational Leadership in Work Groups: The Role of Empowerment, Cohesiveness, and Collective-Efficacy on Perceived Group Performance|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10496402033003002|journal=Small Group Research|language=en|volume=33|issue=3|pages=313–336|doi=10.1177/10496402033003002|s2cid=144768241|issn=1046-4964|id={{ProQuest|<!-- insert ProQuest data here -->}} |url-access=subscription}}
|2={{Cite journal|last1=Saleem|first1=Farida|last2=Zhang|first2=Yingying Zhang|last3=Gopinath|first3=C.|last4=Adeel|first4=Ahmad|date=2020-01-01|title=Impact of Servant Leadership on Performance: The Mediating Role of Affective and Cognitive Trust|journal=SAGE Open|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|article-number=2158244019900562|doi=10.1177/2158244019900562|s2cid=210972626|issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free}} }}</ref>

{{blockquote|Another way to conceptualize leader performance is to focus on the outcomes of the leader's followers, group, team, unit, or organization. In evaluating this type of leader performance, two general strategies are typically used. The first relies on subjective perceptions of the leader's performance from subordinates, superiors, or occasionally peers or other parties. The other type of effectiveness measures are more objective indicators of follower or unit performance, such as measures of productivity, goal attainment, sales figures, or unit financial performance.|B.M. Bass & R.E. Riggio<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Bass|editor-first1=B. M.|editor-last2=Riggio|editor-first2=R. E.|year=2006|title=Transformational Leadership|edition=2nd|location=Mahwah, N.J.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|page=47}}</ref>}}

A [[toxic leader]] is someone who has responsibility over a group of people or an organization, and who abuses the leader-follower relationship by leaving the group or organization in a worse-off condition than when they joined it.<ref>{{cite news
| last1                 = Veldsman
| first1                = Theo
| title                 = How Toxic Leaders Destroy People as Well as Organisations
| url                   = https://www.huffpost.com/entry/how-toxic-leaders-destroy_b_8976140
| work                  = The Huffington Post
| publisher             = BuzzFeed, Inc.
| publication-date      = 14 January 2016
| access-date           = 21 April 2021
| quote                 = In the case of individuals toxic leadership refers to ongoing, deliberate, intentional actions – the 'arrow' – by a leader to undermine the sense of dignity, self-worth and efficacy of an individual – the 'poison'. This results in exploitative, destructive, devaluing and demeaning work experiences. These destructive actions may be physical, psychosocial or even spiritual when they diminish a person's meaning and purpose.
}}</ref>

=== Measuring leadership ===
Measuring leadership has proven difficult and complex – even impossible.<ref>
{{cite book
 | title = Leadership in Action: A Text for U.S. Marine Corps Junior ROTC
 | year = 1974| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HfHNSOmUEcAC
 | location = Quantico, Virginia
 | publisher = Reserve Liaison and Training Branch, Education Center, Marine Corps Development and Education Command
 | page = 36
 | access-date = 21 April 2021
 | quote = It is impossible to measure leadership or judge a leader solely by observation of the leader himself. The real quality of leadership must be judged in relation to the behavior of the group.
}}</ref> Attempts to assess leadership performance via group performance bring in multifarious different factors. Different perceptions of leadership itself may lead to differing measuring methods.<ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Sells
 | first1 = S. B.
 | chapter = Abilities and Attributes of Leaders
 | title = Military Small Group Performance under Isolation and Stress – An annotated bibliography
 | year = 1961
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F2vlAAAAMAAJ
 | location = Fort Wainwright, Alaska
 | publisher = Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory (U.S.)
 | page = 23
 | access-date = 21 April 2021
 | quote = ...consideration is seldom given to the possibility that different types of leadership or status are measured when different criteria of leadership are used.
}}</ref> Nevertheless, leadership theoreticians have proven perversely reluctant to abandon the vague subjective qualitative popular concept of "leaders".<ref>{{cite book
 | year = 1976
 | title = Instructor's Guide for Introduction to Leadership Development: A Course Outline: Leadership Development
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hZXfAAAAMAAJ
 | volume = 3
 | location = Fort Benning, Georgia
 | publisher = United States Army Infantry School
 | publication-date = 1977
 | page = 7
 | access-date = 21 April 2021
 | quote =  ...the inability to uncover any universal leadership traits does not mean that they do not exist.}}</ref>

==Traits==
[[File:0092 - Wien - Kunsthistorisches Museum - Gaius Julius Caesar-edit.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Julius Caesar]], one of the world's greatest military leaders]]
Most theories in the 20th century argued that great leaders were born, not made. Later studies indicated that leadership is more complex and cannot be boiled down to a few key traits of an individual: One such trait or set of traits does not make an extraordinary leader. Scholars have found leadership traits of an individual that do not change from situation to situation – traits such as intelligence, assertiveness, or physical attractiveness.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6">{{cite book|last=Howell|first=Jon P.|title=Snapshots of Great Leadership|year=2012|publisher=Taylor and Francis|location=London, GBR|isbn=978-0-203-10321-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe/page/4 4]–6|url=https://archive.org/details/snapshotsofgreat0000howe}}</ref> However, each key trait may be applied to situations differently, depending on the circumstances.

