View source for Levantine Arabic

{{Short description|Arabic variety spoken in the Levant}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Levantine Arabic
| altname          = Syro-Palestinian Arabic
| nativename       = {{lang|apc|شامي}} ({{transliteration|apc|Shami}})
| states           = [[Languages of Syria|Syria]], [[Languages of Jordan|Jordan]], [[Languages of Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Languages of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Languages of Israel|Israel]], [[Languages of Turkey|Turkey]]
| region           = [[Levant]]{{efn|Also known as [[Greater Syria]].{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=vii–x}}}}{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=vii–x}}
| ethnicity        = {{plainlist|Primarily [[Arabs]]
* Also used as a [[First language|first]] or [[second language]] by some other [[Levant#Demographics|ethnic groups in the region]].{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|pp=1920–1921}}}}
| speakers         = Total: {{sigfig|60.422810|2}} million
| date             = 2008–2024
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| ref              = e28
| speakers2        = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|57.559810|2}} million<ref name=e28/>
<br>[[second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|2.863000|2}} million<ref name=e28/>
| familycolor      = Afro-Asiatic
| fam1             = [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]]<ref name=glotto>{{Cite web |title=Levantine Arabic |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/leva1239 |access-date=2022-11-28 |publisher=Glottolog}}</ref>
| fam2             = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]<ref name=glotto/>
| fam3             = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]<ref name=glotto/>
| fam4             = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]<ref name=glotto/>
| fam5             = [[Arabian languages|Arabian]]<ref name=glotto/>
| fam6             = [[Arabic]]<ref name=glotto/>
| dia1             = [[Çukurova Arabic|Cilician]]
| dia2             = [[Aleppo Arabic|Aleppine]]
| dia3             = [[Damascus Arabic|Damascene]]
| dia4             = [[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese]]
| dia5             = [[Palestinian Arabic|Palestinian]]
| dia6             = [[Jordanian Arabic|Jordanian]]
| stand1           = 
| sign             = 
| script           = {{plainlist|
* [[Arabic alphabet]]
* [[Latin script]] ([[Arabizi]]<ref name="Abu-Liel"/><ref name="BIANCHI pp. 89–100"/> and [[Said Akl's alphabet]]{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=465–466}}<ref name=Cengiz2014/>)
* [[Hebrew alphabet]] (in Israel){{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|p=347}}<ref name="AbuElhija"/>{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|p=89}}<ref name="Gaash"/><ref name="ShachmonMack2016p223–224"/>}}
| iso3             = apc
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = nort3139
| glottorefname    = Levantine Arabic
| ietf             = apc
| lingua           = 12-AAC-eh "Syro-Palestinian"
| map              = Levantine Arabic 2023.svg
| mapscale         = 1
| mapcaption       = Modern distribution of Levantine Arabic
}}
{{Contains special characters|Levantine}}
{{Inline audio}}

'''Levantine Arabic''', also called '''Shami''' ([[Endonym and exonym|autonym]]: {{langx|apc|شامي|šāmi|label=none}} or {{langx|apc|اللهجة الشامية|el-lahje š-šāmiyye|label=none}}), is an [[Varieties of Arabic|Arabic variety]] spoken in the [[Levant]], namely in [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine]], [[Israel]] and southern [[Turkey]] (historically only in [[Adana Province|Adana]], [[Mersin Province|Mersin]] and [[Hatay Province|Hatay]] provinces). With over 60 million speakers, Levantine is, alongside [[Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian]], one of the two [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige varieties]] of [[spoken Arabic]] comprehensible all over the [[Arab world]].

Levantine is not [[Official language|officially recognized]] in any state or territory. Although it is the [[majority language]] in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria, it is predominantly used as a spoken [[vernacular]] in daily communication, whereas most written and official documents and media in these countries use the official [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (MSA), a form of [[Literary language|literary]] Arabic only [[Second-language acquisition|acquired]] through formal education that does not function as a [[First language|native language]]. In Israel and Turkey, Levantine is a [[minority language]].

The [[Palestinian Arabic|Palestinian dialect]] is lexically the [[Linguistic distance|closest]] vernacular Arabic variety to MSA, with about 50% of common words. Nevertheless, Levantine and MSA are not mutually intelligible. Levantine speakers therefore often call their language {{wikt-lang|ajp|العامية}} '''{{transliteration|apc|al-ʿāmmiyya}}''' {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-العامية.wav|listen}}, '[[slang]]', 'dialect', or 'colloquial'. With the emergence of social media, attitudes toward Levantine have improved. The amount of written Levantine has significantly increased, especially online, where Levantine is written using [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], or [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew characters]]. [[Levantine Arabic phonology|Levantine pronunciation]] varies greatly along social, ethnic, and geographical lines. [[Levantine Arabic grammar|Its grammar]] is similar to that shared by most vernacular varieties of Arabic. [[Levantine Arabic vocabulary|Its lexicon]] is overwhelmingly Arabic, with a significant [[Aramaic]] influence.

The lack of written sources in Levantine makes it impossible to determine its history before the [[Late modern period|modern period]]. Aramaic was the dominant language in the Levant starting in the 1st millennium BCE; it coexisted with other languages, including many Arabic dialects spoken by various [[Arab tribes]]. With the [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]] in the 7th century, new Arabic speakers from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] [[Arab migrations to the Levant|settled in the area]], and a lengthy [[language shift]] from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic occurred.

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== Naming and classification ==
{{further|Classification of Arabic languages}}
[[File:Modern Levant.PNG|thumb|Map of [[Greater Syria]]/[[the Levant]]]]
[[File:Arabic Varieties Map-2023.svg|thumb|Map of Arabic varieties. {{legend|#66c4ff|14: Levantine}}]]
Scholars use "Levantine Arabic" to describe the [[Dialect continuum|continuum]] of [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] dialects spoken across the Levant.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=ii}}{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|pp=1917–1918}}<ref name="Kwaik2018Distance"/> Other terms include "Syro-Palestinian",<ref name="Linguasphere">{{Cite web|title=1: Afro-Asian  phylosector|url=http://www.linguasphere.info/jr/pdf/master/OL-SITE%201999-2000%20MASTER%20ONE%20Sectors%201-Zones%2010-14.pdf#page=5|website=[[Linguasphere Observatory|Linguasphere]]|year=2012|access-date=14 April 2022|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603091143/http://www.linguasphere.info/jr/pdf/master/OL-SITE%201999-2000%20MASTER%20ONE%20Sectors%201-Zones%2010-14.pdf#page=5|url-status=live}}</ref> "Eastern Arabic",{{efn|In a broader meaning, "Eastern Arabic" refers to [[Mashriqi Arabic]], to which Levantine belongs, one of the two main varieties of Arabic, as opposed to Western Arabic, also called [[Maghrebi Arabic]].{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=527}}}}<ref name="Rice2011">{{Cite book|last1=Rice|first1=Frank A.|title=Eastern Arabic|year=2011|publisher=Georgetown University Press|last2=Majed|first2=F. Sa'id|isbn=978-1-58901-899-0|oclc=774911149|pages=xxi–xxiii|url=http://press.georgetown.edu/book/languages/eastern-arabic|access-date=19 March 2022|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711230427/http://press.georgetown.edu/book/languages/eastern-arabic|url-status=live}}</ref> "East Mediterranean Arabic",<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garbell |first=Irene |date=1958-08-01 |title=Remarks on the Historical Phonology of an East Mediterranean Arabic Dialect |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1958.11659673 |journal=WORD |volume=14 |issue=2–3 |pages=305–306 |doi=10.1080/00437956.1958.11659673 |issn=0043-7956}}</ref> "Syro-Lebanese" (as a broad term covering Jordan and Palestine as well),{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=197}} "Greater Syrian",<ref name="Palva Classification"/> or "Syrian Arabic" (in a broad meaning, referring to all the dialects of [[Greater Syria]], which corresponds to the Levant).{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=vii–x}} Most authors only include [[sedentism|sedentary]] dialects,{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1917}} excluding [[Levantine Bedawi Arabic]] of the [[Syrian Desert]] and the [[Negev]], which belongs to [[Peninsular Arabic]]. [[Mesopotamian Arabic]] from northeast Syria is also excluded.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=197}} Other authors include [[Bedouin]] varieties.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}}

The term "Levantine Arabic" is not indigenous and, according to linguists Kristen Brustad and Emilie Zuniga, "it is likely that many speakers would resist the grouping on the basis that the rich phonological, morphological and lexical variation within the Levant carries important social meanings and distinctions."{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}} Levantine speakers often call their language {{wikt-lang|ajp|العامية}} {{transliteration|apc|al-ʿāmmiyya}}, '[[slang]]', 'dialect', or 'colloquial' ({{literal translation|the language of common people}}), to contrast it to [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (MSA) and [[Classical Arabic]] ({{wikt-lang|ar|الفصحى}} {{transliteration|ar|al-fuṣḥā}}, {{literal translation|the eloquent}}).{{efn|name=CAvsMSA|Native speakers of Arabic generally do not distinguish between [[Modern Standard Arabic]] (MSA) and [[Classical Arabic]] and refer to both as {{lang|ar|العربية الفصحى}} {{transliteration|ar|ALA|al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā}}, {{literal translation|the eloquent Arabic}}.<ref name="Badawi"/>}}<ref name="Shendy">{{Cite journal|last=Shendy|first=Riham|year=2019|title=The Limitations of Reading to Young Children in Literary Arabic: The Unspoken Struggle with Arabic Diglossia |journal=Theory and Practice in Language Studies|publisher=Academy Publication|volume=9|issue=2|page=123|doi=10.17507/tpls.0902.01|s2cid=150474487 |doi-access=free| issn=1799-2591 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=John C. |last1=Eisele |chapter=Slang |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_eall_com_0310 |year=2011|publisher=Brill}}</ref>{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|p=I}} They also call their spoken language {{wikt-lang|ajp|عربي}} {{transliteration|apc|ʿarabiyy}}, 'Arabic'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Sharkawi |first=Muhammad |title=The Ecology of Arabic – A Study of Arabicization |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-19174-7 |page=32 |oclc=741613187}}</ref> Alternatively, they identify their language by the name of their country.<ref name=e28/>{{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|p=362}} {{wikt-lang|apc|شامي}} {{transliteration|apc|šāmi}} can refer to [[Damascus Arabic]], [[Syrian Arabic]], or Levantine as a whole.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shoup |first=John Austin |url= |title=Culture and Customs of Syria |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-313-34456-5 |pages=156 |oclc=183179547}}</ref><ref name=e28/> Lebanese literary figure [[Said Akl]] led a movement to recognize the "[[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese language]]" as a distinct prestigious language instead of MSA.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|p=433}}

Levantine is a variety of Arabic, a [[Semitic language]]. There is no consensus regarding the [[Classification of Arabic languages|genealogical position of Arabic]] within the Semitic languages.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=18}} The position of Levantine and other Arabic vernaculars in the Arabic [[macrolanguage]] family has also been contested. According to the Arabic tradition, Classical Arabic was the spoken language of the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] and Early Islamic periods and remained stable until today's MSA.<ref name="Badawi">{{cite book | last=Badawi |first= El-Said M.| title=Understanding Arabic: Essays in Contemporary Arabic Linguistics in Honor of El-Said Badawi | publisher=American University in Cairo Press | year=1996 | isbn=977-424-372-2 | oclc=35163083 | page=105}}</ref> According to this view, all Arabic vernaculars, including Levantine, descend from Classical Arabic and were corrupted by contacts with other languages.{{sfn|Birnstiel|2019|pp=367–369}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001/oso-9780198701378|title=Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches|series=Oxford Studies in Diachronic and Historical Linguistics|year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=Introduction|isbn=978-0-19-870137-8|editor-last=Holes|editor-first=Clive|volume=1|language=en|doi=10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001|page=5|access-date=22 July 2021|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519042622/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198701378.001.0001/oso-9780198701378|url-status=live|oclc=1055869930}}</ref> Several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic.{{sfn|Birnstiel|2019|p=368}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |year=2021 |title=Connecting the Lines between Old (Epigraphic) Arabic and the Modern Vernaculars |journal=Languages |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |page=173 |doi=10.3390/languages6040173 |issn=2226-471X |doi-access=free }}</ref> Thus, Arabic vernaculars are not a modified version of the Classical language,{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=172}} which is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor.{{sfn|Al-Jallad|2020a|p=8}} Classical Arabic and vernacular varieties all developed from an unattested common ancestor, [[Proto-Arabic language|Proto-Arabic]].{{sfn|Al-Jallad|2020a|p=8}}<ref>{{Cite book |first1=John|last1=Huehnergard|editor-last=Al-Jallad |editor-first=Ahmad|chapter= Arabic in Its Semitic Context |doi=10.1163/9789004343047_002|title=Arabic in Context: Celebrating 400 Years of Arabic at Leiden University |year=2017 |page=13 |isbn=978-90-04-34304-7|oclc=967854618 |publisher=Brill}}</ref> The [[ISO 639-3]] standard classifies Levantine as a language, member of the macrolanguage Arabic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=apc {{!}} ISO 639-3 |url=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/apc |access-date=2023-01-27 |work=[[SIL International]] }}</ref>

Sedentary vernaculars (also called dialects) are traditionally classified into five groups according to shared features: Peninsular, Mesopotamian, Levantine, [[Egyptian Arabic|Egyptian]], and [[Maghrebi Arabic|Maghrebi]].{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=189}}<ref name="Palva Classification">{{cite book |first1=Heikki |last1=Palva |chapter=Dialects: Classification |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0087 |year=2011|publisher=Brill}}</ref> The [[linguistic distance]] between these vernaculars is at least as large as between [[Germanic languages]] or [[Romance languages]]. It is, for instance, extremely difficult for Moroccans and Iraqis, each speaking their own variety, to understand each other.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=133}} Levantine and Egyptian are the two prestige varieties of spoken Arabic;<ref>{{Cite book|last=International Phonetic Association |title=Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet|year=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-65236-0|oclc=40305532|page=51}}</ref><ref name="Trentman"/>{{sfn|Schmitt|2020|p=1391}} they are also the most widely understood vernaculars in the Arab world{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}} and the most commonly taught to non-native speakers outside the Arab world.<ref name="Trentman">{{Cite journal|last1=Trentman|first1=Emma|last2=Shiri|first2=Sonia|year=2020|title=The Mutual Intelligibility of Arabic Dialects: Implications for the classroom|url=https://cms.arizona.edu/index.php/multilingual/article/view/207|journal=Critical Multilingualism Studies|publisher=University of Arizona|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=116, 121|access-date=4 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183420/https://cms.arizona.edu/index.php/multilingual/article/view/207|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Geographical distribution and varieties ==
=== Dialects ===
Levantine is spoken in the fertile strip on the [[Eastern Mediterranean|eastern shores of the Mediterranean]]: from the Turkish coastal provinces of [[Adana Province|Adana]], [[Hatay Province|Hatay]], and [[Mersin Province|Mersin]] in the north<ref>{{Cite web |title=Turkey |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/map/TR |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180716165750/https://www.ethnologue.com/map/TR |archive-date=16 July 2018 |access-date=16 July 2018 |work=[[Ethnologue]]}}</ref> to the Negev, passing through Lebanon, the coastal regions of Syria ([[Latakia Governorate|Latakia]] and [[Tartus Governorate|Tartus]] governorates) as well as around [[Aleppo]] and Damascus,<ref name=e28/> the [[Hauran]] in Syria and Jordan,{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}}{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=531}} the rest of western Jordan,<ref name="JOSY-map">{{Cite web |title=Jordan and Syria |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/map/JOSY |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730231539/https://www.ethnologue.com/map/JOSY |archive-date=30 July 2019 |access-date=16 July 2018 |work=[[Ethnologue]]}}</ref> Palestine and Israel.<ref name=e28/> Other Arabic varieties border it: Mesopotamian and [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]] to the north and north-east; [[Najdi Arabic]] to the east and south-east; and [[Northwest Arabian Arabic]] to the south and south-west.<ref name="JOSY-map"/><ref name="EGLY-map">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/map/EGLY|title=Egypt and Libya|work=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=5 August 2016|archive-date=5 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160805164240/http://www.ethnologue.com/map/EGLY|url-status=live}}</ref>

The similarity among Levantine dialects transcends geographical location and political boundaries. The urban dialects of the main cities (such as [[Damascus]], [[Beirut]], and [[Jerusalem]]) have much more in common with each other than they do with the rural dialects of their respective countries. The [[sociolect]]s of two different social or religious groups within the same country may also show more dissimilarity with each other than when compared with their counterparts in another country.{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|p=xiii}}

The process of linguistic homogenization within each country of the Levant makes a classification of dialects by country possible today.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=184}}<ref name="Palva Classification"/> Linguist [[Kees Versteegh]] classifies Levantine into three groups: Lebanese/Central Syrian (including Beirut, Damascus, [[Druze Arabic dialect|Druze Arabic]], [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic|Cypriot Maronite]]{{efn|''[[Ethnologue]]'' classifies [[Cypriot Arabic]] as a [[Mixed language|hybrid language]] between Levantine and North Mesopotamian.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Alexander |last1=Borg |chapter=Cypriot Maronite Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0076 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> Pr. Jonathan Owens classifies it in [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Owens |first=Jonathan |title=A Linguistic History of Arabic |date=2006 |isbn=0-19-929082-2  |oclc=62532502|page=274|publisher=OUP Oxford }}</ref>}}), North Syrian (including Aleppo), and Palestinian/Jordanian.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}} He writes that distinctions between these groups are unclear, and [[isogloss]]es cannot determine the exact boundary.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=199}}

[[File:Maya Diab interview in Morocco - Oct 28, 2017.webm|thumb|An interview with Lebanese singer [[Maya Diab]]; she speaks in Lebanese.]]
[[File:Hatimogullari speaking Cilician Arabic.webm|thumb|Turkish politician [[Tülay Hatimoğulları]] is giving a political speech in [[Cilician Arabic]].]]