Cognitive capacity includes intelligence, analytical and verbal ability, behavioral flexibility, and good judgment. Individuals with these traits can formulate solutions to difficult problems, work well under stress or deadlines, adapt to changing situations, and create well-thought-out plans for the future. Steve Jobs and Abraham Lincoln had the traits of determination and drive as well as possessing cognitive capacity, demonstrated by their ability to adapt to their continuously changing environments.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6"/>

Sociability describes leaders who are friendly, extroverted, tactful, flexible, and interpersonally competent. Such a trait enables leaders to be accepted by the public, use diplomatic measures to solve issues, and adapt their social persona to the situation at hand. Mother Teresa was an exceptional example who embodied integrity, assertiveness, and [[soft skills|social abilities]] in her diplomatic dealings with the leaders of the world.<ref name="Howell, Jon P. 4-6"/>

==Contexts==

===International and global leadership===
While many scholars conflate the concepts of [[cross-cultural leadership]], international leadership, and [[global leadership]], others have found useful distinctions. The Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior (GLOBE) Project is an example of cross-cultural leadership research, as it aimed to compare leadership ideals in various countries and regions. However, it looked at leaders operating within their own culture, rather than across culture.<ref name="ayman-korabik-2015">{{Cite book |last1=Ayman |first1=R. |title=Women as global leaders |last2=Korabik |first2=K. |publisher=IAP Information Age Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-62396-964-6 |editor-last=Ngunjiri |editor-first=F. W. |pages=53–72 |chapter=Women and global leadership: Three theoretical perspectives}}</ref> International leadership addresses the extent to which behavior by a leader from one culture is received in another culture. Global leaders are not only leaders of companies in the global economy, but also embody global competencies such as cognitive complexity, being open to new ideas, and able to deal with uncertainty.<ref name="ayman-korabik-2015" /> Other scholars have identified global leaders as possessing intellectual capital or "global business savvy" as well. Global leaders anticipate and care about the consequences of their actions as related to humanity at large.<ref name="ayman-korabik-2015" />

===Organizations===
<!-- [[Informal leadership]] redirects here; when writing a new section on this topic please move the anchor there. -->
An organization that is established as an [[Legal instrument|instrument]] or as a means for achieving defined [[Goal|objectives]] has been referred to by sociologists as a ''formal organization''. Its design specifies how goals are subdivided and this is reflected in subdivisions of the organization.<ref>{{Citation|chapter=6.3 Formal Organizations|year=2016|url=https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/6-3-formal-organizations/|title=Sociology|publisher=University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing<!-- edition. This edition adapted from a work originally produced in 2010 by a publisher who has requested that it not receive attribution.-->|language=en|access-date=2021-06-21|archive-date=2021-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204602/https://open.lib.umn.edu/sociology/chapter/6-3-formal-organizations/|url-status=live}}</ref> Divisions, departments, sections, positions, jobs, and tasks make up this work [[structure]]. The formal organization is expected to behave impersonally in regard to relationships with clients or with its members. According to Weber's{{Specify|reason=who is Weber?|date=August 2023}} model, entry and subsequent advancement is by merit or seniority. Employees receive a salary and enjoy a degree of tenure that safeguards them from the arbitrary influence of superiors or of powerful clients. The higher one's position in the hierarchy, the greater one's presumed expertise in adjudicating problems that may arise in the course of the work carried out at lower levels of the organization. This bureaucratic structure forms the basis for the appointment of heads or chiefs of administrative subdivisions in the organization and endows them with the authority attached to their position.<ref>{{cite book |first= Cecil A.|last= Gibb|title= Leadership (Handbook of Social Psychology)|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1970|pages=884–89|isbn= 978-0-14-080517-8|oclc=174777513}}</ref>

In contrast to the appointed head or chief of an administrative unit, a leader emerges within the context of the ''informal organization'' that underlies the formal structure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Levi-Sanchez|first=Suzanne|title=Civil Society in an Uncivil State|year=2018|journal=Journal of International Affairs|volume=71|issue=2|pages=50–72|jstor=26552329|issn=0022-197X}}</ref> The informal organization expresses the personal [[Goal|objectives and goals]] of the individual membership. Their objectives and goals may or may not coincide with those of the formal organization. The informal organization represents an extension of the social structures that generally characterize human life – the spontaneous emergence of groups and organizations as ends in themselves.

In prehistoric times, humanity was preoccupied with personal security, maintenance, protection, and survival.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mobbs|first1=Dean|last2=Hagan|first2=Cindy C.|last3=Dalgleish|first3=Tim|last4=Silston|first4=Brian|last5=PrÃ©vost|first5=Charlotte|date=2015-03-18|title=The ecology of human fear: survival optimization and the nervous system|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|volume=9|page=55|doi=10.3389/fnins.2015.00055|issn=1662-453X|pmc=4364301|pmid=25852451|doi-access=free}}</ref> Now humanity spends a major portion of its waking hours working for organizations. The need to identify with a community that provides security, protection, maintenance, and a feeling of belonging has continued unchanged from prehistoric times. This need is met by the informal organization and its emergent, or unofficial, leaders.<ref name="Henry">{{cite book |author1=Henry P. Knowles |author2=Borje O. Saxberg |title=Personality and Leadership Behavior|publisher=Addison-Wesley|location=Reading, Mass.|year=1971|pages=884–89|isbn= 978-0-14-080517-8|oclc= 118832}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Van Vugt | first1 = M. | last2 = Hogan | first2 = R. | last3 = Kaiser | first3 = R. | year = 2008 | title = Leadership, followership, and evolution: Some lessons from the past | url = http://www.professormarkvanvugt.com/files/LeadershipFollowershipandEvolution-AmericanPsychologist-2008.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140411195727/http://www.professormarkvanvugt.com/files/LeadershipFollowershipandEvolution-AmericanPsychologist-2008.pdf | archive-date = 2014-04-11 | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 63 | issue = 3| pages = 182–196 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.63.3.182 | pmid = 18377108 }}</ref>{{request quotation|date=May 2020}}