The [[Aleppo Arabic|dialect of Aleppo]] shows Mesopotamian influence.<ref name=e28/> The prestige dialect of Damascus is the most documented Levantine dialect.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}} A "common Syrian Arabic" is emerging.<ref name="EALL Syria">{{cite book |first1=Peter |last1=Behnstedt |chapter=Syria |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0330 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> Similarly, a "Standard Lebanese Arabic" is emerging, combining features of Beiruti Arabic (which is not prestigious) and Jabale Arabic, the language of [[Mount Lebanon]].<ref name="Wardini Lebanon" /><ref name="EALL Beirut" /> In [[Çukurova]], Turkey, [[Çukurova Arabic|the local dialect]] is [[Endangered language|endangered]].<ref name="EALL Antiochia Arabic">{{cite book |first1=Werner |last1=Arnold |chapter=Antiochia Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0018 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Cilician EALL">{{cite book |first1=Stephan |last1=Procházka |chapter=Cilician Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0056 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> Bedouin varieties are spoken in the Negev and the [[Sinai Peninsula]], areas of transition between Levantine and Egyptian.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Behnstedt |first1=Peter |title=Arabische Dialektgeographie : Eine Einführung |date=2005 |publisher=Brill |first2=Manfred |last2=Woidich |isbn=90-04-14130-8 |location=Boston |oclc=182530188|language=de|pages=102–103}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jong|first=Rudolf Erik de |title=A Grammar of the Bedouin Dialects of Central and Southern Sinai|year=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-20146-0|oclc=727944814|pages=10, 19, 285}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Al-Jallad |first=Ahmad |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED547427 |title=Ancient Levantine Arabic: A Reconstruction Based on the Earliest Sources and the Modern Dialects |year=2012 |degree=PhD |publisher=Harvard University |isbn=978-1-267-44507-0 |page=212 |oclc=5828687139 |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=10 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075658/https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED547427 |url-status=live }}</ref> The dialect of [[Arish]], Egypt, is classified by [[Linguasphere]] as Levantine.<ref name="Linguasphere" /> The [[Amman]] dialect is emerging as an urban standard in [[Jordanian Arabic]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jdetawy|first=Loae Fakhri|year=2020|title=Readings in the Jordanian Arabic dialectology|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/tec/journl/v12y2020i1p401-430.html|journal=Technium Social Sciences Journal|publisher=Technium Science|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|page=416|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717205138/https://ideas.repec.org/a/tec/journl/v12y2020i1p401-430.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Al-Wer-Amman-2020">{{Cite book|last=Al-Wer|first=Enam|editor1-last=Lucas|editor1-first=Christopher|title=Arabic and contact-induced change|year=2020|editor2-first=Stefano|editor2-last=Manfredi|isbn=978-3-96110-251-8|oclc=1164638334|publisher=Language Science Press|pages=551–552, 555|doi=10.5281/zenodo.3744549|chapter-url=https://zenodo.org/record/3744549|chapter=New-dialect formation: The Amman dialect|access-date=6 March 2022|archive-date=11 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511015920/https://www.worldcat.org/title/arabic-and-contact-induced-change/oclc/1164638334}}</ref> while other Jordanian and [[Palestinian Arabic]] dialects include [[Fellah|''Fellahi'']] (rural) and ''Madani'' (urban).<ref name=e28/><ref>{{cite book |first1=Kimary N. |last1=Shahin |chapter=Palestinian Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol3_0247 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Horesh Palestinian">{{cite book |first1=Uri |last1=Horesh |first2=William |last2=Cotter |chapter=Sociolinguistics of Palestinian Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_SIM_001007 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> The [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] dialect contains features of both urban Palestinian and [[Bedouin Arabic]].<ref name="Gaza dialect" />

=== Ethnicity and religion ===
The Levant is characterized by [[ethnic diversity]] and [[religious pluralism]].{{sfn|Prochazka|2018|p=257}} Levantine dialects vary along sectarian lines.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}} Religious groups include [[Sunni Islam|Sunni Muslims]], [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]], [[Alawites]], Christians, [[Druze]], and Jews.<ref name="Turkey EALL"/><ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> Differences between Muslim and Christian dialects are minimal, mainly involving some religious vocabulary.{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=529}} A minority of features are perceived as typically associated with one group. For example, in Beirut, the [[exponent (linguistics)|exponent]] {{wikt-lang|apc|تاع}} {{transliteration|apc|tēʕ}} is only used by Muslims and never by Christians who use {{wikt-lang|apc|تبع}} {{transliteration|apc|tabaʕ}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Germanos|first=Marie-Aimée|year=2011|title=Linguistic Representations and Dialect Contact: Some Comments on the Evolution of Five Regional Variants in Beirut|url=https://www.cairn-int.info/revue-langage-et-societe-2011-4-page-43.htm|journal=Langage et société|publisher=Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme|volume=138|issue=4|pages=IV, XIV|doi=10.3917/ls.138.0043|access-date=13 October 2021|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028170346/https://www.cairn-int.info/revue-langage-et-societe-2011-4-page-43.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Contrary to others, Druze and Alawite dialects retained the phoneme {{IPA|/q/}}.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=403}} MSA influences Sunni dialects more. Jewish dialects diverge more from Muslim dialects and often show influences from other towns due to trade networks and contacts with other Jewish communities.{{sfn|Prochazka|2018|p=290}} For instance, the Jewish dialect of Hatay is very similar to the Aleppo dialect, particularly the dialect of the Jews of Aleppo. It shows traits otherwise not found in any dialect of Hatay.{{sfn|Prochazka|2018|p=290}}<ref name="EALL Antiochia Arabic"/> [[Koiné language|Koineization]] in cities such as Damascus leads to a homogenization of the language among religious groups.<ref name="Berlinches Ramos 2020"/> In contrast, the marginalization of [[Christianity in Jordan|Christians in Jordan]] intensifies linguistic differences between Christian Arabs and Muslims.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Al-wer |first1=Enam |last2=Horesh |first2=Uri |last3=Herin |first3=Bruno |last4=Fanis |first4=Maria |date=2015 |others=Uri Horesh, Bruno Herin, Maria Fanis |title=How Arabic Regional Features Become Sectarian Features Jordan as a Case Study |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.13173/zeitarabling.62.0068 |journal=Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik |language=en |issue=62 |pages=68–87 |jstor=10.13173/zeitarabling.62.0068 |issn=0170-026X}}</ref>

Levantine is primarily spoken by [[Arabs]]. It is also spoken as a [[First language|first]] or [[second language]] by several [[Levant#Demographics|ethnic minorities]].{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|pp=1920–1921}} In particular, it is spoken natively by [[Samaritans]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-06-19|title=Samaritans|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/samaritans/|access-date=2021-10-12|work=[[Minority Rights Group International]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009221025/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/samaritans/|url-status=live}}</ref> and by most [[Circassians in Jordan]],{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1921}}<ref name="Jordan EALL"/> [[Armenians in Jordan]]<ref name="Al-Khatib Armenians Jordan"/> and [[Armenians in Israel|Israel]],<ref name="Shafrir">{{cite conference |url=https://www.afahc.ro/ro/afases/2011/socio/SHAFRIR_1.pdf |title=Ethnic minority languages in Israel |last1=Shafrir |first1=Asher |year=2011 |book-title=Proceedings of the Scientific Conference AFASES |pages=493, 496 |conference=AFASES |location=Brasov |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217214409/https://www.afahc.ro/ro/afases/2011/socio/SHAFRIR_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Assyrians in Israel]],<ref name="Shafrir"/> [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen in Syria]]<ref name="MRG Syria">{{Cite web|date=2015-06-19|title=Syria – World Directory of Minorities & Indigenous Peoples|url=https://minorityrights.org/country/syria/|access-date=2021-10-12|work=[[Minority Rights Group International]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009215519/https://minorityrights.org/country/syria/|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Lebanese Turkmen|Lebanon]],<ref>{{Cite web|first=Oytun|last=Orhan|title=The Forgotten Turks: Turkmens of Lebanon|url=https://orsam.org.tr/en/the-forgotten-turks-turkmens-of-lebanon/|date=2010-02-09|access-date=2021-10-12|work=[[Center for Middle Eastern Strategic Studies]]|language=en|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027181808/https://orsam.org.tr/en/the-forgotten-turks-turkmens-of-lebanon/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Kurds in Lebanon]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kawtharani|first1=Farah W.|last2=Meho|first2=Lokman I.|year=2005|title=The Kurdish community in Lebanon|id={{Gale|A135732900}} |journal=International Journal of Kurdish Studies|publisher=Kurdish Library| language=English|volume=19|issue=1–2|page=137}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Armenians, Kurds in Lebanon hold on to their languages|first=Samar|last=Kadi|url=http://thearabweekly.com/armenians-kurds-lebanon-hold-their-languages|access-date=2021-10-13|website=The Arab Weekly|language=en|date=2016-03-18|archive-date=23 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023212327/https://thearabweekly.com/armenians-kurds-lebanon-hold-their-languages|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Dom people]] in Jerusalem.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Jerusalem's Gypsies: The Community With the Lowest Social Standing in Israel|language=en|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-the-lowest-caste-on-israel-s-social-ladder-1.5452219|access-date=2021-10-12|first=Tali|last=Heruti-Sover|date=2016-10-26|archive-date=28 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028175009/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-the-lowest-caste-on-israel-s-social-ladder-1.5452219|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matras|first=Yaron|year=1999|title=The State of Present-Day Domari in Jerusalem|url=http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.695.691|journal=Mediterranean Language Review|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|volume=11|page=10|citeseerx=10.1.1.695.691|access-date=12 October 2021|archive-date=16 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224041/http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.695.691|url-status=live}}</ref> Most Christian and Muslim [[Lebanese people in Israel]] speak Lebanese Arabic.{{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|pp=361–362}}{{efn|Most Christian and Muslim [[Lebanese people in Israel]] do not consider themselves Arabs, claiming to be [[Phoenicia]]ns.{{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|pp=361–362}}<ref name="Haaretz 2021 Lebanese Israel">{{Cite news|title=These Young Israelis Were Born in Lebanon – but Don't Call Them Arabs|language=en|newspaper=Haaretz|date=2020-05-22|first=Davide|last=Lerner|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-for-these-young-israelis-lebanon-will-always-be-their-first-home-1.8863641|access-date=2021-10-14|archive-date=17 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017190702/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-for-these-young-israelis-lebanon-will-always-be-their-first-home-1.8863641|url-status=live}}</ref>}} [[Syrian Jews]],<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> [[History of the Jews in Lebanon|Lebanese Jews]],<ref>{{Cite news|first1=Ephrem|last1= Kossaify |first2=Nagi|last2= Zeidan |date=2020-09-14|title=Minority report: The Jews of Lebanon|url=http://www.arabnews.com/JewsOfLebanon|access-date=2021-10-20|work=[[Arab News]]|language=en|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020182044/https://www.arabnews.com/JewsOfLebanon|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[History of the Jews in Turkey|Turkish Jews from Çukurova]] are native Levantine speakers; however, most [[Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries|moved to Israel after 1948]].<ref name="EALL Antiochia Arabic"/> Levantine was spoken natively by most [[Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem)|Jews in Jerusalem]], but the community shifted to [[Modern Hebrew]] after the establishment of Israel.<ref name="Rosenhouse">{{cite book |first1=Judith |last1=Rosenhouse |chapter=Jerusalem Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0063 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sabar |first1=Yona |title=Review of Jewish Life in Arabic Language and Jerusalem Arabic in Communal Perspective, A Lexico-Semantic Study. Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics, vol. 30 |journal=Al-'Arabiyya |year=2000 |volume=33 |pages=111–113 |jstor=43195505 |publisher=Georgetown University Press}}</ref> Levantine is the second language of Dom people across the Levant,<ref>{{cite book |first1=Yaron |last1=Matras |chapter=Gypsy Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_SIM_vol2_0011 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref name=e28/> [[Circassians in Israel]],<ref name=e28/> [[Armenians in Lebanon]],{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1920}} [[Chechens in Jordan]],<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Diana |last1=Forker |first2=Ala |last2= Al Sheshani|chapter=Far beyond the Caucasus: Chechen in contact with Jordanian Arabic| chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111323756-003/html |editor-last=Levkovych |editor-first=Nataliya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iLTiEAAAQBAJ |title=Diversity in Contact |date=2023 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |isbn=978-3-11-132375-6 |language=en |pages=111–144 |doi=10.1515/9783111323756-003}}</ref><ref name="Jordan EALL"/><ref name="Al-Khatib Armenians Jordan">{{cite journal |last1=Al-Khatib |first1=Mahmoud A. |title=Language shift among the Armenians of Jordan |journal=[[International Journal of the Sociology of Language]]|publisher=De Gruyter |year=2001 |issue=152 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.2001.053|page=153 }}</ref> [[Assyrians in Syria]]<ref name=e28/> and [[Assyrians in Lebanon|Lebanon]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Collelo |first1=Thomas |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/le/lebanoncountryst00coll/lebanoncountryst00coll.pdf |title=Lebanon: a country study |last2=Smith |first2=Harvey Henry |year=1989 |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |page=73 |oclc=556223794 |access-date=15 April 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119161803/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/le/lebanoncountryst00coll/lebanoncountryst00coll.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsukanova |first1=Vera |last2=Prusskaya |first2=Evgeniya |title=Contacts in the MENA region: a brief introduction |periodical=Middle East – Topics & Arguments |number=13 |year=2019 |volume=13 |doi=10.17192/meta.2019.13.8245|publisher=Center for Near and Middle Eastern Studies|pages=8–9}}</ref> and most [[Kurds in Syria]].<ref name=e28/><ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-06-19|title=Kurds|url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kurds-5/|access-date=2021-10-12|work=[[Minority Rights Group International]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=9 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009215520/https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kurds-5/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Speakers by country ===
In addition to the Levant, where it is [[Indigenous language|indigenous]], Levantine is spoken among [[diaspora]] communities from the region, especially among the [[Palestinian diaspora|Palestinian]],<ref name="Horesh Palestinian"/> [[Lebanese diaspora|Lebanese]], and [[Syrian diaspora]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=McLoughlin|first=Leslie J. |title=Colloquial Arabic (Levantine): Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan|year=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-88074-6|edition=2nd|oclc=313867477|pages=5–6}}</ref> The language has fallen into disuse among [[Immigrant generations|subsequent diaspora generations]], such as the 7 million [[Lebanese Brazilians]].<ref>{{Cite thesis|degree=PhD|last=Guedri|first=Christine Marie|year=2008|title=A Sociolinguistic Study of Language Contact of Lebanese Arabic and Brazilian Portuguese in São Paulo|publisher=University of Texas at Austin |url=https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/20152|page=101|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717185253/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/20152|url-status=live|oclc=844206664}}</ref><ref name=e28/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Levantine speakers, ''Ethnologue'' (2025){{efn|Only countries with at least 100,000 speakers are shown.}}
! Country || Levantine speakers (L1+L2)<ref name=e28/>
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Syria}} || {{sigfig|20.800000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Jordan}} || {{sigfig|12.300000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Lebanon}} || {{sigfig|5.415000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Palestine}} || {{sigfig|4.980000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Turkey}} || {{sigfig|4.250000|2}} million{{efn|Including 3 million [[Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Turkey|Syrian refugees]].<ref name=e28/>}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Egypt}} || {{sigfig|2.100000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Israel}} || {{sigfig|2.068000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Germany}} || {{sigfig|1.350000|2}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Qatar}} || {{sigfig|0.974000|1}} million
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Saudi Arabia}} || {{sigfig|836,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Brazil}} || {{sigfig|700,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|United States}} || {{sigfig|699,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|United Arab Emirates}} || {{sigfig|669,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Kuwait}} || {{sigfig|423,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Indonesia}} || {{sigfig|283,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Canada}} || {{sigfig|255,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Sweden}} || {{sigfig|217,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Australia}} || {{sigfig|124,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Venezuela}} || {{sigfig|127,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|the Netherlands}} || {{sigfig|126,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Sudan}} || {{sigfig|105,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Senegal}} || {{sigfig|102,000|1}}
|-
| {{flag+link|Languages of|Libya}} || {{sigfig|103,000|1}}
|}

== History ==
=== Pre-Islamic antiquity ===
Starting in the [[1st millennium BCE]], [[Aramaic]] was the dominant spoken language and the language of writing and administration in the Levant.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|pp=10–11}} Greek was the language of administration of the [[Seleucid Empire]] (in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE{{sfn|Magidow|2013|p=167}}) and was maintained by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] (64 BCE–475 CE<ref name="Roman Syria"/><ref name="Roman Palestine"/>), then [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (476–640<ref name="Roman Palestine">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Palestine – Roman Palestine|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine|access-date=2022-04-07|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|first1=Walid Ahmed|last1=Khalidi|archive-date=11 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411035412/https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine/Roman-Palestine|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Roman Syria">{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Syria – Hellenistic and Roman periods |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria/Hellenistic-and-Roman-periods |access-date=2022-04-07 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |first1=William L. |last1=Ochsenwald |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407110807/https://www.britannica.com/place/Syria/Hellenistic-and-Roman-periods |url-status=live }}</ref>) empires.{{sfn|Magidow|2013|p=167}} From the early 1st millennium BCE until the 6th century CE, there was a continuum of [[Central Semitic languages]] in the Arabian Peninsula, and Central Arabia was home to languages quite distinct from Arabic.<ref name="Al-Jallad 2018">{{cite book |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad |chapter=What is Ancient North Arabian? |pages=34–35 |doi=10.2307/J.CTVCM4FP0.4 |s2cid=134570989 |editor1-last=Birnstiel |editor1-first=Daniel |editor2-last=Pat-El |editor2-first=((Na{{hamza}}ama)) |title=Re-engaging Comparative Semitic and Arabic Studies |year=2018 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-19823-3 |oclc=1080432675 }}</ref>