Leaders emerge from within the structure of the informal organization.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Shaughnessy|first1=Brooke A.|last2=Treadway|first2=Darren C.|last3=Breland|first3=Jacob W.|last4=Perrewé|first4=Pamela L.|date=2017-02-01|title=Informal Leadership Status and Individual Performance: The Roles of Political Skill and Political Will|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1548051816657983|journal=Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=83–94|doi=10.1177/1548051816657983|s2cid=147952935|issn=1548-0518|archive-date=2023-08-10|access-date=2023-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810231656/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1548051816657983|url-status=live}}</ref> Their personal qualities, the demands of the situation, or a combination of these and other factors attract followers who accept their leadership within one or several overlay structures{{technical inline|date=August 2023}}. Instead of the authority of position held by an appointed head or chief, the emergent leader wields influence or power. Influence is the ability of a person to gain co-operation from others by means of persuasion or control over rewards. Power is a stronger form of influence because it reflects a person's ability to enforce action through the control of a means of punishment.<ref name="Henry"/>

A leader is a person who influences a group of people towards a specific result. In this scenario, leadership is not dependent on title or formal authority.<ref>Elevos,{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} paraphrased from Leaders, Bennis,{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} and Leadership Presence, Halpern & Lubar{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} Ogbonnia defines an effective leader "as an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a given condition and be viewed as meeting the expectations of an organization or society".<ref>Ogbonnia, 2007{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2020}}{{full citation needed|date=August 2023}} John Hoyle argues that leaders are recognized by their capacity for caring for others, clear communication, and a commitment to persist.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hoyle|first=John R.|title=Leadership and Futuring: Making Visions Happen|location=Thousand Oaks, Calif.|publisher=Corwin Press, Inc.|year=1995}}</ref> French and Raven state that there are [[French and Raven's bases of power|Five Bases of Social Power]]: reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert. Growth of each of these five types of power increases a leader's overall power but attempting to utilize power beyond what they actually have available causes a decrease in their power instead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The bases of social power |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215915730 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230710144107/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/215915730_The_bases_of_social_power |archive-date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2025-02-02 |website=ResearchGate |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> While a person who is appointed to a managerial position has the right to command and enforce obedience by virtue of the authority of their position, they must possess adequate personal attributes to match this authority because authority is only potentially available to them. In the absence of sufficient personal competence, a manager may be confronted by an emergent leader who can challenge her/his role in the organization and reduce it to that of a figurehead. However, only authority of position has the backing of formal sanctions. It follows that whoever wields personal influence and power can legitimize this only by gaining a formal position in a hierarchy, with commensurate authority.<ref name="Henry"/> Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs leaders at every level.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Hakala|first1=David|title=The Top 10 Leadership Qualities|url=http://www.hrworld.com/features/top-10-leadership-qualities-031908|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130410090435/http://www.hrworld.com/features/top-10-leadership-qualities-031908|archive-date=2013-04-10|website=HR World}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=May 2020}}

===Management===
The terms "[[management]]" and "leadership" have, in the organizational context, been used both as synonyms and with clearly differentiated meanings. However Bennis and Nanus were clear in their distinction in their frequently quoted phrase "Managers are people who do things right and leaders are people who do the right thing".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennis |first1=W. G. |last2=Nanus |first2=B |title=Leaders: The strategies for taking charge |date=1985 |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |page=221}}</ref>

[[John Kotter]] makes a clear distinction between management and leadership. He defines management as the structured, process-driven approach to ensuring an organization consistently delivers quality products and services efficiently, despite the complexity of operations. Whereas leadership is the forward-looking drive to inspire change, seize opportunities, and empower people at all levels through vision and behavior, rather than relying on a few individuals at the top.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blogs.hbr.org/kotter/2013/01/management-is-still-not-leadership.html|title=Management Is (Still) Not Leadership|date=9 Jan 2013|access-date=30 Apr 2025|publisher=Harvard Business Review|last=Kotter|first=John|author-link=John Kotter|archive-date=15 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115140727/http://blogs.hbr.org/kotter/2013/01/management-is-still-not-leadership.html|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>

Debate is common about whether the use of these terms should be restricted, and reflects an awareness of the distinction made by Burns between "transactional" leadership (characterized by emphasis on procedures, contingent reward, and management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterized by charisma, personal relationships, and creativity).<ref name="Burns"/> The role of leader is one in which one can try to deal with trust issues and issues derived from lacking trust.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sivunen |first=Anu |date=2006 |title=Strengthening Identification with the Team in Virtual Teams: The Leaders' Perspective |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10726-006-9046-6 |journal=Group Decision and Negotiation |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=345–366 |doi=10.1007/s10726-006-9046-6 |s2cid=154964294 |issn=0926-2644 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=2023-08-16 |access-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230816195714/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10726-006-9046-6 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Group===
In contrast to individual leadership, some organizations have adopted group leadership. In this so-called [[shared leadership]], more than one person provides direction to the group as a whole. It is furthermore characterized by shared responsibility, cooperation, and mutual influence among team members.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Carson | first1=Jay B. | last2=Tesluk | first2=Paul E. | last3=Marrone | first3=Jennifer A. | title=Shared Leadership in Teams: An Investigation of Antecedent Conditions and Performance | url=https://archive.org/details/sim_academy-of-management-journal_2007-10_50_5/page/1217 | journal=[[Academy of Management Journal]] | publisher=[[Academy of Management]] | volume=50 | issue=5 | year=2007 | issn=0001-4273 | doi=10.5465/amj.2007.20159921 | pages=1217–1234| s2cid=9385618 }}</ref> Some organizations have taken this approach in hopes of increasing creativity, reducing costs, or downsizing. Others may see the traditional leadership of a boss as costing too much in team performance. In some situations, the team members best able to handle any given phase of the project become the temporary leaders. Additionally, as each team member has the opportunity to experience the elevated level of empowerment, it energizes staff and feeds the cycle of success.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ingrid Bens|year=2006|title=Facilitating to Lead|publisher=Jossey-Bass |isbn=978-0-7879-7731-3}}</ref>