Because there are no written sources, the history of Levantine before the [[Late modern period|modern period]] is unknown.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|pp=204-205}} Old Arabic was a dialect continuum stretching from the southern Levant (where Northern Old Arabic was spoken) to the northern [[Hejaz|Hijaz]], in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], where [[Old Hijazi]] was spoken.{{sfn|Al-Jallad|2020a|p=12}} In the early 1st century CE, a great variety of Arabic dialects were already spoken by various nomadic or semi-nomadic Arabic tribes in the [[Levant]],{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=171}}{{sfn|Magidow|2013|pp=185–186}}<ref name="EALL Syria"/> such as the [[Nabataeans]]{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=31}}—who used Aramaic for official purposes,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad |chapter=Graeco-Arabica I: The Southern Levant |doi=10.1163/9789004343047_006 |title=Arabic in Context: Celebrating 400 Years of Arabic at Leiden University |year=2017 |page=100 |isbn=978-90-04-34304-7|oclc=967854618 |publisher=Brill}}</ref> the [[Tanukhids]],{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=31}} and the [[Ghassanids]].<ref name="Jordan EALL"/> These dialects were local, coming from the [[Hauran]]—and not from the Arabian Peninsula—{{sfn|Magidow|2013|p=186}} and related to later Classical Arabic.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=31}} Initially restricted to the [[Middle East steppe|steppe]], Arabic-speaking nomads started to settle in cities and fertile areas after the [[Plague of Justinian]] in 542 CE.{{sfn|Magidow|2013|p=186}} These Arab communities stretched from the southern extremities of the Syrian Desert to central Syria, the [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]], and the [[Beqaa Valley]].<ref>{{cite book |first1=Jan |last1=Retsö |chapter=ʿArab |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_eall_com_0020 |publisher=Brill |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/*-EALL_COM_0020 |year=2011 |access-date=19 December 2021 |archive-date=19 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219192631/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/*-EALL_COM_0020 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="EALL Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords">{{cite book |first1=Jan |last1=Retsö |chapter=Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_eall_com_0024 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/*-EALL_COM_0024 |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |access-date=19 December 2021 |archive-date=19 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219192633/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/*-EALL_COM_0024 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Muslim conquest of the Levant ===
The [[Muslim conquest of the Levant]] (634–640<ref name="Roman Palestine"/><ref name="Roman Syria"/>) brought new groups of Arabic speakers from the Arabian Peninsula who settled in the Levant.{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|pp=530–531}} Arabic became the [[language of trade]] and public life in cities, while [[Western Aramaic languages]] continued to be spoken at home and in the countryside.<ref name="EALL Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords"/> Arabic gradually replaced early [[Medieval Greek]] as the language of administration in 700 by order of the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyad caliph]] [[Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan]].{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=65}}<ref name="Erdman">{{cite journal|last=Erdman|first=Michael|year=2017|title=From Language to Patois and Back Again: Syriac Influences on Arabic in Mont Liban during the 16th to 19th Centuries|journal=Syriac Orthodox Patriarchal Journal|page=3|url=https://syriacpatriarchate.org/st-aphrem-theological-seminary/patriarchal-journal/volume-55-2017/|volume=55|issue=1|publisher=[[Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch and All the East]]|access-date=22 December 2021|archive-date=22 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222155231/https://syriacpatriarchate.org/st-aphrem-theological-seminary/patriarchal-journal/volume-55-2017/|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[language shift]] from Aramaic to vernacular Arabic was a long process over several generations, with an extended period of [[multilingualism]], especially among non-Muslims.<ref name="EALL Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords"/><ref name="Neishtadt"/> Christians continued to speak [[Syriac language|Syriac]] for about two centuries, and Syriac remained their literary language until the 14th century.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=127}}<ref name="Erdman"/> In its spoken form, Aramaic nearly disappeared, except for a few [[Western Neo-Aramaic]]-speaking villages,<ref name="Erdman"/> but it has left [[Stratum (linguistics)|substrate influences]] on Levantine.<ref name="Neishtadt">{{cite book |last1=Neishtadt |first1=Mila |year=2015 |chapter=The Lexical Component in the Aramaic Substrate of Palestinian Arabic |page=281 |doi=10.1163/9789004300156_016 |title=Semitic Languages in Contact |isbn=978-90-04-30015-6 |oclc=1105497638|publisher=Brill|editor-first=Aaron|editor-last=Butts}}</ref>

Different Peninsular Arabic dialects competed for prestige in the Levant, including the [[Old Hijazi Arabic]] of the Umayyad elites. These Peninsular dialects mixed with ancient Levantine forms of Arabic.{{sfn|Al-Jallad|2020a|p=20}} By the mid-[[6th century]], the [[Petra papyri]] show that the onset of the [[Article (grammar)|article]] and its vowel seem to have weakened. The article is sometimes written as /el-/ or simply /l-/. A similar, but not identical, situation is found in the texts from the Islamic period. Unlike the pre-Islamic attestations, the [[Syllabic coda|coda]] of the article in 'conquest Arabic' assimilates to a following [[coronal consonant]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad |title=The Arabic of the Islamic conquests: Notes on phonology and morphology based on the Greek transcriptions from the first Islamic century |journal=[[Bulletin of the School of Oriental & African Studies]]|publisher= Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |volume=80 |issue=3 |page=428 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X17000878 |s2cid=165725344 }}</ref> According to Pr. Simon Hopkins, this document shows that there is "a very impressive continuity in colloquial Arabic usage, and the roots of the modern vernaculars are thus seen to lie very deep".{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=205}}

=== Medieval and early modern era ===
The [[Damascus Psalm Fragment]], dated to the 9th century but possibly earlier, sheds light on the Damascus dialect of that period. Because its Arabic text is written in [[Greek alphabet|Greek characters]], it reveals the pronunciation of the time;{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=174}} it features many examples of [[imāla]] (the fronting and raising of {{IPA|/a/}} toward {{IPA|/i/}}).{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=181}} It also features a pre-grammarian standard of Arabic and the dialect from which it sprung, likely Old Hijazi.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Al-Jallad |first1=Ahmad|first2=Ronny|last2= Vollandt  |title=The Damascus Psalm Fragment: Middle Arabic and the legacy of Old Ḥigāzī |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-61491-052-7 |oclc=1170167285 |url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Publications/LAMINE/Lamine2.pdf |pages=1–6 |publisher=Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago |access-date=5 November 2021 |archive-date=5 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305053844/https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Publications/LAMINE/Lamine2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Scholars disagree on the dates of phonological changes. The shift of [[Interdental consonant|interdental spirants]] to [[Dental consonant|dental stops]] dates to the 9th to 10th centuries or earlier.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=176}} The shift from {{IPAslink|q}} to a [[glottal stop]] is dated between the 11th and 15th centuries.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=178}} Imāla seems already important in pre-Islamic times.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=181}}

Swedish orientalist {{ill|Carlo Landberg|sv}} writes about the [[vulgarism]]s encountered in Damascene poet [[Usama ibn Munqidh]]'s ''Memoirs'': "All of them are found in today's spoken language of Syria and it is very interesting to note that that language is, on the whole, not very different from the language of ˀUsāma's days", in the 12th century.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=205}} Lucas Caballero's ''Compendio'' (1709) describes spoken Damascene Arabic in the early 1700s. It corresponds to modern Damascene in some respects, such as the [[allomorph]]ic variation between -''a''/-''e'' in the feminine suffix, while the insertion and deletion of vowels differ.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Damascus Arabic According to the ''Compendio'' of Lucas Caballero (1709) |title=Middle Arabic and Mixed Arabic: Diachrony and Synchrony |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |pages=295, 329 |isbn=978-90-04-22804-7 |first1=Otto |last1=Zwartjes |first2=Manfred |last2=Woidich |editor1-last=Zack |editor1-first=Liesbeth|editor2-last=Schippers|editor2-first=Arie| doi=10.1163/9789004228047_018}}</ref>

From 1516 to 1918, the [[Ottoman Empire]] dominated the [[Ottoman Syria|Levant]]. Many Western words entered Arabic through Ottoman Turkish as it was the main language for transmitting [[Western culture|Western ideas]] into the Arab world.<ref name="Procházka2009">{{cite book |first1=Stephan |last1=Procházka |chapter=Turkish Loanwords |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0359 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Procházka2004"/>

=== 20th and 21st centuries ===
The [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] in the early 20th century reduced the use of Turkish words due to [[Arabization]] and the negative perception of the Ottoman era among Arabs.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=425}} With the [[Mandate for Syria and Lebanon|French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] (1920–1946),<ref name="Aslanov2018">{{cite book|last=Aslanov|first=Cyril|title=Linguistic Ecology and Language Contact|chapter=The Historical Formation of a Macro-ecology: the Case of the Levant|year=2018|chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/linguistic-ecology-and-language-contact/historical-formation-of-a-macroecology-the-case-of-the-levant/109FD470232952A700607A644EB61DA8|pages=132, 134, 145|editor-last=Mühlhäusler|editor-first=Peter|series=Cambridge Approaches to Language Contact|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/9781139649568.006|isbn=978-1-107-04135-6|oclc=1302490060|s2cid=150123855|editor2-last=Ludwig|editor2-first=Ralph|editor3-last=Pagel|editor3-first=Steve|access-date=17 January 2022|archive-date=16 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224043/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/linguistic-ecology-and-language-contact/historical-formation-of-a-macroecology-the-case-of-the-levant/109FD470232952A700607A644EB61DA8|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Emirate of Transjordan|British protectorate over Jordan]] (1921–1946), and the [[Mandate for Palestine|British Mandate for Palestine]] (1923–1948), French and English words gradually entered Levantine Arabic.{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|pp=1920–1921}}<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Guba |first=Abu |date=August 2016 |title=Phonological Adaptation of English Loanwords in Ammani Arabic |page=7|degree=PhD |publisher=University of Salford |oclc=1063569424 |url=https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/40037/ |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=16 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224040/https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/40037/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Similarly, Modern Hebrew has significantly influenced the Palestinian dialect of [[Arab citizens of Israel|Arab Israelis]] since the establishment of Israel in 1948.<ref name="Elhija2017"/> In the 1960s, Said Akl—inspired by the [[Maltese alphabet|Maltese]] and [[Turkish alphabet reform|Turkish alphabets]]—{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=425–426, 457}} designed a new [[Latin alphabet for Lebanese]] and promoted the official use of Lebanese instead of MSA,{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=425–426, 430}} but this movement was unsuccessful.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=423, 463–464}}{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|pp=23–24}}

Although Levantine dialects have remained stable over the past two centuries, in cities such as Amman<ref name="Al-Wer-Amman-2020"/> and Damascus, [[Standard language|language standardization]] occurs through [[Variation (linguistics)|variant]] reduction and linguistic homogenization among the various religious groups and neighborhoods. [[Urbanization]] and the increasing proportion of youth{{efn|Youth, especially teenagers, are considered the most active initiators of language change.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00555563|title=Arabic in the City: Issues in Dialect Contact and Language Variation|year=2014|last1=Miller|first1=Catherine|editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=Catherine|editor2-first=Enam|editor2-last=Al-Wer|editor3-first=Dominique|editor3-last=Caubet|editor4-first=Janet C. E.|editor4-last=Watson|isbn=978-0-415-76217-5|chapter=Arabic Urban Vernaculars: Development and Changes|oclc=889520260|page=45|publisher=Routledge|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717153029/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00555563|url-status=live}}</ref>}} constitute the causes of [[Language change|dialect change]].<ref name="Berlinches Ramos 2020">{{cite journal | last=Berlinches Ramos | first=Carmen | title=Notes on Language Change and Standardization in Damascus Arabic | journal=Anaquel de Estudios Árabes | publisher=[[Complutense University of Madrid]] | volume=31 |year=2020 | doi=10.5209/anqe.66210 | pages=97–98 | s2cid=225608465 | url=http://zaguan.unizar.es/record/95673 | access-date=4 November 2021 | archive-date=16 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220316224045/https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/95673 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Palva Classification"/> Urban forms are considered more prestigious,{{sfn|Schmitt|2020|p=1392}} and [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige dialects]] of the capitals are replacing the rural varieties.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}} With the emergence of social media, the amount of written Levantine has also significantly increased online.<ref name="Kwaik2018Shami"/>

== Status and usage ==
=== Diglossia and code-switching ===
Levantine is not recognized in any state or territory.<ref name="Høigilt p.8">{{Cite book |last1=Høigilt |first1=Jacob |url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004346178/B9789004346178-s002.xml |chapter=Introduction |last2=Mejdell |first2=Gunvor |title=The Politics of Written Language in the Arab World: Writing Change |year=2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-34617-8 |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004346178_002 |doi-access=free |page=8 |editor1-last=Høigilt |editor1-first=Jacob |editor2-last=Mejdell |editor2-first=Gunvor |oclc=992798713 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vkk |access-date=20 March 2022 |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320165856/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004346178/B9789004346178-s002.xml |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1917}} MSA is the sole official language in Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria;{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1917}} it has a "special status" in Israel under the [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|Basic Law]].{{sfn|Amara|2017|p=138}} [[French language in Lebanon|French]] is also recognized in Lebanon.{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1920}} In Turkey, the only official language is Turkish.<ref name="EALL Antiochia Arabic"/> Any variation from MSA is considered a "dialect" of Arabic.{{sfn|Schmitt|2020|p=1383}} As in the rest of the [[Arab world]], this linguistic situation has been described as [[diglossia]]: MSA is nobody's first acquired language;{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}} it is learned through formal instruction rather than [[Traditional transmission|transmission from parent to child]].{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}} This diglossia has been compared to the use of [[Latin]] as the sole written, official, [[Sacred language|liturgical]], and literary language in Europe during the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]], while Romance languages were the spoken languages.{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=241}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kamusella|first=Tomasz Dominik|year=2017|title=The Arabic Language: A Latin of Modernity?|journal=Journal of Nationalism, Memory and Language Politics |publisher=De Gruyter|volume=11 |number=2 |doi=10.1515/jnmlp-2017-0006 |doi-access=free |issn=2570-5857|hdl=10023/12443 |page=117|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Levantine and MSA are mutually unintelligible.<ref>{{Cite book |last=al-Sharkawi |first=Muhammad |title=History and Development of the Arabic Language |year=2016 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-317-58863-4|oclc=965157532|page=xvi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Qwaider |first1=Chatrine |url=https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/71096 |title=Resources and Applications for Dialectal Arabic: the Case of Levantine |publisher= University of Gothenburg|last2=Abu Kwaik |first2=Kathrein |year=2022 |isbn=978-91-8009-803-8|pages=136, 139}}</ref> They differ significantly in their [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[lexicon]] and [[syntax]].{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=vii–x}}{{sfn|Schmitt|2020|p=1391}}{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|pp=133–136}}

MSA is the language of literature, official documents, and formal written media (newspapers, instruction leaflets, school books).{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}} In spoken form, MSA is mostly used when reading from a scripted text (e.g., news bulletins) and for prayer and sermons in the mosque or church.{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}} In Israel, Hebrew is the language used in the public sphere, except internally among the [[Arab localities in Israel|Arab communities]].{{sfn|Amara|2017|p=138}}<ref name="Amara Israel">{{cite book |first1=Muhammad Hasan |last1=Amara |chapter=Israel |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0057 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> Levantine is the usual medium of communication in all other domains.{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}}

Traditionally in the Arab world, colloquial varieties, such as Levantine, have been regarded as corrupt forms of MSA, less eloquent and not fit for literature, and thus looked upon with disdain.{{sfn|Shalaby|2020|p=126}}{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|pp=22–23}} Because the French and the British emphasized vernaculars when they colonized the Arab world, vernaculars were also seen as a tool of [[colonialism]] and [[imperialism]].<ref name="Sinatora 2020">{{cite book | last=Sinatora | first=Francesco | title=Language, Identity, and Syrian Political Activism on Social Media | publisher=Routledge | year=2020 | isbn=978-0-429-81233-0 | oclc=1112132573|chapter=Language and Diglossia in Syria. Historical and Political Context|page=13}}</ref>{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=174}} Writing in the vernacular has been controversial because [[pan-Arabism|pan-Arab nationalist]]s consider that this might divide the Arab people into different nations.{{sfn|Shalaby|2020|pp=123, 133–134}}<ref name="Høigilt p.8"/> On the other hand, Classical Arabic is seen as "the language of the [[Quran]]" and revered by Muslims who form the majority of the population.{{sfn|Shalaby|2020|pp=123, 133–134}} It is believed to be pure and everlasting, and [[Islamism|Islamic religious ideology]] considers vernaculars to be inferior.{{sfn|Shalaby|2020|pp=123, 126}}{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|p=23}} Until recently, the use of Levantine in formal settings or written form was often ideologically motivated, for instance in opposition to pan-Arabism.{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|p=23}} [[Language attitudes]] are shifting, and using Levantine became de-ideologized for most speakers by the late 2010s.{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|p=23}} Levantine is now regarded in a more positive light, and its use in informal modes of writing is acknowledged, thanks to its recent widespread use online in both written and spoken forms.{{sfn|Schmitt|2020|pp=1392–1394}}{{sfn|Shalaby|2020|p=139}}

[[Code-switching]] between Levantine, MSA, English, French (in Lebanon and among [[Arab Christians]] in [[Christianity in Syria|Syria]]<ref name="EALL Syria"/>), and Hebrew (in Israel{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|p=viii}}{{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|p=347}}) is frequent among Levantine speakers, in both informal and formal settings (such as on television).<ref name="Darwish 2009"/> Gordon cites two Lebanese examples: "Bonjour, ya habibti, how are you?" ("Hello, my love, how are you?") and "Oui, but leish?" ("Yes, but why?").<ref name="Beer 1985 p. 145">{{cite book | last=Beer | first=William R.| title=Language Policy and National Unity | publisher=Rowman & Allanheld | chapter=The Arabic Language and National Identity | year=1985 | isbn=978-0-86598-058-7 | oclc=10602784 | page=145|editor1-first=William R.|editor1-last=Beer|editor2-first=James E. |editor2-last=Jacob}}</ref> Code-switching also happens in politics. For instance, not all politicians master MSA in Lebanon, so they rely on Lebanese. Many public and formal speeches and most political [[talk show]]s are in Lebanese instead of MSA.<ref name="Wardini Lebanon">{{cite book |first1=Elie |last1=Wardini |chapter=Lebanon |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_SIM_001001 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> In Israel, Arabic and Hebrew are allowed in the [[Knesset]], but Arabic is rarely used.<ref>{{Cite news |title='Unbelievable,' 'Disgrace': Likud Lawmakers Erupt Over Knesset Speech in Arabic |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-unbelievable-disgrace-likud-lawmakers-erupt-over-knesset-speech-in-arabic-1.10516890 |access-date=2022-04-02 |date=2022-01-05 |first1=Allison |last1=Kaplan Sommer |archive-date=2 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402102512/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-unbelievable-disgrace-likud-lawmakers-erupt-over-knesset-speech-in-arabic-1.10516890 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Member of Knesset|MK]] [[Ahmad Tibi]] often adds Palestinian Arabic sentences to his Hebrew speech but only gives partial speeches in Arabic.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.3366/edinburgh/9781474420860.001.0001 |title=Politics of Arabic in Israel: A Sociolinguistic Analysis |year=2017 |last1=Suleiman |first1=Camelia |author-link=Camelia Suleiman|isbn=978-1-4744-2086-0 |chapter=Arabic in the Knesset: The Case of (MK) Ahmad Tibi|pages=62–64|publisher=Edinburgh University Press |s2cid=158850204 |oclc=8161205167}}</ref>

=== Education ===
In the Levant, MSA is the only variety authorized for use in schools,{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}} although in practice, lessons are often taught in a mix of MSA and Levantine with, for instance, the lesson read out in MSA and explained in Levantine.<ref name="EALL Syria"/>{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1917}} In [[Education in Lebanon|Lebanon]], about 50% of school students study in French.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-04-04|title=In Lebanon, English overtakes French in universities|url=https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1164851/in-lebanon-english-overtakes-french-in-universities.html|access-date=2021-07-18|newspaper=[[L'Orient Today]]|archive-date=18 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718173328/https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1164851/in-lebanon-english-overtakes-french-in-universities.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In most [[Higher Education in the Arab World|Arab universities]], the [[medium of instruction]] is MSA in [[social science]]s and [[humanities]], and English or French in the [[Applied science|applied]] and [[Medicine|medical sciences]]. In [[List of universities in Syria|Syria]], only MSA is used.{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=525}}{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|pp=1917, 1920}}<ref name="Jordan EALL">{{cite book |first1=Mohammed |last1=Sawaie |chapter=Jordan |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0064 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> In [[Education in Turkey|Turkey]], article 42.9 of the [[Constitution of Turkey|Constitution]] prohibits languages other than Turkish from being taught as a mother tongue and almost all indigenous Arabic speakers are [[Functional illiteracy|illiterate]] in the Arabic script unless they have learned it for religious purposes.<ref name="Turkey EALL">{{cite book |first1=Joan |last1=Smith-Kocamahhul |chapter=Turkey |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0357 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref>

In Israel, MSA is the only language of instruction in [[Education in Israel#Arab sector|Arab schools]]. Hebrew is studied as a second language by all Palestinian students from at least the second grade and English from the third grade.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Amara |first1=Muhammad Hasan |title=Palestinian schoolscapes in Israel |journal=Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education|publisher=Springer |year=2018 |volume=3 |issue=1 |article-number=7 |doi=10.1186/s40862-018-0047-1 |s2cid=26073303 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Amara Israel"/> In Jewish schools, in 2012, 23,000 pupils were studying spoken Palestinian in 800 elementary schools. Palestinian Arabic is compulsory in Jewish elementary schools in the [[Northern District (Israel)|Northern District]]; otherwise, Jewish schools teach MSA.<ref>{{Cite news|title=More Israelis are learning to speak Arabic than ever before|url=https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/more-israelis-are-learning-to-speak-arabic-than-ever-before-658346|date=2021-02-17|access-date=2021-07-26|newspaper=The Jerusalem Post|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726115942/https://www.jpost.com/jerusalem-report/more-israelis-are-learning-to-speak-arabic-than-ever-before-658346|url-status=live}}</ref> Junior high schools must teach all students MSA, but only two-thirds meet this obligation.<ref name="haaretz Arabic high schools"/> At all stages in 2012, 141,000 Jewish students were learning Arabic.{{sfn|Amara|2017|p=147}} In 2020, 3.7% of Jewish students took the [[Bagrut certificate|Bagrut exam]] in MSA.<ref name="haaretz Arabic high schools">{{Cite news|title=Fewer Jewish High-schoolers Taking Arabic Language Matriculation Exam|work=Haaretz|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-fewer-jewish-high-schoolers-taking-arabic-language-matriculation-exam-1.10562905|access-date=2022-04-03|first=Shira|last=Kadari-Ovadia|date=2022-01-24|archive-date=3 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403163455/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium-fewer-jewish-high-schoolers-taking-arabic-language-matriculation-exam-1.10562905|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Films and music ===
Most films and songs are in vernacular Arabic.<ref name="Shendy"/> [[Cinema of Egypt|Egypt]] was the most influential center of Arab media productions (movies, [[Arab television drama|drama]], TV series) during the 20th century,<ref name="Hachimi"/> but Levantine is now competing with Egyptian.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Uthman |first1=Ahmad |title=Ahmad Maher: Damascus Arabic is a real threat to Egyptian drama |url=https://www.eremnews.com/entertainment/arts-celebrities/935281 |newspaper=Erem News |access-date=23 November 2018 |language=ar-AR |date=2017-08-02 |archive-date=19 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419102751/https://www.eremnews.com/entertainment/arts-celebrities/935281 |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2013, about 40% of all [[Arabic music|music production in the Arab world]] was in Lebanese.<ref name="Hachimi">{{cite journal | last=Hachimi | first=Atiqa | title=The Maghreb-Mashreq language ideology and the politics of identity in a globalized Arab world | journal=Journal of Sociolinguistics | publisher=Wiley | volume=17 | issue=3 | year=2013 | doi=10.1111/josl.12037 | page=275| doi-access=free }}</ref> Lebanese television is the oldest and largest private Arab broadcast industry.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Routledge Handbook on Arab Media|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429427084-22/lebanese-broadcasting-natalie-khazaal|year=2021|isbn=978-0-429-76290-1|chapter=Lebanese broadcasting: Small country, influential media|last1=Khazaal|first1=Natalie|editor1-first=Noureddine|editor1-last=Miladi|editor2-first=Noha|editor2-last=Mellor|oclc=1164821650|doi=10.4324/9780429427084|hdl=10576/26105|s2cid=225023449|page=175|publisher=Taylor & Francis|access-date=17 December 2021|archive-date=17 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217221639/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429427084-22/lebanese-broadcasting-natalie-khazaal|url-status=live}}</ref> Most big-budget pan-Arab entertainment shows are filmed in the Lebanese dialect in the studios of Beirut. Moreover, the Syrian dialect dominates in [[List of Syrian television series|Syrian TV series]] (such as ''[[Bab Al-Hara]]'') and in the [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] of [[Turkish television drama]]s (such as ''[[Gümüş (TV series)|Noor]]''), famous across the Arab world.<ref name="Hachimi"/><ref>{{cite journal | last=Jabbour | first=Jana | title=An illusionary power of seduction? | journal=European Journal of Turkish Studies | publisher=Association pour la Recherche sur le Moyen-Orient | issue=21 | year=2015 | doi=10.4000/ejts.5234 | url=https://journals.openedition.org/ejts/5234 | access-date=14 April 2022 | archive-date=14 April 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414124508/https://journals.openedition.org/ejts/5234 | url-status=live | doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{as of|2009}}, most [[List of Arabic-language television channels|Arabic satellite television networks]] use colloquial varieties in their programs, except news bulletins in MSA. The use of vernacular in broadcasting started in Lebanon during the [[Lebanese Civil War]] and expanded to the rest of the Arab world. In 2009, [[Al Jazeera Arabic|Al Jazeera]] used MSA only and [[Al Arabiya]] and [[Al-Manar]] used MSA or a hybrid between MSA and colloquial for talk shows.<ref name="Darwish 2009">{{cite book | last=Darwish | first=Ali | title=Social Semiotics of Arabic Satellite Television: Beyond the Glamour | publisher=Writescope | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-9757419-8-6|oclc=642198803 | pages=29, 39, 44}}</ref> On the popular Lebanese satellite channel [[Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation International]] (LBCI), Arab and international news bulletins are only in MSA, while the Lebanese national news broadcast is in a mix of MSA and Lebanese Arabic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Daniëls |first1=Helge |title=News broadcasts between fuṣḥā and Lebanese: Language choice as an implicit comment on national identity in Lebanon |journal=Lingue Culture Mediazioni |volume=8 |issue=2 |page=121 |issn=2421-0293 |publisher=University of Milan |year=2022 |doi=10.7358/lcm-2021-002-dani |s2cid=246763676 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Written media ===
Levantine is seldom written, except for some novels, plays, and humorous writings.<ref name="Mejdell">{{cite book |doi=10.1163/9789004346178_005 |chapter=Changing Norms, Concepts and Practices of Written Arabic: A 'Long Distance' Perspective |title=The Politics of Written Language in the Arab World: Writing Change |year=2017 |page=81 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-34617-8 |doi-access=free |oclc=992798713 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vkk|editor1-last=Høigilt |editor1-first=Jacob |editor2-last=Mejdell |editor2-first=Gunvor |last1=Mejdell |first1=Gunvor}}</ref><ref name="Davies Literature"/> Most Arab critics do not acknowledge the literary dignity of prose in vernacular.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Angelis |first1=Francesco |title=Literature in Dialect: The Great Absentee |journal=Lingue Culture Mediazioni |year=2022 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=163, 168 |issn=2421-0293 |publisher=University of Milan |doi=10.7358/lcm-2021-002-dean |s2cid=246712377 |doi-access=free |hdl=2434/944370 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Prose written in Lebanese goes back to at least 1892 when [[Tannus al-Hurr]] published {{transliteration|apc|Riwāyat aš-šābb as-sikkīr ʾay Qiṣṣat Naṣṣūr as-Sikrī}}, 'The tale of the drunken youth, or The story of Nassur the Drunkard'.<ref name="Davies Literature"/> In the 1960s, Said Akl led a movement in Lebanon to replace MSA as the national and literary language, and a handful of writers wrote in Lebanese.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=423, 428–429}}<ref name="Rolland 2003 p. 81">{{cite book | last=Rolland | first=John | title=Lebanon: Current Issues and Background | publisher=Nova Science Publishers, Inc | chapter=Lebanon: A Country Study | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-59033-871-1| oclc=470346995 | page=81}}</ref><ref name="Davies Literature"/> Foreign works, such as [[La Fontaine's Fables|La Fontaine's ''Fables'']], were translated into Lebanese using Akl's alphabet.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|p=438}} The [[Gospel of Mark]] was published in Palestinian in 1940,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gospel of St. Mark in South Levantine Spoken Arabic|translator-last1=Bishop|translator-first1=Eric Frances Fox|translator-last2=George|translator-first2=Surayya|year=1940|language=Levantine Arabic<!--this language is not recognized by Mediawiki-->|oclc = 77662380|publisher=[[Schneller Orphanage|Syrian Orphanage Press]]}}</ref> followed by the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Epistle of James|Letter of James]] in 1946.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gochristianhelps.com/iccm/arabic/othehist.htm|title=Arabic—Other Bible History|website=Gochristianhelps.com|access-date=2018-10-15|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416104429/http://gochristianhelps.com/iccm/arabic/othehist.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=إنجيل مار متى.|year=1946|publisher=جمعية التوراة البريطانية والأجنبية،|language=Levantine Arabic<!--this language is not recognized by Mediawiki-->|oclc=54192550}}</ref> The four [[gospel]]s were translated in Lebanese using Akl's alphabet in 1996 by Gilbert Khalifé. Muris 'Awwad translated the four gospels and ''[[The Little Prince]]'' in 2001 in Lebanese in Arabic script.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|p=437}}<ref name="Davies Literature"/> ''The Little Prince'' was also translated into Palestinian and published in two biscriptal editions (one Arabic/Hebrew script, one Arabic/Latin script).<ref>{{Cite web|title=il-'amir le-zghir – מינרוה|url=https://minerva-books.com/en/product/il-amir-le-zgir-the-little-prince-in-spoken-arabic/|access-date=2021-07-18|website=Minerva Books|date=17 November 2010 |archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191950/https://minerva-books.com/en/product/il-amir-le-zgir-the-little-prince-in-spoken-arabic/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=אל-אמיר ל-זע'יר – מינרוה|url=https://minerva-books.com/product/%d7%90%d7%9c-%d7%90%d7%9e%d7%99%d7%a8-%d7%9c-%d7%96%d7%a2%d7%99%d7%a8/|access-date=2021-07-18|language=he|website=Minerva Books|archive-date=22 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422191635/https://minerva-books.com/product/%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A8-%D7%9C-%D7%96%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TLPAJP">{{Cite book|last=de Saint-Exupéry|first=Antoine |title=il-'amir le-zgir|year=2020|translator-first1=Asaf|translator-last1=Golani|translator-first2=Rawan|translator-last2=Abu-Ghosh|translator-first3=Carol|translator-last3=Sutherland|isbn=978-965-7397-48-0|oclc=1226763691|publisher=Minerva|pages=48–49}}</ref>

Newspapers usually use MSA and reserve Levantine for sarcastic commentaries and caricatures.<ref name="Mellor 2007 p. 89-90">{{cite book | last=Mellor | first=Noha | title=Modern Arab Journalism: Problems and Prospects | publisher=Edinburgh University Press | year=2007 | isbn=978-0-7486-3412-5 | oclc=609917996 | pages=89–90}}</ref> [[Headline]]s in Levantine are common. The [[letter to the editor]] section often includes entire paragraphs in Levantine. Many newspapers also regularly publish personal columns in Levantine, such as {{lang|apc|خرم إبرة}} {{transliteration|apc|xurm ʾibra}}, {{literal translation|[through the] needle's eye}} in the weekend edition of ''[[Al-Ayyam (Ramallah)|Al-Ayyam]]''.{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|pp=92–93}} From 1983 to 1990, Said Akl's newspaper ''Lebnaan'' was published in Lebanese written in the Latin alphabet.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|p=423}} Levantine is also commonly used in [[zajal]] and other forms of oral poetry.<ref name="Kazarian 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Kazarian |first1=Shahe S. |title=Humor in the collectivist Arab Middle East: The case of Lebanon |journal=[[Humor (journal)|Humor]]|page=340|publisher=De Gruyter |year=2011|volume=24 |issue=3 |doi=10.1515/humr.2011.020 |s2cid=44537443 }}</ref><ref name="EALL Syria"/> Zajal written in vernacular was published in [[List of newspapers in Lebanon|Lebanese newspapers]] such as ''Al-Mashriq'' ("The Levant", from 1898) and ''Ad-Dabbur'' ("The Hornet", from 1925). In the 1940s, five reviews in Beirut were dedicated exclusively to poetry in Lebanese.<ref name="Davies Literature">{{cite book |first1=Humphrey T. |last1=Davies |chapter=Dialect Literature |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0086 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> In a 2013 study, Abuhakema investigated 270 written commercial ads in two Jordanian (''[[Al Ghad]]'' and ''[[Ad-Dustour (Jordan)|Ad-Dustour]]'') and two Palestinian (''[[Al-Quds (newspaper)|Al-Quds]]'' and ''Al-Ayyam'') daily newspapers. The study concluded that MSA is still the most used variety in ads, although both varieties are acceptable and Levantine is increasingly used.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Abuhakema|first=Ghazi|year=2013|title=Code switching and code mixing in Arabic written advertisements: Patterns, aspects, and the question of prestige and standardisation|journal=The Internet Journal Language, Culture and Society|url=https://aaref.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/38-20.-Ghazi-M.-Abuhakema-ok.pdf|publisher=Australia Asia Research and Education Foundation|issue=38|pages=175, 185|access-date=15 July 2021|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715131337/https://aaref.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/38-20.-Ghazi-M.-Abuhakema-ok.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Albirini 2016 p. 253">{{cite book | last=Albirini | first=Abdulkafi | title=Modern Arabic Sociolinguistics: Diglossia, variation, codeswitching, attitudes and identity | publisher=Routledge| year=2016 | isbn=978-1-317-40706-5 | oclc=939520125 | page= 253}}</ref>

Most comedies are written in Levantine.<ref name="Landau 2016 p. 119">{{cite book | last=Landau | first=Jacob | title=Studies in the Arab Theater and Cinema | publisher=Routledge | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-138-19228-7 | oclc=945552650 | page=119}}</ref> In Syria, plays became more common and popular in the 1980s by using Levantine instead of Classical Arabic. [[Saadallah Wannous]], the most renowned Syrian playwright, used Syrian Arabic in his later plays.<ref name="Imady 2021 p. 407">{{cite book | last=Imady | first=Omar | title=Historical Dictionary of Syria | publisher=Rowman & Littlefield | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5381-2286-0|oclc=1249680393 | pages=407, 433}}</ref> [[Comic book]]s, like the Syrian [[comic strip]] {{transliteration|apc|Kūktīl}}, are often written in Levantine instead of MSA.<ref>{{cite journal | last=De Blasio | first=Emanuela | title=Comics in the Arab world. Birth and spread of a new literary genre | journal=Anaquel de Estudios Árabes | publisher=Complutense University of Madrid | volume=31 |year=2020 | doi=10.5209/anqe.67162 | page=125| s2cid=225614730 | doi-access=free }}</ref> In novels and short stories, most authors, such as Arab Israelis {{ill|Riyad Baydas|ar|رياض بيدس}} and [[Odeh Bisharat]], write the dialogues in Levantine, while the rest of the text is in MSA.<ref name="Bouskila 2014 p. 73-75">{{cite book | last=Bouskila | first=Ami | title=Modern Palestinian Literature and Culture | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-135-29722-0 | oclc=870227142 | pages=73–75}}</ref><ref name="Husni 2008 p. 8">{{cite book | last1=Husni | first1=Ronak | first2=Daniel L. |last2=Newman |title=Modern Arabic Short Stories: A Bilingual Reader | publisher=Saqi | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-86356-436-9 | oclc=124025907 | page=8}}</ref>{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|p=68}}<ref name="Mejdell"/> Lebanese authors [[Elias Khoury]] (especially in his recent works) and [[Kahlil Gibran]] wrote the main narrative in Levantine.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Modern Arabic Literature between the Nation and the World: The Bilingual Singularity of Kahlil Gibran |url=http://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/67961 |publisher=Queen Mary University of London |year=2019 |degree=PhD |first=Ghazouane |last=Arslane |pages=61, 142 |oclc=1242846328 |access-date=17 March 2022 |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511015926/https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/handle/123456789/67961 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Salem |first1=Elise |year=2017 |chapter=Lebanon |editor1-last=Hassan |editor1-first=Waïl S |title=The Oxford Handbook of Arab Novelistic Traditions |pages=6, 10|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199349791.013.19 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-934979-1|oclc=1091272202}}</ref> Some collections of short stories and anthologies of Palestinian [[folklore|folktales]] ({{transliteration|apc|turāṯ}}, 'heritage literature') display full texts in Levantine.{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|p=76}} On the other hand, Palestinian [[children's literature]] is almost exclusively written in MSA.{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|p=80}}<ref name="Shendy"/>