Leaders who demonstrate persistence, tenacity, determination, and synergistic communication skills will bring out the same qualities in their groups. Good leaders use their own {{clarify|reason=what's an "inner" mentor?|text=inner [[Mentorship|mentors]]|date=August 2023}} to energize their team and organizations and lead a team to achieve success.<ref>{{cite book |author= Bart Barthelemy|year=1997|title=The Sky Is Not The Limit – Breakthrough Leadership|publisher=St. Lucie Press}}</ref>

===Biology and evolution of leadership===
[[Mark van Vugt]] and [[Anjana Ahuja]] in ''Naturally Selected: The Evolutionary Science of Leadership'' present cases of leadership in non-human animals, from ants and bees to baboons and chimpanzees. They suggest that leadership has a long evolutionary history and that the same mechanisms underpinning leadership in humans appear in other social species, too.<ref>{{cite book|last1=van Vugt|first1=Mark|last2=Ahuja|first2=Anjana|year=2011|title=Naturally Selected: the Evolutionary Science of Leadership|publisher=HarperBusiness}}</ref> They also suggest that the evolutionary origins of leadership differ from those of dominance. In one study, van Vugt and his team looked at the relation between basal testosterone and leadership versus dominance. They found that testosterone correlates with dominance but not with leadership. This was replicated in a sample of managers in which there was no relation between hierarchical position and testosterone level.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Van der Meij | first1 = L. | last2 = Schaveling | first2 = J. | last3 = van Vugt | first3 = M. | year = 2016 | title = Basal testosterone, leadership and dominance: A field study and meta-analysis | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 72 | pages = 72–79 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.06.005 | pmid = 27372205 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Richard Wrangham]] and [[Dale Peterson]], in ''[[Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence]]'', present evidence that only humans and [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s, among all the animals living on Earth, share a similar tendency for a cluster of behaviors: violence, [[Territory (animal)|territoriality]], and competition for uniting behind the one chief male of the land.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Richard|last1=Wrangham|first2=Dale|last2=Peterson|year=1996|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/demonicmales.htm|title=Demonic Males. Apes and the Origins of Human Violence|publisher=Mariner Books|archive-date=2017-12-20|access-date=2017-12-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220024644/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/demonicmales.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> This position is contentious.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}} Many animals apart from apes are territorial, compete, exhibit violence, and have a social structure controlled by a dominant male (lions, wolves, etc.), suggesting Wrangham and Peterson's evidence is not empirical. However, we must{{editorializing|date=August 2023}} examine other species as well, including elephants (which are matriarchal and follow an alpha female), meerkats (which are likewise matriarchal), sheep (which "follow" in some sense castrated [[wether (disambiguation)|bellwethers]]), and many others.

By comparison, [[bonobo]]s, the second-closest species-relatives of humans, do ''not'' unite behind the chief male of the land. Bonobos show deference to an alpha or top-ranking female that, with the support of her coalition of other females, can prove as strong as the strongest male. Thus, if leadership amounts to getting the greatest number of followers, then among the bonobos, a female almost always exerts the strongest and most effective leadership. (Incidentally, not all scientists agree on the allegedly peaceful nature of the bonobo or with its reputation as a "[[hippie]] chimp".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/07/30/070730fa_fact_parker|title=Swingers: Bonobos are celebrated as peace-loving, matriarchal, and sexually liberated. Are they?|magazine=The New Yorker|first=Ian|last=Parker|date=2007-07-23|access-date=2020-04-16|archive-date=2014-07-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702141119/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/07/30/070730fa_fact_parker|url-status=live}}</ref>)

==Myths==
Leadership has been described as one of the least understood concepts across all cultures and civilizations. Many researchers have stressed the prevalence of this misunderstanding, stating that several flawed assumptions, or myths, concerning leadership interfere with people's conception of what leadership is about.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|last=Gardner|first=J. W.|year=1965|title=Self-Renewal: The Individual and the Innovative Society|location=New York|publisher=Harper and Row}}
|2={{cite book|last=Bennis|first=W. G.|year=1975|title=Where have all the leaders gone?|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Federal Executive Institute}} }}</ref>

===Leadership is innate===
According to some, leadership is determined by distinctive [[dispositional affect|dispositional characteristics]] present at birth (e.g., [[extraversion and introversion|extraversion]], [[intelligence]], or ingenuity). However, evidence shows that leadership also develops through hard work and careful observation.<ref name=Forsyth>{{cite book|last=Forsyth|first=D. R.|year=2009|title=Group dynamics|edition=5th|location=Pacific Grove, Calif.|publisher=Brooks/Cole}}</ref> Thus, effective leadership can result from [[nature versus nurture|nature]] (i.e., innate talents) as well as [[nature versus nurture|nurture]] (i.e., acquired skills).

===Leadership is possessing power over others===
Although leadership is certainly a form of [[Power (social and political)|power]], it is not demarcated by power ''over'' people. Rather, it is a power ''with'' people that exists as a reciprocal relationship between a leader and his/her followers.<ref name=Forsyth/> Despite popular belief, the use of [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]], [[coercion]], and domination to influence others is not a requirement for leadership. People who seek group consent and strive to act in the best interests of others can also become effective leaders.