Internet users in the Arab world communicate with their vernacular language (such as Levantine) more than MSA on social media (such as Twitter, Facebook, or in the comments of online newspapers). According to one study, between 12% and 23% of all vernacular Arabic content online was written in Levantine depending on the platform.<ref>{{Cite conference|last1=Alshutayri|first1=A.|last2=Atwell|first2=E.|year=2018|title=Creating an Arabic Dialect Text Corpus by Exploring Twitter, Facebook, and Online Newspapers|pages=57–58|url=http://lrec-conf.org/workshops/lrec2018/W30/pdf/book_of_proceedings.pdf|access-date=2021-07-17|book-title=Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)|language=en|isbn=979-10-95546-25-2|publisher=European Language Resources Association|editor1-first=Hend|editor1-last=Al-Khalifa|editor2-first=Walid|editor2-last=Magdy|editor3-first=Kareem|editor3-last=Darwish|editor4-first=Tamer|editor4-last=Elsayed|conference=LREC|location=Miyazaki|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717205138/http://lrec-conf.org/workshops/lrec2018/W30/pdf/book_of_proceedings.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
{{main|Levantine Arabic phonology}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Consonant phonemes of urban Levantine (Beirut,<ref name="EALL Beirut"/> Damascus,<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/>{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=405–407}} Jerusalem,<ref name="Rosenhouse"/> Amman<ref name="Al-Wer 2011 Jordan"/>)
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" |[[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]]/<br />[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- style="font-size: 80%;"
! plain
![[Emphatic consonant|emphatic]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]/<br />[[Affricate]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| ({{IPA link|p}}){{efn|name=loanwords|In loanwords only.}}
|
| {{IPA link|t}}
| {{IPA link|tˤ}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
| {{IPA link|q}}{{efn|Mainly in words from Classical Arabic and in Druze, rural, and Bedouin dialects.}}
|
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| {{IPA link|b}}
|
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|dˤ}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɡ}}){{efn|Only in loanwords, except in Jordanian Arabic.}}
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Fricative]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|θ}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
| {{IPA link|sˤ}}
| {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|x}} ~ {{IPA link|χ}}
| {{IPA link|ħ}}
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| ({{IPA link|v}}){{efn|name=loanwords}}
| {{IPA link|ð}}
| {{IPA link|z}}
| {{IPA link|ðˤ}} ~ {{IPA link|zˤ}}
|
| colspan="2" |{{IPA link|ɣ}} ~ {{IPA link|ʁ}}
| {{IPA link|ʕ}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Approximant]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| ({{IPA link|ɫ}})
| {{IPA link|j}}
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

Levantine phonology is characterized by rich [[Sociophonetics|socio-phonetic]] variations along socio-cultural (gender; religion; urban, rural or Bedouin) and geographical lines.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=405}} For instance, in urban varieties, interdentals {{IPA|/θ/}}, {{IPA|/ð/}}, and {{IPA|/ðʕ/}} tend to merge to stops or fricatives {{IPA|[t]}} ~ {{IPA|[s]}}; {{IPA|[d]}} ~ {{IPA|[z]}}; and {{IPA|[dʕ]}} ~ {{IPA|[zʕ]}} respectively.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=xxii}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=405–407}} The Classical Arabic [[voiceless uvular plosive]] {{IPA|/q/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[q]}} (among Druze), {{IPA|[ʔ]}} (in most urban centers, especially Beirut, Damascus, and Jerusalem, and in Amman among women), {{IPA|[ɡ]}} (in Amman among men, in most other Jordanian dialects and in Gaza), {{IPA|[k]}} or even {{IPA|/kʕ/}} (in rural Palestinian).{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=407}}{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}}{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=531}}<ref name="Gaza dialect"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Socio-phonetic variations in Levantine{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=xxii}}
! Arabic letter !! Modern Standard Arabic !! Levantine (female/urban){{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=405–407}} !! Levantine (male/rural)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ث
| {{IPAslink|θ}} (th) || {{IPAslink|t}} (t) or {{IPAslink|s}} (s) || {{IPAslink|θ}} (th)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ج
| {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} (j) || {{IPAslink|ʒ}} (j) || {{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} (j)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ذ
| {{IPAslink|ð}} (dh) || {{IPAslink|d}} (d) or {{IPAslink|z}} (z) || {{IPAslink|ð}} (dh)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ض
| {{IPAslink|dˤ}} (ḍ) || {{IPAslink|dˤ}} (ḍ)|| {{IPAslink|ðˤ}} (ẓ)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ظ
| {{IPAslink|ðˤ}} (ẓ) || {{IPAslink|dˤ}} (ḍ) or {{IPAslink|zˤ}} || {{IPAslink|ðˤ}} (ẓ)
|-
| lang="apc" style="font-size: 150%;" | ق
| {{IPAslink|q}} (q) || {{IPAslink|ʔ}} (ʾ) || {{IPAslink|ɡ}} (g)
|}

[[Vowel length]] is [[Phoneme|phonemic]] in Levantine. Vowels often show dialectal or [[Allophone|allophonic variations]] that are socially, geographically, and phonologically conditioned.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=407–408}} [[Diphthong]]s {{IPA|/aj/}} and {{IPA|/aw/}} are found in some Lebanese dialects, they respectively correspond to long vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} in other dialects.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=407–408}}{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}}{{sfn|Al-Wer|Jong|2017|p=531}} One of the most distinctive features of Levantine is word-final [[imāla]], a process by which the vowel corresponding to {{lang|apc|ة}} {{transliteration|apc|[[tāʼ marbūṭah]]}} is raised from {{IPA|[a]}} to {{IPA|[æ]}}, {{IPA|[ɛ]}}, {{IPA|[e]}} or even {{IPA|[i]}} in some dialects.{{sfn|Prochazka|2018|pp=263–264}}{{sfn|Lentin|2018|pp=180–182}} The difference between the short vowel pairs {{IPA|e}} and {{IPA|i}} as well as {{IPA|o}} and {{IPA|u}} is not always phonemic.<ref name="Rosenhouse"/> The [[vowel quality]] is usually {{IPA|i}} and {{IPA|u}} in stressed syllables.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> Vowels in word-final position are shortened. As a result, more short vowels are distinguished.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/>

In the north, stressed {{IPA|i}} and {{IPA|u}} merge. They usually become {{IPA|i}}, but might also be {{IPA|u}} near emphatic consonants. Syrians and Beirutis tend to pronounce both of them as [[schwa]] {{IPAblink|ə}}.<ref name="EALL Beirut"/>{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=408}}{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=199}} The long vowel "ā" is pronounced similar to "ē" or even merges with "ē", when it is not near an emphatic or guttural consonant.<ref name="EALL Beirut"/>{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=198}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowel system in Levantine{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=407–408}}
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | Short
! colspan="2" | Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close/High]]
| {{IPAslink|i}}
| {{N/A}}
| {{IPAslink|u}}
| {{IPAslink|iː}}
| {{IPAslink|uː}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPAslink|e}}
| {{IPAslink|ə}}
| {{IPAslink|o}}
| {{IPAslink|eː}}
| {{IPAslink|oː}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Open vowel|Open/Low]]
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|{{IPAslink|a}} [{{IPA link|i}} ~ {{IPA link|ɛ}} ~ {{IPA link|æ}} ~ {{IPA link|a}} ~ {{IPA link|ɑ}}]}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|{{IPAslink|aː}} [{{IPA link|ɛː}} ~ {{IPA link|æː}} ~ {{IPA link|aː}} ~ {{IPA link|ɑː}}]}}
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
| colspan="5" | {{IPA|/aw/}}, {{IPA|/aj/}}
|}

[[Syllabification]] and [[phonotactics]] are complex, even within a single dialect.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=408}} Speakers often add a short vowel, called helping vowel or [[Epenthesis|epenthetic]] vowel, sounding like a short schwa right before a word-initial consonant cluster to break it, as in {{transliteration|apc|ktiːr <sup>ǝ</sup>mniːħ}}, 'very good/well'. They are not considered part of the word and are never stressed. This process of [[anaptyxis]] is subject to social and regional variation.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=408–410}}{{sfn|Cowell|1964|p=19}}{{sfn|Elihay|2012|p=[12]}}{{sfn|Versteegh|2014|p=200}} They are usually not written.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hall |first1=Nancy |title=Acoustic differences between lexical and epenthetic vowels in Lebanese Arabic |journal=[[Journal of Phonetics]]|publisher=Elsevier |year=2013 |volume=41 |issue=2 |page=135 |doi=10.1016/j.wocn.2012.12.001 }}</ref> A helping vowel is inserted:
* Before the word, if this word starts with two consonants and is at the beginning of a sentence,
* Between two words, when a word ending in a consonant is followed by a word that starts with two consonants,
* Between two consonants in the same word, if this word ends with two consonants and either is followed by a consonant or is at the end of a sentence.{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=771–779}}{{sfn|McCarus|Qafisheh|Rammuny|2011|p=27}}

In the Damascus dialect, [[stress (linguistics)|word stress]] falls on the last [[Syllable weight|superheavy syllable]] (CVːC or CVCC). In the absence of a superheavy syllable:
* if the word is bisyllabic, stress falls on the [[wikt:penultimate|penultimate]],
* if the word contains three or more syllables and none of them is superheavy, then stress falls:
** on the penultimate, if it is heavy (CVː or CVC),
** on the antepenult, if the penultimate is light (CV).{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=408–410}}

== Orthography and writing systems ==
{{See also|Arabic alphabet|Romanization of Arabic}}
[[File:Mara haya hurriya.png|thumb|In Hatay, Turkey, two women hold a sign that says 'Mara Haya Hurriya', meaning 'Woman, Life, Freedom' in Levantine Arabic. The phrase is written using the Latin-based Turkish alphabet.]]
Until recently, Levantine was rarely written. Brustad and Zuniga report that in 1988, they did not find anything published in Levantine in Syria. By the late 2010s, written Levantine was used in many public venues and on the internet,{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=404}} especially social media.<ref name="Kwaik2018Shami">{{Cite conference|last1=Abu Kwaik|first1=Kathrein|last2=Saad|first2=Motaz K.|last3=Chatzikyriakidis|first3=Stergios|last4=Dobnik|first4=Simon|year=2018|title=Shami: A Corpus of Levantine Arabic Dialects|url=https://aclanthology.org/L18-1576|book-title=Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2018)|pages=3645, 3647|publisher=European Language Resources Association (ELRA)|conference=LREC|location=Miyazaki|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712165857/https://aclanthology.org/L18-1576/|url-status=live}}</ref> There is no standard Levantine orthography.<ref name="Kwaik2018Shami"/> There have been failed attempts to [[Romanization|Latinize]] Levantine, especially [[Lebanese language|Lebanese]]. For instance, Said Akl promoted a modified [[Latin alphabet]]. Akl used this alphabet to write books and publish a newspaper, ''Lebnaan''.<ref name="Hajjar1985">{{cite book|last=Hajjar|first=Sami G.|title=The Middle East: From Transition to Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oak3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA89|year=1985|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-07694-5|oclc=925612511|page=89|access-date=28 June 2021|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713215958/https://books.google.com/books?id=oak3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA89|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="LOrient-Le Jour 2014">{{cite news | title=Décès de Saïd Akl, grand poète libanais et ennemi de l'arabité | newspaper=[[L'Orient-Le Jour]] |date=2014-11-28 | url=https://www.lorientlejour.com/article/898412/deces-de-said-akl-grand-poete-libanais-et-ennemi-de-larabite.html | language=fr | access-date=13 July 2021 | archive-date=30 June 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630065632/https://www.lorientlejour.com/article/898412/deces-de-said-akl-grand-poete-libanais-et-ennemi-de-larabite.html | url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Płonka|2006|p=423}}

Written communication takes place using a variety of orthographies and writing systems, including [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] ([[right-to-left script]]), [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] (right-to-left, used in Israel, especially online among [[Bedouin#Israel|Bedouin]], Arab Christians, and [[Druze in Israel|Druze]]{{sfn|Shachmon|Mack|2019|p=347}}<ref name="AbuElhija"/>{{sfn|Shachmon|2017|p=89}}<ref name="Gaash">{{Cite journal|last=Gaash|first=Amir|year=2016|title=Colloquial Arabic written in Hebrew characters on Israeli websites by Druzes (and other non-Jews)|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5978678|journal=[[Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam]]|publisher=Hebrew University of Jerusalem|issue=43–44|page=15|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717152730/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=5978678|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ShachmonMack2016p223–224">{{Cite journal|last1=Shachmon|first1=Ori|last2=Mack|first2=Merav|year=2016|title=Speaking Arabic, Writing Hebrew. Linguistic Transitions in Christian Arab Communities in Israel |journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes|publisher=University of Vienna|volume=106|pages=223–224 |jstor=26449346 }}</ref>), Latin ([[Arabizi]], left-to-right), and a mixture of the three. Arabizi is a non-standard [[romanization]] used by Levantine speakers in social media and [[Internet forum|discussion forums]], [[Text messaging|SMS messaging]], and [[online chat]].<ref name="Bies Song Maamouri Grimes 2014">{{cite conference | last1=Bies | first1=Ann | last2=Song | first2=Zhiyi | last3=Maamouri | first3=Mohamed | last4=Grimes | first4=Stephen | last5=Lee | first5=Haejoong | last6=Wright | first6=Jonathan | last7=Strassel | first7=Stephanie | last8=Habash | first8=Nizar | last9=Eskander | first9=Ramy | last10=Rambow | first10=Owen | title=Transliteration of Arabizi into Arabic Orthography: Developing a Parallel Annotated Arabizi-Arabic Script SMS/Chat Corpus | publisher=Association for Computational Linguistics|page=93 | year=2014 | doi=10.3115/v1/w14-3612| citeseerx=10.1.1.676.4146|book-title=Proceedings of the EMNLP 2014 Workshop on Arabic Natural Language Processing (ANLP)|location=Doha|conference=EMNLP }}</ref> Arabizi initially developed because the Arabic script was not available or not easy to use on most computers and smartphones; its usage declined after Arabic software became widespread.{{sfn|Abu Elhija|2019|pp=70–71}} According to a 2020 survey done in [[Nazareth]], Arabizi "emerged" as a "'bottom-up' orthography" and there is now "a high degree of normativization or standardisation in Arabizi orthography." Among consonants, only five (ج ,ذ ,ض ,ظ ,ق) revealed variability in their Arabizi representation.<ref name="Abu-Liel">{{cite journal | last1=Abu-Liel | first1=Aula Khatteb | last2=Eviatar | first2=Zohar | last3=Nir | first3=Bracha | title=Writing between languages: the case of Arabizi | journal=Writing Systems Research | publisher=Informa | volume=11 | issue=2 |year=2019 | doi=10.1080/17586801.2020.1814482 | pages=1, 5, 8| s2cid=222110971 }}</ref>

A 2012 study found that on the Jordanian forum Mahjoob about one-third of messages were written in Levantine in the Arabic script, one-third in Arabizi, and one-third in English.<ref name="BIANCHI pp. 89–100">{{cite journal |last1=Bianchi |first1=Robert Michael |title=3arabizi – When Local Arabic Meets Global English |journal=Acta Linguistica Asiatica |year= 2012 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=97 | publisher=University of Ljubljana |doi=10.4312/ala.2.1.89-100 |s2cid=59056130 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another 2012 study found that on Facebook, the Arabic script was dominant in Syria, while the Latin script dominated in Lebanon. Both scripts were used in Palestine, Israel, and Jordan. Several factors affect script choice: formality (the Arabic script is more formal), ethnicity and religion (Muslims use the Arabic script more while Israeli Druze and Bedouins prefer Hebrew characters), age (young use Latin more), education (educated people write more in Latin), and script congruence (the tendency to reply to a post in the same script).<ref name="AbuElhija" /> Levantine speakers in Turkey use the [[Turkish alphabet|Latin-based Turkish alphabet]].<ref name=Cengiz2014>{{Cite journal |last=Cengiz |first=Alim Koray |date=2014-06-01 |title=Hatay kentiyle ilgili Facebook gruplarinda Franco-Arab izleri |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/doguedebiyati/issue/53776/721473 |journal=Doğu Araştırmaları |language=tr |issue=13 |pages=111–134 |issn=1307-6256}}</ref>

[[Image:00-Taschdid.svg|50px|thumb|A [[shadda]].]]
The Arabic alphabet is always [[cursive]], and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position ([[IMFI]]).{{sfn|Birnstiel|2019|p=371}} Only the isolated form is shown in the tables below. In the Arabic script, short vowels are not represented by letters but by diacritics above or below the letters. When Levantine is written with the Arabic script, short vowels are usually only indicated if a word is ambiguous.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=v–viii}}{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|pp=3–4, 13–17, 20}} In the Arabic script, a [[shadda]] above a consonant doubles it. In Latin alphabet, the consonant is written twice: {{wikt-lang|ajp|مدرِّسة}}, {{transliteration|apc|mudarrise}}, 'a female teacher' / {{wikt-lang|ajp|مدرسة}}, {{transliteration|apc|madrase}}, 'a school'.{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|pp=3–4, 13–17, 20}} Said Akl's Latin alphabet uses non-standard characters.{{sfn|Płonka|2006|pp=465–466}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan="2" | Letter(s)
! colspan="8" | Romanization
! rowspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! rowspan="2" | Pronunciation notes{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|pp=xvii–xix}}{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=[8]–[13]}}
|-
! Cowell{{sfn|Cowell|1964|p=1}}
! Al-Masri{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|pp=xx–xxii}}
! Aldrich{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=v–viii}}
! {{ill|Elihay|he|יוחנן אליחי}}{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=[8]–[13]}}
! Liddicoat{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|pp=3–4, 13–17, 20}}
! [[Assimil]]{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|pp=7–14}}
! Stowasser{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|pp=xvii–xix}}
! [[Arabic chat alphabet|Arabizi]]<ref name="Abu-Liel"/><ref name="AbuElhija">{{cite journal | last=Abu Elhija | first=Dua'a | title=A new writing system? Developing orthographies for writing Arabic dialects in electronic media | journal=Writing Systems Research | publisher=Informa | volume=6 | issue=2 |year=2014 | doi=10.1080/17586801.2013.868334 | pages=193, 208| s2cid=219568845 }}</ref>
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[Hamza|أ إ ؤ ئ ء]] || ʔ || ʔ || ʔ || {{hamza}} || {{okina}} || {{hamza}} || ʔ || 2 or not written || [{{IPA link|ʔ}}] || glottal stop like in uh-oh
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ق]] || q || g || ʔ<br />q || q<br />q̈ || <s>q</s><br />q || {{hamza}} || q<br />q̈ || 2 or not written<br />9 or q or k || [{{IPA link|ʔ}}] or [{{IPA link|g}}]<br />[{{IPA link|q}}] || – glottal stop (urban accent) or "hard g" as in '''g'''et (Jordanian, Bedouin, Gaza<ref name="Gaza dialect">{{cite journal |last1=Cotter |first1=William M. |title=The Arabic dialect of Gaza City |journal=[[Journal of the International Phonetic Association]] |year=2020 |volume=52 |pages=124, 128 |doi=10.1017/S0025100320000134 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|s2cid=234436324 }}</ref>)<br />- guttural "k", pronounced further back in the throat (formal MSA words)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ع]] || ε || 3 || 3 || <sup>c</sup> || [[ع]] || <sup>c</sup> || ε || 3 || [{{IPA link|ʕ}}] || voiced throat sound similar to "a" as in f'''a'''ther, but with more friction
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ب]]
| colspan="8" | b || [{{IPA link|b}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[د]]
| colspan="8" | d || [{{IPA link|d}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ض]] || ḍ || D || ɖ || ḍ || ḍ || <u>d</u> || ḍ || d or D || [{{IPA link|dˤ}}] || emphatic "d" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ف]]
| colspan="8" | f || [{{IPA link|f}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[غ]] || ġ || gh || ɣ || ġ || <u>gh</u> || gh || ġ || 3' or 8 or gh || [{{IPA link|ɣ}}] || like Spanish "g" between vowels, similar to French "r"
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ه]]
| colspan="8" | h || [{{IPA link|h}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ح]] || ḥ || H || ɧ || ḥ || ḥ || <u>h</u> || ḥ || 7 or h || [{{IPA link|ħ}}] || "whispered h", has more friction in the throat than "h"
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[خ]] || x || x || x || ꜧ̄|| <u>kh</u> || kh || x || 7' or 5 or kh || [{{IPA link|x}}] || "ch" as in Scottish lo'''ch''', like German "ch" or Spanish "j"
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ج]]
| ž
| colspan="5" | j || ž || j or g || [{{IPA link|dʒ}}] or [{{IPA link|ʒ}}] || "j" as in '''j'''ump or "s" as in plea'''s'''ure
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ك]]
| colspan="8" | k || [{{IPA link|k}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ل]]
| colspan="8" | l || [{{IPA link|l}}]<br />[{{IPA link|ɫ}}] || – light "l" as in English '''l'''ove<br />- dark "l" as ca'''ll''', used in Allah and derived words
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[م]]
| colspan="8" | m || [{{IPA link|m}}] || ''as in English''
|- ''as in English''
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ن]]
| colspan="8" | n || [{{IPA link|n}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ر]]
| colspan="8" | r || [{{IPA link|rˤ}}]<br />[{{IPA link|r}}] || – "rolled r" as in Spanish or Italian, usually emphatic<br />- not emphatic before vowel "e" or "i" or after long vowel "i"
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[س]]
| colspan="8" | s || [{{IPA link|s}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ث]] || θ ||&nbsp;th || s || s<br />ṯ || <u>th</u> || t || s<br />t || t or s or not written || [{{IPA link|s}}]<br />[{{IPA link|θ}}] || – "s" ''as in English'' (urban)<br />- voiceless "th" as in '''th'''ink (rural, formal MSA words)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ص]] || ṣ || S || ʂ || ṣ ||| ṣ || <u>s</u> || ṣ || s || [{{IPA link|sˤ}}] || emphatic "s" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ش]] || š || sh || š || š || <u>sh</u> || ch || š || sh or ch or $ || [{{IPA link|ʃ}}] || "sh" as in '''sh'''eep
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ت]]
| colspan="8" | t || [{{IPA link|t}}] || ''as in English'' but with the tongue touching the back of the upper teeth
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ط]] || ṭ || T || ƭ || ṭ || ṭ || <u>t</u> || ṭ || t or T or 6 || [{{IPA link|tˤ}}] || emphatic "t" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[و]]
| colspan="8" | w || [{{IPA link|w}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ي]]
| colspan="8" | y || [{{IPA link|j}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ذ]] || 𝛿 || dh || z || z<br />ḏ || d || d or z || z<br />d || d or z or th || [{{IPA link|z}}]<br />[{{IPA link|ð}}] || – "z" ''as in English'' (urban)<br />- voiced "th" as in '''th'''is (rural, formal MSA words)
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ز]]
| colspan="8" | z || [{{IPA link|z}}] || ''as in English''
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ظ]] || ẓ || DH || ʐ || ẓ || ẓ || <u>z</u> || ḍ<br />ẓ || th or z or d || [{{IPA link|zˤ}}] || emphatic "z" (constricted throat, surrounded vowels become dark)
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Vowels
|-
! Letter(s)
! Aldrich{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=v–viii}}
! Elihay{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=[8]–[13]}}
! Liddicoat{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|pp=3–4, 13–17, 20}}
! [[Assimil]]{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|pp=7–14}}
! [[Arabizi]]<ref name="Abu-Liel"/>
! Environment !! IPA !! Pronunciation notes{{sfn|Stowasser|2004|pp=xvii–xix}}{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=[8]–[13]}}
|-
| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[Fatḥah|ـَ]] || rowspan="2"| ɑ || α || rowspan="2" | a || rowspan="2" | a || rowspan="2" | a || near emphatic consonant || [{{IPA link|ɑ}}] || as in g'''o'''t (American pronunciation)
|-
| a || elsewhere || [{{IPA link|a}}~{{IPA link|æ}}] || as in c'''a'''t
|-
| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[Kasrah|ـِ]] || rowspan="2"| i || rowspan="2"| e / i || rowspan="2"| e / i / é || rowspan="2"| i / é || rowspan="2"| e || before/after {{lang|apc|ح}} {{transliteration|apc|ḥ}} or {{lang|apc|ع}} {{transliteration|apc|ʕ}} || [{{IPA link|ɛ}}] || as in g'''e'''t
|-
| elsewhere || [{{IPA link|e}}] or [{{IPA link|ɪ}}] || as in k'''i'''t
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[Ḍammah|ـُ]] || u || o / u || o / u || o / ou || u || any || [{{IPA link|o}}] or [{{IPA link|ʊ}}] || as in f'''u'''ll
|-
| rowspan="3" style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ا|ـَا]] || rowspan="2"| ɑ̄ || ᾱ || rowspan="3"| aa || rowspan="2"|ā || rowspan="3"| a || near emphatic consonant || [{{IPA link|ɑː}}] || as in f'''a'''ther
|-
| rowspan="2"| ā || elsewhere || [{{IPA link|aː}}~{{IPA link|æː}}] || as in c'''a'''n
|-
| rowspan="2"| ē || rowspan="3"| ē || [[Imāla]] in the north || [{{IPA link|ɛː}}~{{IPA link|eː}}] || rowspan="2"| as in f'''a'''ce, but plain vowel
|-
| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ي|ـَي]] || rowspan="2" | ē || rowspan="2"| ee || rowspan="3"| e || any || [{{IPA link|eː}}]
|-
| ɑy || in open syllable in Lebanese || /aj/ || as in pr'''i'''ce or in f'''a'''ce
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[ي|ـِي]] || colspan="2"| ī || ii || ī || any || [{{IPA link|iː}}] || as in s'''ee'''
|-
| rowspan="2" style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[و|ـَو]] || ō || rowspan="2"| ō || rowspan="2"| oo || rowspan="2" | ō || rowspan="3" | o || any || [{{IPA link|oː}}] || as in b'''oa'''t, but plain vowel
|-
| ɑw || in open syllable in Lebanese || /aw/ || as in m'''ou'''th or in b'''oa'''t
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | [[و|ـُو]] || colspan="2"| ū || uu || oū || any || [{{IPA link|uː}}] || as in f'''oo'''d
|-
| rowspan="2"| <span style="font-size: 1.5em;">ـَا [[ى|ـَى]] [[ة|ـَة]]</span> || rowspan="2"| ɑ || α || rowspan="2"| a || rowspan="2"| a || rowspan="2"| a || near emphatic consonant || [{{IPA link|ɑ}}] || as in g'''o'''t (American pronunciation)
|-
| rowspan="2"| a || elsewhere || [{{IPA link|a}}~{{IPA link|æ}}] || as in c'''a'''t
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | ـَا ـَى || i (respelled to {{lang|apc|ي}}) || {{N/A}} || rowspan="3" | é || rowspan="3" | é/i/e || Imāla in the north || [{{IPA link|ɛ}}~{{IPA link|e}}] || rowspan="2"| as in g'''e'''t, but closed vowel
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | ـِة || rowspan="2"| i || e || e || any || [{{IPA link|e}}]
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | ـِي || i || i || any || [{{IPA link|i}}]<br />[{{IPA link|e}}] (Lebanese) || as in s'''ee''', but shorter<br />merged to "e" in Lebanese
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | ـُه || u (respelled to {{lang|apc|و}}) || o || {{N/A}} || rowspan="2" | o || rowspan="2" | o/u || any || [{{IPA link|o}}] || as in l'''o'''t, but closed vowel
|-
| style="font-size: 1.5em;" | ـُو
| colspan="3" | u || any || [{{IPA link|u}}]<br />[{{IPA link|o}}] (Lebanese) || as in f'''oo'''d, but shorter<br />merged to "o" in Lebanese
|}

== Grammar ==
{{main|Levantine Arabic grammar}}

[[Verb–subject–object|VSO]] and [[Subject–verb–object|SVO]] word orders are possible in Levantine. In both cases, the [[VO word order|verb precedes the object]].<ref name="wals_code_asy">{{Cite web|title=WALS Online – Language Arabic (Syrian)|url=https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_asy|access-date=2021-07-17|website=[[World Atlas of Language Structures]]|archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719123502/https://wals.info/languoid/lect/wals_code_asy|url-status=live}}</ref> SVO is more common in Levantine, while Classical Arabic prefers VSO.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|pp=139–140}} Subject-initial order indicates [[Topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]] sentences, while verb-initial order indicates subject-prominent sentences.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=420}} In interrogative sentences, the [[Interrogative word|interrogative particle]] comes first.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=421}}

===Nouns and noun phrases===
Nouns are either masculine or feminine and singular, dual or plural.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|pp=18–19}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=413}} The dual is formed with the suffix {{lang|apc|ين-}} {{transliteration|apc|-ēn}}.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|p=19}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=413}} Most feminine singular nouns end with {{lang|apc|ـة}} {{transliteration|apc|tāʼ marbūṭah}}, pronounced as –a or -e depending on the preceding consonant: -a after guttural ({{lang|apc|ح خ ع غ ق ه ء}}) and emphatic consonants ({{lang|apc|ر ص ض ط ظ}}), -e after other consonants.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> Unlike Classical Arabic, Levantine has no [[Grammatical case|case marking]].{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=413}}

Levantine has a [[definite article]], which marks common nouns (i.e. nouns that are not proper nouns) as definite. Its absence marks common nouns as indefinite. {{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=422}} The [[Arabic definite article]] {{lang|apc|ال}} {{transliteration|apc|il}} precedes the noun or adjective and has multiple pronunciations. Its vowel is dropped when the preceding word ends in a vowel. A helping vowel "e" is inserted if the following word begins with a consonant cluster.{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=771–779}} It assimilates with "[[Sun and moon letters|sun letters]]" (consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue).{{sfn|Elihay|2012|pp=771–779}} The letter [[Gimel#Arabic ǧīm|Jeem]] ({{lang|apc|ج}}) is a sun letter for speakers pronouncing it as [{{IPA link|ʒ}}] but not for those pronouncing it as [{{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}].{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=422}}{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|p=19}}

For nouns referring to humans, the regular (also called sound) masculine plural is formed with the suffix -īn. The regular feminine plural is formed with -āt.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/>{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=24}} The masculine plural is used to refer to a group with both genders.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|p=18}} There are many [[broken plural]]s (also called internal plurals), in which [[nonconcatenative morphology|the consonantal root of the singular is changed]].{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=413}} These plural patterns are shared with other varieties of Arabic and may also be applied to foreign borrowings.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=413}} Several patterns of broken plurals exist, and it is impossible to predict them exactly.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|loc=Appendix D: Broken Plurals}} One common pattern is for instance CvCvC => CuCaCa (e.g.: singular: {{wikt-lang|ajp|مدير}} {{transliteration|apc|mudīr}}, 'manager'; plural: {{wikt-lang|ajp|مدرا}} {{transliteration|apc|mudara}}, 'managers').{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|loc=Appendix D: Broken Plurals}} [[Animacy|Inanimate]] objects take feminine singular agreement in the plural, for verbs, attached pronouns, and adjectives.{{sfn|Elihai|2011b|p=101}}

The [[Genitive construction|genitive]] is formed by putting the nouns next to each other{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=422–423}} in a construct called ''[[iḍāfah]]'', {{literal translation|addition}}. The first noun is always indefinite. If an indefinite noun is added to a definite noun, it results in a new definite compound noun:{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=82}}<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/>{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=455–457}} {{lang|apc|كتاب الإستاذ}} {{transliteration|apc|ktāb il-ʾistāz}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-كتاب الأستاذ.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'the book of the teacher'.{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|pp=80, 82}} Besides [[Possession (linguistics)|possessiveness]], the ''iḍāfah'' can also specify or define the first term.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=82}} Although there is no limit to the number of nouns in an ''iḍāfah'', it is rare to have three or more.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=422–423}} The first term must be in the [[construct state]]: if it ends in the feminine marker (/-ah/, or /-ih/), it changes to (/-at/, /-it/) in pronunciation (i.e. {{lang|apc|ة}} pronounced as /t/): {{lang|apc|مدينة نيويورك}} {{transliteration|apc|madīnet nyū-yōrk}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-مدينة نيويورك.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'New York City'.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=82}}

Adjectives typically have three forms: a masculine singular, a feminine singular, and a plural.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> In most adjectives, the feminine is formed through the addition of -a/e.{{sfn|Elihai|2011a|p=3}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=407}} Many adjectives have the pattern {{lang|apc|فعيل}} ({{transliteration|apc|fʕīl}} / CCīC or {{transliteration|apc|faʕīl}} / CaCīC), but other patterns exist.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> Adjectives derived from nouns using the suffix {{lang|apc|ـي}} {{transliteration|apc|-i}} are called [[Arabic nouns and adjectives#Nisba|nisba]] adjectives. Their feminine form ends in {{lang|apc|ـية}} {{transliteration|apc|-iyye}} and their plural in {{lang|apc|ـيين}} {{transliteration|apc|-iyyīn}}.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|pp=20–21}} Nouns in dual have adjectives in plural.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/> The plural of adjectives is either regular ending in {{lang|apc|ـين}} {{transliteration|apc|-īn}} or is an irregular "broken" plural. It is used with nouns referring to people. For non-human, inanimate, or abstract nouns, adjectives use either the plural or the singular feminine form regardless of gender.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/>{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|pp=24, 162}}{{sfn|Elihai|2011b|p=101}}

Adjectives follow the noun they modify and agree with it in [[definiteness]]. Adjectives without an article after a definite noun express a clause with the [[Zero copula|invisible copula]] "to be":{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|p=79}}
* {{lang|apc|بيت كبير}} {{transliteration|apc|bēt kbīr}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-بيت كبير.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'a big house'
* {{lang|apc|البيت الكبير}} {{transliteration|apc|il-bēt le-kbīr}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-البيت الكبير.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'the big house'
* {{lang|apc|البيت كبير}} {{transliteration|apc|il-bēt kbīr}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-البيت كبير.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'the house is big'

The [[Elative (gradation)|elative]] is used for comparison, instead of separate [[Comparison (grammar)|comparative and superlative]] forms.{{sfn|Elihai|2011a|pp=98, 102–103}} The elative is formed by adding a hamza at the beginning of the adjective and replacing the vowels by "a" (pattern: {{lang|apc|أفعل}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾafʕal}} / aCCaC, e.g.: {{wikt-lang|ajp|كبير}} {{transliteration|apc|kbīr}}, 'big'; {{wikt-lang|ajp|أكبر}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾakbar}}, 'bigger/biggest').<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus">{{cite book |first1=Jérôme |last1=Lentin |chapter=Damascus Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0077 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> Adjective endings in {{wikt-lang|ajp|ي}} (i) and {{wikt-lang|ajp|و}} (u) are changed into {{wikt-lang|ajp|ی}} (a). If the second and third consonant in the root are the same, they are geminated (pattern: {{lang|apc|أفلّ}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾafall}} / ʾaCaCC).{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=310–315}} When an elative modifies a noun, it precedes the noun, and no definite article is used.{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|pp=153–154}}

Levantine does not distinguish between adverbs and adjectives in [[adverbial]] function. Almost any adjective can be used as an adverb: {{wikt-lang|ajp|منيح}} {{transliteration|apc|mnīḥ}}, 'good' vs. {{lang|apc|نمتي منيح؟}} {{transliteration|apc|nimti mnīḥ?}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-نمتي منيح.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'Did you sleep well?'. MSA adverbs, with the suffix -an, are often used, e.g., {{wikt-lang|ajp|أبدا}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾabadan}}, 'at all'.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=420}} Adverbs often appear after the verb or the adjective. {{wikt-lang|ajp|كتير}} {{transliteration|apc|ktīr}}, 'very' can be positioned after or before the adjective.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=420}} Adverbs of manner can usually be formed using bi- followed by the nominal form: {{wikt-lang|apc|سرعة|بسرعة}} {{transliteration|apc|b-sirʿa}}, 'fast, quickly', {{literal translation|with speed}}.<ref name="EALL Beirut"/>

{{wikt-lang|ajp|مش}} {{transliteration|apc|miš}} or in Syrian Arabic {{wikt-lang|apc|مو}} {{transliteration|apc|mū}} negate adjectives (including active participles), demonstratives, and nominal phrases:{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=45}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=424–425}}
* {{lang|apc|أنا مش فلسطيني.}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾana miš falasṭīni.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-أنا مش فلسطيني.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'I'm not Palestinian.'
* {{lang|apc|مش عارفة.}} {{transliteration|apc|miš ʕārfe.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-مش عارفة.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'She doesn't know.'
* {{lang|apc|هادا مش منيح.}} {{transliteration|apc|hāda miš mnīḥ.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-هادا مش منيح.wav|listen|help=no}} / {{lang|apc|هاد مو منيح.}} {{transliteration|apc|hād mū mnīḥ.}}, 'That's not good.'