===Leaders are positively influential===
The [[Validity (logic)|validity]] of the assertion that groups flourish when guided by effective leaders can be illustrated using several examples. For instance, the [[bystander effect]] (failure to respond or offer assistance) that tends to develop within groups faced with an emergency is significantly reduced in groups guided by a leader.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baumeister | first1 = R. F. | last2 = Senders | first2 = P. S. | last3 = Chesner | first3 = S. C. | last4 = Tice | first4 = D. M. | year = 1988 | title = Who's in charge here? Group leaders do lend help in emergencies | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_1988-03_14_1/page/17 | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 14 | issue = 1| pages = 17–22 | doi=10.1177/0146167288141002| pmid = 30045447 | s2cid = 51721102 }}</ref> Moreover, group performance,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jung | first1 = D. | last2 = Wu | first2 = A. | last3 = Chow | first3 = C. W. | year = 2008 | title = Towards understanding the direct and indirect effects of CEOs transformational leadership on firm innovation | journal = The Leadership Quarterly | volume = 19 | issue = 5| pages = 582–594 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.07.007| s2cid = 152202513 }}</ref> [[creativity]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zaccaro|first1=S. J.|last2=Banks|first2=D. J.|year=2001|chapter=Leadership, vision, and organizational effectiveness|editor-first1=S. J.|editor-last1=Zaccaro|editor-first2=R. J.|editor-last2=Klimoski|title=The Nature of Organizational Leadership: Understanding the Performance Imperatives Confronting Today's Leaders|location=San Francisco|publisher=Jossey-Bass}}</ref> and [[efficiency]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Larson | first1 = J. R. Jr. | last2 = Christensen | first2 = C. | last3 = Abbot | first3 = A. S. | last4 = Franz | first4 = T. M. | year = 1996 | title = Diagnosing groups: Charting the flow of information in medical decision-making teams | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-personality-and-social-psychology_1996-08_71_2/page/315 | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 71 | issue = 2| pages = 315–330 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.315| pmid = 8765484 }}</ref> all tend to climb in businesses with designated managers or CEOs.

The difference leaders make is not always positive in nature. Leaders sometimes focus on fulfilling their own agendas at the expense of others, including their own followers. Leaders who focus on personal gain by employing stringent and manipulative leadership styles often make a difference, but usually do so through negative means.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lipman-Blumen|first=J.|year=2005|title=The Allure of Toxic Leaders|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press Inc.}}</ref>

===Leaders entirely control group outcomes===
In [[Western culture]]s it is generally assumed that group leaders make all the difference when it comes to group influence and overall goal-attainment.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} This view relates to reverence for leadership ''per se'' or for "heroic charismatic leadership" – a "cult of leadership" in the abstract (as distinct from the cult of a given leader/leadership-group or from some individual-oriented [[cult of personality]]).<ref>{{cite book
 |last1         = Salaman
 |first1        = Graeme
 |editor-last1  = Storey
 |editor-first1 = John
 |year          = 2003
 |chapter       = Competences of managers, competences of leaders
 |title         = Leadership in Organizations: Current issues and key trends
 |url           = https://books.google.com/books?id=gFxMaFQz1ToC
 |location      = London
 |publisher     = Routledge
 |page          = 76
 |isbn          = 978-1-134-38875-2
 |access-date   = 16 September 2024
 |quote         = [...] this [...] conception of leadership is entirely organizational, in the sense that it involves acknowledging the inherent problems and contradictions of organization and raising the prospect that these can be solved by heroic charismatic leadership. No wonder leadership is so attractive. [...] But the current cult of leadership reveals two particular ironies [...].
 |archive-date  = 16 September 2024
 |archive-url   = https://web.archive.org/web/20240916061116/https://books.google.com/books?id=gFxMaFQz1ToC
 |url-status    = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 |last1        = Farmer
 |first1       = David John
 |author-link1 = David John Farmer
 |date         = 18 December 2014
 |orig-date    = 2005
 |title        = To Kill the King: Post-Traditional Governance and Bureaucracy
 |url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ
 |edition      = reprint
 |location     = Abingdon
 |publisher    = Routledge
 |isbn         = 978-1-317-45355-0
 |access-date  = 16 September 2024
 |quote        = There is a systemic character in the urge for the cult of leadership, and it extends throughout governance. It is crystallized in the deference to leadership in public bureaucracy [...]. The [[leader principle]] pervades bureaucratic thinking, just as it pervades economic theory and practice, politics, and personal lives. [...] Practice as art should refuse the one-dimensionality of the thinking that regards the leadership cult as mere common sense.
 |archive-date = 16 September 2024
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20240916061116/https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 |last1        = Owen
 |first1       = Jo
 |date         = 3 October 2017
 |chapter      = Myth 4: Managers are leaders
 |title        = Myths of Leadership
 |url          = https://books.google.com/books?id=ESA3DwAAQBAJ
 |series       = Business Myths
 |location     = London
 |publisher    = Kogan Page
 |page         = 21
 |isbn         = 978-0-7494-8075-2
 |access-date  = 16 September 2024
 |quote        = [...] the cult of leadership undervalues both leadership and management, and is a source of mismatched expectations. [...] much of what is deemed to be 'leadership' is not leadership at all: it is highly effective management.
 |archive-date = 16 September 2024
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20240916061116/https://books.google.com/books?id=ESA3DwAAQBAJ
 |url-status   = live
}}</ref>
This romanticized view of leadership – the tendency to overestimate the degree of control leaders have over their groups and their groups' outcomes – ignores the existence of many other factors that influence group dynamics.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Meindl | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Ehrlich | first2 = S. B. | last3 = Dukerich | first3 = J. M. | year = 1985 | title = The romance of leadership | journal = Administrative Science Quarterly | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 78–102 | doi= 10.2307/2392813| jstor = 2392813 }}</ref> For example, [[group cohesiveness|group cohesion]], [[organizational communication|communication patterns]], individual personality traits, group context, the nature or orientation of the work, as well as [[norm (social)|behavioral norms]] and established standards influence group functionality. For this reason, it is unwarranted to assume that all leaders are in complete control of their groups' achievements.

===All groups have a designated leader===

Not all groups need have a designated leader. Groups that are primarily composed of women,<ref name=SBA>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1 = Schmid Mast | first1 = M | year = 2002 | title = Female dominance hierarchies: Are they any different from males'? | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2002-01_28_1/page/29 | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 28 | pages = 29–39 | doi=10.1177/0146167202281003| s2cid = 145108183 }}
|2={{cite journal | last1 = Berdahl | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Anderson | first2 = C. | year = 2005 | title = Men, women, and leadership centralization in groups over time | journal = Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice | volume = 9 | pages = 45–57 | doi=10.1037/1089-2699.9.1.45| s2cid = 55069255 }} }}</ref> are limited in size, are free from stressful decision-making,<ref name=guastello>{{cite journal | last1 = Guastello | first1 = S. J. | year = 2007 | title = Nonlinear dynamics and leadership emergence | url = https://epublications.marquette.edu/psych_fac/220| journal = Leadership Quarterly | volume = 18 | issue = 4| pages = 357–369 | doi=10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.04.005| url-access = subscription }}</ref> or only exist for a short period of time (e.g., student work groups; pub quiz/trivia teams) often undergo a [[diffusion of responsibility]], in which leadership tasks and roles are shared amongst members.{{r|SBA}}{{r|guastello}}

===Group members resist leaders===
Group members' dependence on group leaders can lead to reduced self-reliance and{{ambiguous|reason="reduced (self reliance and overall group strength)" or "(reduced self reliance) and (overall group strength)"|date=August 2023}} overall group strength.<ref name=Forsyth/> Most people prefer to be led than to be without a leader.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Berkowitz | first1 = L | year = 1953 | title = Sharing leadership in small, decision-making groups | journal = Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology | volume = 48 | issue = 2| pages = 231–238 | doi=10.1037/h0058076| pmid = 13052345 }}</ref> This "need for a leader" becomes especially strong in troubled groups that are experiencing some sort of conflict. Group members tend to be more contented and productive when they have a leader to guide them. Although individuals filling leadership roles can be a direct source of resentment for followers, most people appreciate the contributions that leaders make to their groups and consequently welcome the guidance of a leader.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stewart | first1 = G. L. | last2 = Manz | first2 = C. C. | year = 1995 | title = Leadership for self-managing work teams: A typology and integrative model | url = https://archive.org/details/sim_human-relations_1995-07_48_7/page/747 | journal = Human Relations | volume = 48 | issue = 7| pages = 747–770 | doi=10.1177/001872679504800702| s2cid = 145322403 }}</ref>

==Action-oriented environments==
One approach to team leadership examines action-oriented environments, where effective functional leadership is required to achieve critical or reactive tasks by small teams deployed into the field. Some examples of action-oriented leadership include extinguishing a rural fire, locating a missing person, leading a team on an outdoor expedition, or rescuing a person from a potentially hazardous environment.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Schelten|first1=Andreas|last2=Geiger|first2=Robert|title=Variants of an Action Oriented Learning Environment for Technical Vocational Training|url=http://www.bpaed.edu.tum.de/fileadmin/tueds02/www/pdfs/publikationen/riedl/2002handoutvariantsriedl.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305111811/http://www.bpaed.edu.tum.de/fileadmin/tueds02/www/pdfs/publikationen/riedl/2002handoutvariantsriedl.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-05|year=2002}}</ref>

Leadership of small groups is often created to respond to a situation or critical incident. In most cases, these teams are tasked to operate in remote and changeable environments with limited support or backup ("action environments"). Leadership of people in these environments requires a different set of skills to that of leaders in front-line management. These leaders must effectively operate remotely and negotiate the needs of the individual, team, and task within a changeable environment.

Other examples include modern technology deployments of small/medium-sized [[Information Technology|IT]] teams into client plant sites. Leadership of these teams requires hands-on experience and a lead-by-example attitude to empower team members to make well thought-out and concise decisions independent of executive management and/or home-base decision-makers. Early adoption of [[Scrum (software development)|Scrum]] and [[Kanban]] branch development methodologies helped to alleviate the dependency that field teams had on [[trunk-based development]]. This method of [[Lean manufacturing|just-in-time]] action oriented development and deployment allowed remote plant sites to deploy up-to-date software patches frequently and without dependency on core team deployment schedules, satisfying the clients' needs to rapidly patch production environment bugs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Boehm|first1=B.W.|title=Software risk management: principles and practices|journal=IEEE Software|volume=8|pages=32–41|doi=10.1109/52.62930|year=1991|citeseerx=10.1.1.381.466|s2cid=5832015}}</ref>{{Importance inline|reason=this paragraph seems to go a bit far afield of the "leadership" topic|date=August 2023}}

==Critical thought==

The ideas of [[Edmund Burke]] (1729–1797) on [[representative democracy|representative]] (as opposed to delegate-based) [[democracy]] have echoes in the attitudes of elected representatives who regard themselves – and even portray themselves –  as "leaders".<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Parrish
 |first1               = John M.
 |editor-last1         = Couto
 |editor-first1        = Richard A.
 |editor-link1         = Richard A. Couto
 |year                 = 2010
 |chapter              = Philosophical Foundations of Political Leadership
 |title                = Political and Civic Leadership: A Reference Handbook
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=EgNzAwAAQBAJ
 |volume               = 1
 |publication-place    = Thousand Oaks, California
 |publisher            = Sage Publications
 |page                 = 76
 |isbn                 = 978-1-4522-6634-3
 |access-date          = 4 November 2024
 |quote                = This leader-know-best justification for representative government may be best captured in the thought of Edmund Burke [...], whose celebrated "Speech to the Electors at Bristol" admirably sums up the normative underpinnings of the theory of elite leadership justifying representative democracy.
}}
</ref>

[[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]]'s 1840 "[[Great Man theory]]", which emphasized the role of leading individuals, met opposition (from [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Leo Tolstoy]], and others) in the 19th and 20th centuries.