=== Pronouns ===
Levantine has eight [[Grammatical person|persons]] and eight [[pronoun]]s. Contrary to MSA, dual pronouns do not exist in Levantine; the plural is used instead. Because conjugated verbs indicate the subject with a prefix or a suffix, independent [[subject pronoun]]s are usually unnecessary and mainly used for emphasis.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|pp=25–27}}{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=105–107}} Feminine plural forms modifying human females are found primarily in rural and Bedouin areas. They are not mentioned below.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=410}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Levantine independent personal pronouns{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=105–107}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person ({{abbr|m.|Masculine}}/{{abbr|f.|Feminine}})
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|أنا}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾ'''a'''na}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|احنا}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾ'''i'''ḥna}} ([[South Levantine Arabic|South]]) / {{wikt-lang|apc|نحنا}} {{transliteration|apc|n'''i'''ḥna}} ([[North Levantine Arabic|North]])
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|انت}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾ'''i'''nta}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|انتو}} / {{wikt-lang|ajp|انتوا}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾ'''i'''ntu}}
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|انتي}} {{transliteration|apc|ʾ'''i'''nti}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هو}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''u'''wwe}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|هم}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''u'''mme}} (South) / {{wikt-lang|apc|هن}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''i'''nne}} (North)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هي}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''i'''yye}}
|}

Direct [[object pronoun]]s are indicated by suffixes attached to the conjugated verb. Their form depends on whether the verb ends with a consonant or a vowel. Suffixed to nouns, these pronouns express possessive.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|p=28}}{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=105–107}} Levantine does not have the verb "to have". Instead, possession is expressed using the prepositions {{wikt-lang|apc|عند}} {{transliteration|apc|ʕind}}, {{literal translation|at}} (meaning "to possess") and {{wikt-lang|apc|مع}} {{transliteration|apc|maʕ}}, {{literal translation|with}} (meaning "to have on oneself"), followed by personal pronoun suffixes.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=100–102}}{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|pp=43–45}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Levantine enclitic pronouns, direct object and possessive{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=105–107}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan=2 |
! colspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
|-
! after consonant
! after vowel
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! after verb
| colspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـني}} {{transliteration|apc|-ni}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـنا}} {{transliteration|apc|-na}}
|-
! else
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـِي}} {{transliteration|apc|-i}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـي}} {{transliteration|apc|-y}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـَك}} {{transliteration|apc|-ak}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـك}} {{transliteration|apc|-k}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|apc|ـكُن}} {{transliteration|apc|-kun}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـكُم}} {{transliteration|apc|-kom}} {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـكو}} {{transliteration|apc|-ku}} (South)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـِك}} {{transliteration|apc|-ik}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـكِ}} {{transliteration|apc|-ki}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|و}} {{transliteration|apc|-u}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـُه}} {{transliteration|apc|-o}} (South)
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـه}} (silent){{efn|The accent moves to the last vowel.}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|apc|ـُن}} {{transliteration|apc|-(h/w/y)un}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـهُم}} {{transliteration|apc|-hom}} (South)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـا}} {{transliteration|apc|-a}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـها}} {{transliteration|apc|-ha}} (South)
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـا}} {{transliteration|apc|-(h/w/y)a}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـها}} {{transliteration|apc|-ha}} (South)
|}

Indirect object pronouns ([[Dative construction|dative]]) are suffixed to the conjugated verb. They are formed by adding an ل (-l) and then the possessive suffix to the verb.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=410}} They precede object pronouns if present:{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=410}}
* {{lang|apc|جاب الجريدة لأبوي}} {{transliteration|apc|jāb il-jarīde la-ʔabūy}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جاب الجريدة لأبوي.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'he brought the newspaper to my father',
* {{lang|apc|جابها لأبوي}} {{transliteration|apc|jāb-ha la-ʔabūy}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابها لأبوي.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'he brought it to my father',
* {{lang|apc|جابله الجريدة}} {{transliteration|apc|jab-lo il-jarīde}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابله الجريدة.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'he brought him the newspaper',
* {{lang|apc|جابله ياها}} {{transliteration|apc|jab-lo yyā-ha}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-جابله اياها.wav|listen|help=no}}, 'he brought it to him'.{{sfn|Elihai|2011b|pp=114–115}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Levantine indirect object pronoun suffixes{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=105–107}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! colspan="2" | 1st person ({{abbr|m.|Masculine}}/{{abbr|f.|Feminine}})
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـلي}} {{transliteration|apc|-li}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـلنا}} {{transliteration|apc|-lna}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 2nd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|لَك}} {{transliteration|apc|-lak}}
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|apc|ـلكُن}} {{transliteration|apc|-lkun}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـلكُم}} {{transliteration|apc|-lkom}}, {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـلكو}} {{transliteration|apc|-lku}} (South)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـِلك}} {{transliteration|apc|-lik}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|لو}} {{transliteration|apc|-lu}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|لُه}} {{transliteration|apc|-lo}} (South)
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|apc|ـلُن}} {{transliteration|apc|-lun}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـلهُم}} {{transliteration|apc|-lhom}} (South)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|apc|ـلا}} {{transliteration|apc|-la}} (North)<br />{{wikt-lang|ajp|ـلها}} {{transliteration|apc|-lha}} (South)
|}

[[Demonstrative pronouns]] have three referential types: immediate, [[Demonstrative#Distal and proximal demonstrative|proximal, and distal]]. The distinction between proximal and distal demonstratives is of physical, temporal, or metaphorical distance. The genderless and numberless immediate demonstrative article {{wikt-lang|apc|ها}} {{transliteration|apc|ha}} is translated by "this/the", to designate something immediately visible or accessible.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=412}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Levantine demonstrative pronouns{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=412}}{{sfn|Al-Masri|2015|p=115}}{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|p=62}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | Proximal<br />(this, these)
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هادا}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''ā'''da}} / {{wikt-lang|ajp|هاد}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''ā'''d}} (South, Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيدا}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''a'''yda}} (Lebanon)
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|هدول}} {{transliteration|apc|had'''ō'''l}} (South, Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيدول}} {{transliteration|apc|hayd'''ō'''l}} / {{wikt-lang|apc|هودي}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''a'''wdi}} (Lebanon)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هادي}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''ā'''di}} / {{wikt-lang|ajp|هاي}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''ā'''y}} (South)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيّ}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''a'''yy}} (Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيدي}} {{transliteration|apc|h'''a'''ydi}} (Lebanon)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Distal<br />(that, those)
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هداك}} {{transliteration|apc|had'''ā'''k}} (South, Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيداك}} {{transliteration|apc|hayd'''ā'''k}} (Lebanon)
| rowspan="2" | {{wikt-lang|ajp|هدولاك}} {{transliteration|apc|hadōl'''ā'''k}} (South)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هدوليك}} {{transliteration|apc|hadōl'''ī'''k}} (Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيدوليك}} {{transliteration|apc|haydōl'''ī'''k}} (Lebanon)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| {{wikt-lang|ajp|هديك}} {{transliteration|apc|had'''ī'''k}} (South, Syria)<br />{{wikt-lang|apc|هيديك}} {{transliteration|apc|hayd'''ī'''k}} (Lebanon)
|}

=== Verbs and verb phrases ===
==== Root and verb forms ====
Most Levantine verbs are based on a [[Semitic root|triliteral root]] (also called radical or Semitic root) made of three consonants. The set of consonants communicates the basic meaning of a verb, e.g. {{wikt-lang|ajp|ك ت ب}} k-t-b ('write'), {{wikt-lang|ajp|ق ر ء}} q-r-{{hamza}} ('read'), {{wikt-lang|ajp|ء ك ل}} {{hamza}}-k-l ('eat'). Changes to the vowels in between the consonants, along with prefixes or suffixes, specify grammatical functions such as tense, person, and number, in addition to changes in the meaning of the verb that embody grammatical concepts such as mood (e.g., indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active or passive), and functions such as causative, intensive, or reflexive.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|p=i}} [[Semitic root#Quadriliteral roots|Quadriliteral roots]] are less common but often used to coin new vocabulary or Arabicize foreign words.{{sfn|Cowell|1964|pp=109, 117}}{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=418}} The base form is the third-person masculine singular of the perfect (also called past) tense.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=107}}

Almost all Levantine verbs belong to one of ten verb forms (also called verb measures,{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=115–117}} stems,{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=418–419}} patterns,{{sfn|Cowell|1964|p=53}} or types{{sfn|Liddicoat|Lennane|Abdul Rahim|2018|p=310}}). Form I, the most common one, serves as a base for the other nine forms. Each form carries a different verbal idea relative to the meaning of its root. Technically, ten verbs can be constructed from any given triconsonantal root, although not all of these forms are used.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|p=i}} After Form I, Forms II, V, VII, and X are the most common.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=418–419}} Some irregular verbs do not fit into any of the verb forms.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=115–117}}

In addition to its form, each verb has a "quality":
* Sound (or regular): 3 distinct radicals, neither the second nor the third is 'w' or 'y',
* Verbs containing the radicals 'w' or 'y' are called weak. They are either:
** Hollow: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the second radical, which becomes a long 'a' in some forms, or
** Defective: verbs with 'w' or 'y' as the third radical, treated as a vowel,
* Geminate (or doubled): the second and third radicals are identical, remaining together as a double consonant.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=115–117}}

==== Regular verb conjugation ====
{{Broader|Wiktionary:Template:ajp-conj/documentation}}
The Levantine verb has only two tenses: past (perfect) and present (also called imperfect, b-imperfect, or bi-imperfect). The present tense is formed by adding the prefix b- or m- to the verb root. The future tense is an extension of the present tense. The negative imperative is the same as the negative present with helping verb (imperfect). Various prefixes and suffixes designate the grammatical person and [[grammatical number|number]] as well as the [[grammatical mood|mood]]. The following table shows the paradigm of a sound Form I verb, {{wikt-lang|apc|كتب}} {{transliteration|apc|ALA|katab}}, 'to write'.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|p=i}} There is no [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] in the present tense in Levantine. In other tenses, the verb {{wikt-lang|ajp|كان}} {{transliteration|apc|kān}} is used. Its present tense form is used in the future tense.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=76–77}}

The b-imperfect is usually used for the [[Realis mood|indicative mood]] ([[Nonpast tense|non-past]] present, habitual/general present, narrative present, planned future actions, or potential). The prefix b- is deleted in the [[subjunctive mood]], usually after [[modal verb]]s, [[auxiliary verb]]s, pseudo-verbs, prepositions, and particles.<ref name="Lentin 2011 Damascus"/><ref name="Rosenhouse"/><ref name="EALL Beirut">{{cite book |first1=Samia |last1=Naïm |chapter=Beirut Arabic |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0039 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref><ref name="Al-Wer 2011 Jordan">{{cite book |first1=Enam |last1=Al-Wer |chapter=Jordanian Arabic (Amman) |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0065 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> The future can also be expressed by the imperfect preceded by the particle {{wikt-lang|ajp|رح}} {{transliteration|apc|raḥ}} or by the prefixed particle {{wikt-lang|ajp|حـ}} {{transliteration|apc|ḥa-}}.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=109}} The present continuous is formed with the progressive particle {{wikt-lang|ajp|عم}} {{transliteration|apc|ʕam}} followed by the imperfect, with or without the initial b/m depending on the speaker.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=110}}

The active participle, also called present participle, is grammatically an adjective derived from a verb. Depending on the context, it can express the present or present continuous (with verbs of motion, location, or mental state), the near future, or the [[present perfect]] (past action with a present result).{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=113–114}} It can also serve as a noun or an adjective.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|pp=x–xiii}} The passive participle, also called past participle,{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=ii}} has a similar meaning as in English (i.e., sent, written). It is mainly used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun. It is inflected from the verb based on its verb form.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|p=xiv}} However, passive participles are largely limited to verb forms I (CvCvC) and II (CvCCvC), becoming maCCūC for the former and mCaCCaC for the latter.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=420}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Table of prefixes, affixes, and suffixes added to the base form (for sound form I verbs with stressed prefixes){{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=107–114}}{{efn|Depending on regions and accents, the -u can be pronounced -o and the -i can be pronounced -é.{{sfn|Nammur-Wardini|2011|p=11}}}}
|-
! colspan="2" |
! colspan="3" | Singular
! colspan="3" | Dual/Plural
|-
! colspan="2" |
! 1st person
! 2nd person
! 3rd person
! 1st person
! 2nd person
! 3rd person
|-
! rowspan="2" | Past{{efn|name=past|Also called perfect.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| rowspan="2" | -it
| -it
| ∅ (base form)
| rowspan="2" | -na
| rowspan="2" | -tu
| rowspan="2" | -u
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| -ti
| -it (North)<br />-at (South)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Present{{efn|name=present|Also called bi-imperfect, b-imperfect, or standard imperfect.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| rowspan="2" | bi- (North)<br />ba- (South)
| bti-
| byi- (North)<br />bi- (South)
| rowspan="2" | mni-
| rowspan="2" | bti- -u
| rowspan="2" | byi- -u (North)<br />bi- -u (South)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| bti- -i
| bti-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Present with helping verb{{efn|name=subjunctive|Also called Ø-imperfect, imperfect, or subjunctive.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| rowspan="2" | i- (North)<br />a- (South)
| ti-
| yi-
| rowspan="2" | ni-
| rowspan="2" | ti- -u
| rowspan="2" | yi- -u
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| ti- -i
| ti-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Positive imperative{{efn|name=imperative|Also called imperative or command.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| rowspan="2" {{N/A}}
| ∅ (Lengthening the present tense vowel, North)<br />i- (Subjunctive without initial consonant, South)
| rowspan="2" {{N/A}}
| rowspan="2" {{N/A}}
| rowspan="2" | -u (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North)<br />i- -u (South)
| rowspan="2" {{N/A}}
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| -i (Stressed vowel u becomes i, North)<br />i- -i (South)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Active participle{{efn|name=active-participle|Also called present participle. Not all active participles are used and their meaning varies.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| colspan="3" | -ē- (North) or -ā- (South) after the first consonant
| colspan="3" rowspan="4" | -īn (added to the masculine form)
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| colspan="3" | -e/i or -a (added to the masculine form)
|-
! rowspan="2" | Passive participle{{efn|name=passive-participle|Also called past participle, mostly used as an adjective. Not all passive participles are used and their meaning varies.}}
! {{abbr|m.|Masculine}}
| colspan="3" | ma- and -ū- after the second consonant
|-
! {{abbr|f.|Feminine}}
| colspan="3" | -a (added to the masculine form)
|}

==== Compound tenses ====
The verb {{wikt-lang|ajp|كان}} {{transliteration|apc|kān}}, followed by another verb, forms compound tenses. Both verbs are conjugated with their subject.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=114–115}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Compound tenses with the example of the verb {{wikt-lang|ajp|عمل}} {{transliteration|apc|ʕimil}}, 'to do'{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=114–115}}{{sfn|Aldrich|2021|pp=118–119}}
!
! colspan="2"| kān in the past tense
! colspan="2"| kān in the present tense
|-
! Followed by
! Levantine !! English !! Levantine !! English
|-
! Past tense
| {{lang|apc|كان عمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān ʕimel}} || he had done
| {{lang|apc|بكون عمل}} {{transliteration|apc|bikūn ʕimel}} || he will have done
|-
! Active participle
| {{lang|apc|كان عامل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān ʕāmel}} || he had done
| {{lang|apc|بكون عامل}} {{transliteration|apc|bikūn ʕāmel}} || he will have done
|-
! Subjunctive
| {{lang|apc|كان يعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān yiʕmel}} || he used to do / he was doing
| {{lang|apc|بكون يعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|bikūn yiʕmel}} || he will be doing
|-
! Progressive
| {{lang|apc|كان عم يعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān ʕam yiʕmel}} || he was doing
| {{lang|apc|بكون عم يعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|bikūn ʕam yiʕmel}} || he will be doing
|-
! Future tense
| {{lang|apc|كان رح يعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān raḥ yiʕmel}}<br />{{lang|apc|كان حيعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān ḥa-yiʕmel}} || he was going to do
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" {{N/A}}
|-
! Present tense
| {{lang|apc|كان بعمل}} {{transliteration|apc|kān biʕmel}} || he would do
|}

==== Passive voice ====
Form I verbs often correspond to an equivalent passive form VII verb, with the prefix n-. Form II and form III verbs usually correspond to an equivalent passive in forms V and VI, respectively, with the prefix t-.{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|pp=115–117}} While the verb forms V, VI and VII are common in the simple past and compound tenses, the passive participle (past participle) is preferred in the present tense.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|loc=Introduction – iii}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of passive forms
! colspan="3"| Active
! colspan="3"| Passive
|-
! Verb form !! Levantine !! English
! Verb form !! Levantine !! English
|-
| I || {{wikt-lang|ajp|مسك}} {{transliteration|apc|masak}} || to catch
| VII || {{wikt-lang|ajp|انمسك}} {{transliteration|apc|inmasak}} || to be caught
|-
| II || {{wikt-lang|ajp|غيّر}} {{transliteration|apc|ḡayyar}} || to change
| V || {{wikt-lang|ajp|تغيّر}} {{transliteration|apc|tḡayyar}} || to be changed
|-
| III || {{wikt-lang|ajp|فاجأ}} {{transliteration|apc|fājaʾ}} || to surprise
| VI || {{wikt-lang|ajp|تفاجأ}} {{transliteration|apc|tfājaʾ}} || to be surprised
|}