[[Karl Popper]] noted in 1945 that leaders can [[mislead]] and make mistakes – he warns against deferring to "great men".<ref>
{{cite book
| last1 = Popper
| first1 = Karl
| author-link1 = Karl Popper
| year = 1945
| chapter = Preface to the First Edition
| title = The Open Society and Its Enemies
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Gw9wV2Unpe8C
| edition = 7th
| location = London
| publisher = Routledge
| publication-date = 2012
| page = xxxiii
| isbn = 978-1-136-74977-3
| access-date = 2017-08-20
| quote = [...] if our civilisation is to survive, we must break with the habit of deference to great men. Great men may make great mistakes; and [...] some of the greatest leaders of the past supported the perennial attack on freedom and reason. Their influence, too rarely challenged, continues to mislead [...]
}}
</ref>

[[Noam Chomsky]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book |title=Profit over People: neoliberalism and global order|first=Noam|last=Chomsky|year=1999|chapter=Consent without Consent|page=53
}}
|2={{cite book
 | last1 = Chomsky
 | first1 = Noam
 | author-link1 = Noam Chomsky
 | year = 1999
 | chapter = Consent without Consent: Regimenting the Public Mind
 | title = Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=eX4DAQAAQBAJ
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Seven Stories Press
 | publication-date = 2011
 | isbn = 978-1-60980-291-2
 | access-date = 7 September 2020
}}
}}
</ref>
and others<ref>{{cite thesis|degree=PhD|title=The Relationship between Servant Leadership, Follower Trust, Team Commitment and Unit Effectiveness|first=Zani|last=Dannhauser|institution=Stellenbosch University|year=2007}}</ref> have subjected the concept of leadership to [[critical thinking]] and assert that people abrogate their responsibility to think and will actions for themselves. While the conventional view of leadership may satisfy people who "want to be told what to do", these critics say that one should question subjection to a will or intellect other than one's own if the leader is not a [[subject-matter expert]].

Concepts such as [[Workers' self-management|autogestion]], [[employeeship]], and common [[civic virtue]] challenge the fundamentally [[anti-democratic]] nature of the [[leadership principle]] by stressing [[individual responsibility]] and/or group authority in the workplace and elsewhere and by focusing on the skills and attitudes that a person needs in general rather than separating out "leadership" as the basis of a special class of individuals.

Various historical calamities (such as [[World War II]]) can be attributed<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book |last=Arendt |first=Hannah |author-link=Hannah Arendt |title-link=Eichmann in Jerusalem |title=Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil |location=New York |publisher=Viking |year=1963}}{{page needed|date=November 2024}}
|2={{cite book
| last1 = Wheatcroft
| first1 = Andrew
| last2 = Overy
| first2 = Richard
| author-link2 = Richard Overy
| title = The Road to War: The Origins of World War II
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=m8t4Xi2Ljt4C
| edition = Revised
| year = 1989
| location = London
| publisher = Random House
| publication-date = 2012
| isbn = 978-1-4481-1239-5
| access-date = 2017-08-20
}}{{request quotation|date=November 2024}} }}</ref>
to a misplaced reliance on the [[Führerprinzip|principle of leadership]] ({{langx | de | Führerprinzip}}) as exhibited in [[dictatorship]].

[[David John Farmer]] writes critically of the [[leader principle]] and of the cult in which elements throughout society – even in democratic countries – pay deference to the idea of leadership.<ref>{{cite book
 |last1             = Farmer
 |first1            = David John
 |author-link1      = David John Farmer
 |year              =  2014
 |orig-date         = 2005
 |chapter           = Start with Michelangelo: What I, a Bureaucrat, Expect
 |title             = To Kill the King: Post-Traditional Governance and Bureaucracy
 |url               = https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ
 |edition           = reprint
 |publication-place = Abingdon
 |publisher         = Routledge
 |doi               = 10.4324/9781315698670
 |isbn              = 978-1-317-45355-0
 |access-date       = 4 November 2024
 |quote             = [...] practice as art should embrace elimination of society's dependence on the idea of leader. [...] [A]s long as society demands leaders, the post-traditional practitioner should adopt the model of just leadership [...]. The post traditional practitioner should engage her day-to-day activities with consciousness of opposition to an ethic of power-down. [...] The violence of the cult of the leader is ill-understood, [...] oddly, in many democratic countries that pride themselves on the practice of democracy. The cult is so ingrained psychologically and socially that most cannot imagine a society without hierarchy. [...] There is a systematic character in the urge for the cult of leadership, and it extends throughout governance. It is crystallized in the deference to leadership in public bureaucracy and in thinking about bureaucracy [...]. The leader principle pervades bureaucratic thinking, just as it pervades economic theory and practice, politics, and personal lives. [...] Practice as art should refuse the one-dimensionality of the thinking that regards the leadership cult as mere common sense.
 |archive-date      = 16 September 2024
 |archive-url       = https://web.archive.org/web/20240916061143/https://books.google.com/books?id=XDLfBQAAQBAJ
 |url-status        = live
}}</ref>

The idea of [[leaderism]] paints leadership and its excesses in a negative light.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book
 | title = Issues in Culture, Rights, and Governance Research
 |year = 2013| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=h5rSoAfLODEC
 | location = Atlanta, Georgia
 | publisher = ScholarlyEditions
 | publication-date = 2013
 | isbn = 978-1-4816-4926-1
 | access-date = 7 September 2020
 | quote = '[...] "leaderism" – as an emerging set of beliefs that frames and justifies certain innovatory changes in contemporary organizational and managerial practice – is a development of managerialism that has been utilized and applied within the policy discourse of public service reform in the UK [...]'
 |editor-first=Q. Ashton|editor-last=Acton
}}
|2={{cite book
 | last1 = Nageshwar
 | first1 = K.
 | author-link1 = K. Nageshwar
 | title = Interpreting Contemporary India
 | year=2016
 | publisher = AuthorHouse
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JW55DQAAQBAJ
 | isbn = 978-1-5246-6531-9
 | access-date = 7 September 2020
 | quote = Thus like the 'Animalism' of Orwell, democracy is gradually slipping into a quagmire to be equated with 'Leaderism'. The leader frequently closets with a select band of confidants, aka coterie, and evolves the principles of leaderism. Thus the gospel of leaderism is then flown down to the party rank and file. Loyalty to the master is perpetuated in the name of Leaderism.
}} }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Politics]]
*{{anl|Autocracy}}
* [[Supreme Leader (title)]]
* [[Chief executive officer]]
* [[Management]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Other sources ===
; Books
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Bass |first1=Bernard M. |last2=Stogdill |first2=Ralph M. |title=Bass & Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications |edition=3rd |year=1990 |publisher=The Free Press; Collier Macmillan Publishers |location=New York, London|isbn=978-0-02-901500-1|oclc=20220373}}
* {{cite book | last=Bitar | first=Amer | title=Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East | publisher=Springer Nature | publication-place=Cham | year=2020| isbn=978-3-030-57397-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Carlyle |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Carlyle |title = On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic History |year=1841 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston, MA |isbn=978-1-4069-4419-8|ref=refCarlyle1841|oclc=2156454}}
* {{cite book |last = Ladkin |first = Donna |year = 2011 |title = Rethinking Leadership: A New Look at Old Leadership Questions |publisher = Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd. |location = [[Cheltenham]] |isbn = 978-0-85793-131-3 |ref=refLadkin2011}}
* {{cite book |last = Miner |first = J. B. |year = 2005 |title = Organizational Behavior: Behavior 1: Essential Theories of Motivation and Leadership |publisher = M. E. Sharpe |location = [[Armonk]] |ref=refMiner2005 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Montana|first1=Patrick J.|last2=Bruce H. |title=Management |year=2008 |location=Hauppauge, NY |publisher= Barron's Educational Series, Inc. |isbn=978-0-944740-04-0 |ref=refCSUNCOBAE }}
* {{cite book|first1=Murray|last1=Hiebert|first2=Bruce|last2=Klatt|title=The Encyclopedia of Leadership: A Practical Guide to Popular Leadership Theories and Techniques|edition=1st|isbn=978-0-07-136308-2|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2000}}
* {{cite book|first1=Duane P.|last1=Schultz|first2=Sydney Ellen|last2=Schultz|title=Psychology and work today: an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology|year=2010|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.|isbn=978-0-205-68358-1|page=171|edition=10th}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tittemore|first1=James A. |title=Leadership at all Levels |year=2003|location=Canada|publisher=Boskwa Publishing|isbn=978-0-9732914-0-7|ref=refTittemore2003}}
{{refend}}

; Journal articles
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ahlquist |first1=John S. |last2=Levi |first2=Margaret |year=2011 |title=Leadership: What It Means, What It Does, and What We Want to Know About It |journal=Annual Review of Political Science |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-042409-152654 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042409-152654 |archive-date=2022-06-18 |access-date=2021-05-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618103614/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-polisci-042409-152654 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Avolio |first1=Bruce J. |last2=Walumbwa |first2=Fred O. |last3=Weber |first3=Todd J. |year=2009 |title=Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=421–449 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621 |pmid=18651820 |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621 }}
* {{cite journal |url = https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10551-017-3678-0 |doi = 10.1007/s10551-017-3678-0 |title = The Leader as Chief Truth Officer: The Ethical Responsibility of "Managing the Truth" in Organizations |year = 2019 |last1 = Bouilloud |first1 = Jean-Philippe |last2 = Deslandes |first2 = Ghislain |last3 = Mercier |first3 = Guillaume |journal = Journal of Business Ethics |volume = 157 |pages = 1–13 |s2cid = 149433917 |url-access = subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cantril |first1=Hadley |year=1958 |title=Effective democratic leadership: a psychological interpretation |journal=Journal of Individual Psychology |volume=14 |pages=128–138}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{subject bar|auto=y|d=y|q=y|wikt=y}}
* {{Official website|url=https://ilaglobalnetwork.org/|name=International Leadership Association}}
* {{Official website|url=https://hr.un.org/page/leadership-and-management-development|name=United Nations Leadership Development Programs}}
* {{Official website|url=https://www.weforum.org/|name=World Economic Forum}}
* {{Official website|url=https://globalleadership.org/summit/|name=Global Leadership Summit}}
{{Clear}}
{{Management}}
{{Virtues}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leadership}}
[[Category:Leadership| ]]
[[Category:Management theory]]
[[Category:Industrial and organizational psychology]]
[[Category:Political science terminology]]
[[Category:Social concepts]]
[[Category:Majority–minority relations]]