==== Negation ====
Verbs and prepositional phrases are negated by the particle {{wikt-lang|apc|ما}} {{transliteration|apc|mā / ma}} either on its own or, in the south, together with the suffix {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـش}} {{transliteration|apc|-iš}} at the end of the verb or prepositional phrase. In Palestinian, it is also common to negate verbs by the suffix {{wikt-lang|ajp|ـش}} {{transliteration|apc|-iš}} only.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|pp=424–425}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Examples of negation with mā and -š
! colspan="2" | Without -š !! colspan="2" | With -š !! rowspan="2" | English
|-
! Levantine (Arabic) !! Levantine (Latin) !! Levantine (Arabic) !! Levantine (Latin)
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما كتب.}} || {{transliteration|apc|m'''ā''' k'''a'''tab.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما كتب.wav|listen|help=no}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما كتبش.}} || {{transliteration|apc|ma kat'''a'''b-š.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما كتبش.wav|listen|help=no}} || He didn't write.
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما بحكي إنكليزي.}} || {{transliteration|apc|m'''ā''' b'''a'''ḥki ʾingl'''ī'''zi.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بحكي إنكليزي.wav|listen|help=no}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما بحكيش إنكليزي.}} || {{transliteration|apc|ma baḥk'''ī'''-š ʾingl'''ī'''zi.}}  {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بحكيش إنكليزي.wav|listen|help=no}} || I don't speak English.
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما تنسى!}} || {{transliteration|apc|m'''ā''' t'''i'''nsa!}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما تنسى.wav|listen|help=no}}
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما تنساش!}} || {{transliteration|apc|ma tins'''ā'''-š!}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما تنساش.wav|listen|help=no}} || Don't forget!
|-
| style="text-align: right;" | {{lang|apc|ما بده ييجي عالحفلة.}} || {{transliteration|apc|m'''ā''' b'''i'''ddo y'''ī'''ji ʕa-l-ḥ'''a'''fle.}} {{pronunciation|LL-Q55633582 (ajp)-Muhammad (AdrianAbdulBaha)-ما بده ييجي عالحفلة.wav|listen|help=no}}
| colspan="2" {{N/A}} || He doesn't want to come to the party.
|}

== Vocabulary ==
{{main|Levantine Arabic vocabulary}}
The [[Levantine Arabic vocabulary|lexicon of Levantine]] is overwhelmingly Arabic,{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=425}} and a large number of Levantine words are shared with at least another vernacular Arabic variety outside the Levant, especially with Egyptian.{{sfn|Lentin|2018|p=199}} Many words, such as [[verbal noun]]s (also called gerunds or {{transliteration|apc|masdar}}{{sfn|Aldrich|2017|p=ii}}), are derived from a Semitic root. For instance, {{wikt-lang|ajp|درس}} {{transliteration|apc|dars}}, 'a lesson' is derived from {{wikt-lang|ajp|‏درس}} {{transliteration|apc|daras}}, 'to study, to learn'.{{sfn|Tiedemann|2020|p=xv}} Levantine also includes layers of ancient languages: Aramaic (mainly [[Western Aramaic languages|Western Aramaic]]), [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]], classical Hebrew ([[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]] and [[Mishnaic Hebrew|Mishnaic]]), [[Old Persian|Persian]], [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], and Latin.<ref name="Bassal"/>

Aramaic influence is significant, especially in vocabulary and in rural areas. Aramaic words underwent [[morphophonemic]] adaptation when they entered Levantine. Over time, it has become difficult to identify them. They belong to different fields of everyday life such as seasonal agriculture, housekeeping, tools and utensils, and Christian religious terms.<ref name="Bassal">{{cite journal |last1=Bassal |first1=Ibrahim |title=Hebrew and Aramaic Substrata in Spoken Palestinian Arabic |journal=Mediterranean Language Review|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year=2012 |volume=19 |pages=85–86 |doi=10.13173/MLR.19.1.085 |jstor=10.13173/medilangrevi.19.2012.0085 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bassal|first=Ibrahim|year=2015|title=Hebrew and Aramaic Element in the Israeli Vernacular Christian-Arabic and in the Written Christian Arabic of Palestine, Syria, and Lebanon |journal=The Levantine Review|publisher=Boston College| volume=4|issue=1 |page=86 |doi=10.6017/lev.v4i1.8721 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Western Neo-Aramaic|Aramaic]] is still spoken in the Syrian villages of [[Maaloula]], [[Al-Sarkha (Bakhah)|al-Sarkha]], and [[Jubb'adin]];<ref name="Neishtadt"/> near them, Aramaic borrowings are more frequent.<ref name="EALL Aramaic/Syriac Loanwords"/>{{sfn|Lentin|2018|pp=199–200}}

Since the [[early modern period]], Levantine has borrowed from Turkish and European languages, mainly English (particularly in technology and entertainment<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ahmad |last1=Atawneh |chapter=English Loanwords |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0006 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref>), French (especially in Lebanese due to the French Mandate{{sfn|Al-Wer|2006|p=1920}}), German, and Italian.<ref name="Bassal"/> Modern Hebrew significantly influences the Palestinian dialect spoken by Arab Israelis.<ref name="Elhija2017">{{cite journal | last=Elhija | first=Duaa Abu | title=Hebrew Loanwords in the Palestinian Israeli Variety of Arabic (Facebook Data) | journal=Journal of Language Contact | publisher=Brill | volume=10 | issue=3 |year=2017 | doi=10.1163/19552629-01002009 | pages=424–425 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Muhammad Hasan |last1=Amara |chapter=Ivrit Loanwords |title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics |editor1-first=Lutz |editor1-last=Edzard |editor2-first=Rudolf |editor2-last=de Jong |doi=10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_vol2_0059 |publisher=Brill|year=2011}}</ref> [[Loanword]]s are gradually replaced with words of Arabic root. For instance, borrowings from [[Ottoman Turkish]] that were common in the 20th century have been largely replaced by Arabic words after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Brustad|Zuniga|2019|p=425}} [[Arabs in Turkey|Arabic-speaking minorities in Turkey]] (mainly in Hatay) are still influenced by Turkish.<ref name="Procházka2009"/><ref name="Procházka2004">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9780203327715-20 |chapter=The Turkish Contribution to the Arabic Lexicon |title=Linguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion: Case Studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic |year=2004 |pages=191–193 |isbn=978-0-203-32771-5 |oclc=1044177046 |publisher=Routledge |first=Stephan|last=Procházka|editor1-first=Éva Ágnes|editor1-last=Csató|editor2-first=Bo|editor2-last=Isaksson|editor3-first=Carina|editor3-last=Jahani }}</ref>

With about 50% of common words, Levantine (especially Palestinian) is the closest colloquial variety to MSA in terms of [[lexical similarity]].<ref name="The Economist">{{Cite news|date=2021-09-18|title=The travails of teaching Arabs their own language|newspaper=[[The Economist]]|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2021/09/18/the-travails-of-teaching-arabs-their-own-language|access-date=2021-09-23|quote=Pupils are taught Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the formal tongue of officialdom, yet they grow up speaking a native dialect. The dialect closest to MSA is spoken by Palestinians, yet only about 60% of the local lingo overlaps with MSA.|archive-date=23 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923163036/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2021/09/18/the-travails-of-teaching-arabs-their-own-language|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=e28/><ref name="Kwaik2018Distance">{{cite journal|last1=Kwaik|first1=Kathrein Abu|last2=Saad|first2=Motaz|last3=Chatzikyriakidis|first3=Stergios|last4=Dobnika|first4=Simon|title=A Lexical Distance Study of Arabic Dialects|journal=Procedia Computer Science|publisher=Elsevier|volume=142|year=2018|page=2 |doi=10.1016/j.procs.2018.10.456|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the vocabulary of five-year-old native Palestinians: 40% of the words are not present in MSA, 40% are related to MSA but phonologically different (sound change, addition, or deletion), and 20% are identical to MSA.<ref name="Broselow 2011 p. 271">{{cite book | editor1-last=Broselow | editor1-first=Ellen | editor2-first=Hamid | editor2-last=Ouali | title=Perspectives on Arabic linguistics | volume=XXII-XXIII | publisher=John Benjamins Publishers | year=2011 | isbn=978-90-272-8412-9 | oclc=774289125 | page=271 | chapter=Phonological processing in diglossic Arabic: The role of linguistic distance | chapter-url=https://benjamins.com/catalog/cilt.317.12sai | doi=10.1075/cilt.317.12sai | first=Elinor | last=Saiegh-Haddad | access-date=7 March 2022 | archive-date=7 March 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307165118/https://benjamins.com/catalog/cilt.317.12sai | url-status=live }}</ref> In terms of [[morphemes]], 20% are identical between MSA and Palestinian Arabic, 30% are strongly overlapping (slightly different forms, same function), 20% are partially overlapping (different forms, same function), and 30% are unique to Palestinian Arabic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joubran-Awadie |first1=Nancy |last2=Shalhoub-Awwad |first2=Yasmin |date=2023-01-20 |title=Morphological distance between spoken Palestinian dialect and standard Arabic and its implications for reading acquisition |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01427237221145375 |journal=First Language |volume=43 |issue=2 |language=en |pages=200–230 |doi=10.1177/01427237221145375 |s2cid=256124323 |issn=0142-7237}}</ref>

== Sample text ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ ''[[The Little Prince]]'': Chapter 6
! Lebanese (Arabic)<ref name="LittlePrinceAPC">{{Cite web|title=The Little Prince Arabic (Lebanese) – Arabisch (Libanesisch) – Arabe libanais|url=http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-lib.htm|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Petit-prince.at|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711100002/http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-lib.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> !! Lebanese (Romanized)<ref name="LittlePrinceAPC"/> !! Palestinian (Arabic){{efn|According to the authors: "we decided to adopt a flexible approach and use a form of transcription that reflects the spelling used by native Arabic speakers when they write brief colloquial texts on computer, table or smartphone."}}<ref name="LittlePrinceAJP">{{Cite web|title=The Little Prince Arabic (Palestinian) – Arabisch (Palästinensisch) – Arabe palestinien|url=http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-pal.htm|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Petit-prince.at|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711100002/http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab-pal.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TLPAJP"/> !! Palestinian (Romanized){{efn|Transcription follows {{ill|Elihay|he|יוחנן אליחי}}'s convention.}}<ref name="LittlePrinceAJP"/><ref name="TLPAJP"/> !! [[Modern Standard Arabic|MSA]]<ref name="LittlePrinceAR">{{Cite web|title=The Little Prince Arabic – Arabisch – Arabe|url=http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-arab.htm|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Petit-prince.at|archive-date=16 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516000926/http://petit-prince.at/pp-arab.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> !! MSA (Romanized)<ref name="LittlePrinceAR" /> !! English<ref name="LittlePrinceEN">{{Cite web|title=The Little Prince English – Englisch – Anglais|url=http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-engl.htm|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Petit-prince.at|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121153019/http://www.petit-prince.at/pp-engl.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|الأمير الزغير}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|l amir l zghir}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|الأمير الصغير}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|il-{{hamza}}amir le-zġīr}} || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar|الأمير الصغير}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|Al-amīr al-ṣaghīr}} || The Little Prince
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|وهيك يا إميري الزغير،}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|w hek ya amire l zghir,}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|أخ، يا أميري الصغير!}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|{{hamza}}ᾱꜧ̄, yā {{hamza}}amīri l<sup>e</sup>-zġīr!}} || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar|آه أيها الأمير الصغير ،}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|Āh ayyuhā al-amīr al-ṣaghīr,}} || Oh, little prince!
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|ونتفي نتفي، فهمت حياتك المتواضعة الكئيبي.}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|w netfe netfe, fhemet 7ayetak l metwad3a l ka2ibe.}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|شوي شوي عرفت عن سر حياتك الكئيبة.}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|šwayy <sup>e</sup>šwayy <sup>e</sup><sup>C</sup>rif<sup>e</sup>t <sup>C</sup>an sirr ḥayātak il-ka{{hamza}}ībe.}} || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar| لقد أدركت شيئا فشيئا أبعاد حياتك الصغيرة المحزنة ،}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|laqad adrakat shayʼan fashaiʼā abʻād ḥayātik al-ṣaghīrah almuhzinat,}} || Bit by bit I came to understand the secrets of your sad little life.
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|إنت يلّلي ضلّيت عَ مِدّة طويلي ما عندك شي يسلّيك إلاّ عزوبة التطليع بغياب الشمس.}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|enta yalli dallet 3a medde tawile ma 3andak shi ysallik illa 3uzubet l tutli3 bi ghiyeb l shames.}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|وما كانش إلك ملاذ تاني غير غروب الشمس.}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|u-ma kan-š {{hamza}}ilak malā<u>d</u> tāni ġēr ġurūb iš-šams.}} || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar|لم تكن تملك من الوقت للتفكير والتأمل غير تلك اللحظات التي كنت تسرح فيها مع غروب الشمس.}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|lam takun tamluk min al-waqt lil-tafkīr wa-al-taʼammul ghayr tilka al-laḥaẓāt allatī kuntu tasrah fīhā maʻa ghurūb al-shams.}} || For a long time you had found your only entertainment in the quiet pleasure of looking at the sunset.
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|هالشي الجزئي، وجديد، عرفتو رابع يوم من عبكرا، لِمّن قلتلّي:}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|hal shi l jez2e, w jdid, 3arefto rabe3 yom men 3abokra, limmen eltelle:}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|وهدا الإشي عرفته بصباح اليوم الرابع لما قلت لي:}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|u-hāda l-{{hamza}}iši <sup>C</sup>rifto bi-ṣαbᾱḥ il-yōm ir-rᾱbe<sup>C</sup> lamma qultelli:}} || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar|لقد عرفت بهذا الأمر الجديد في صباح اليوم الرابع من لقائنا، عندما قلت لي:}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|Laqad ʻaraftu bi-hādhā al-amīr al-jadīd fī ṣabāḥ al-yawm al-rābiʻ min liqāʼnā, ʻindamā qultu lī:}} || I learned that new detail on the morning of the fourth day, when you said to me:
|-
| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|أنا بحب غياب الشمس.}}</div> || {{transliteration|apc|ana b7eb ghiyeb l shames.}}|| <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|apc|– بحب كتير غروب الشمس}}.</div> || {{transliteration|apc|– baḥebb <sup>e</sup>ktīr ġurūb iš-šams}}. || <div dir="rtl" align="right">{{lang|ar|إنني مغرم بغروب الشمس.}}</div> || {{transliteration|ar|Innanī mughram bighuruwb al-shams.

}} || I am very fond of sunsets.
|}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
{{refbegin|2}}
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Barthélemy |first=Adrien |title=Dictionnaire Arabe-Français : Dialectes de Syrie, Alep, Damas, Liban, Jerusalem |year=1935 |publisher=Geuthner |language=French |oclc=957299135|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bauer |first1=Leonhard|last2=Spitaler|first2=Hans |title=Deutsch–Arabisches Wörterbuch der Umgangssprache in Palästina und im Libanon |year=1957 |publisher= Harrassowitz Verlag |oclc=760379208|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Behnstedt |first=Peter |title=Sprachatlas von Syrien|volume= I: Kartenband |year=1997 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03856-0 |language=German |oclc=1223288621|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Behnstedt |first=Peter |title=Sprachatlas von Syrien|volume= II: Volkskundliche Texte |year=2000 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-04330-4 |language=German |oclc=772840812|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bergsträsser |first=Gotthelf |title=Sprachatlas von Syrien und Palästina |year=1915 |publisher=Hinrichs |language=German |oclc=977749134|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brustad |first=Kristen |url= |title=The Syntax of Spoken Arabic: A Comparative Study of Moroccan, Egyptian, Syrian, and Kuwaiti Dialects |publisher=Georgetown University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-87840-789-8  |oclc=43657105|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cantineau |first=Jean |title=Les parlers arabes du Ḥōrān |year=1946 |language=French |oclc=1222340236|publisher=Klincksieck|ref=none}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Cleveland |first=Ray L. |year=1963 |title=A Classification for the Arabic Dialects of Jordan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1355607 |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |issue=171 |pages=56–63 |doi=10.2307/1355607 |issn=0003-097X|oclc=606512143|publisher=American Schools of Oriental Research|jstor=1355607 |s2cid=164036536 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Durand|first1=Olivier|last2=Ventura|first2=Annamaria|title=Grammatica di arabo mediorientale : La lingua šami |year=2020 |publisher=[[Hoepli Editore|Hoepli]] |isbn=978-88-360-0059-3 |language=Italian|oclc=1191246670|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Feghali |first=Michel |title=Le parler de Kfár'abîda (Liban-Syrie) : Essai linguistique sur la phonétique et la morphologie d'un parler arabe moderne |year=1919 |publisher=Leroux |language=French |oclc=1073658250|url=https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Livre:Feghali_-_Le_Parler_de_Kf%C3%A1r%27ab%C3%AEda.pdf|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Grotzfeld |first=Heinz |title=Syrisch-Arabische Grammatik: Dialekt von Damaskus |year=1965 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|language=German |oclc=906325563|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Halloun |first=Moïn |title=A Practical Dictionary of the Standard Dialect Spoken in Palestine: English-Arabic |year=2011 |isbn=978-965-91610-0-3 |publisher=Bethlehem University |oclc=992166708|ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last=Omar|first=Margaret K.|title=From Eastern to Western Arabic |url=https://fsi-languages.yojik.eu/languages/FSI/Arabic/FSI%20-%20From%20Eastern%20to%20Western%20Arabic.pdf |year=1974|publisher=[[Foreign Service Institute]], [[United States Department of State|Department of State]]|isbn=978-1-4538-5267-5|oclc= 1122633742 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book|last=Omar|first=Margaret K.|title=Levantine & Egyptian Arabic: Comparative Study|url=https://www.fsi-language-courses.org/languages/Arabic/Levantine%20Arabic/FSI%20-%20Levantine%20and%20Egyptian%20Arabic%20-%20Comparative%20Study.pdf |year=1976|publisher=Foreign Service Institute, Department of State|isbn=978-1-4538-4863-0|oclc= 2577627 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Palva |first=Heikki |date=1984 |title=A General Classification for the Arabic Dialects Spoken in Palestine and Transjordan |url=https://journal.fi/store/article/view/49783 |journal=Studia Orientalia Electronica |language=en |volume=55 |pages=357–376 |issn=2323-5209|publisher=Finnish Oriental Society|ref=none}}
* {{cite AV media |last=Pimsleur|first=Paul |year=1998  |title=Arabic (Eastern) |type=Audiobook on cassette |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster Audio]] |isbn=978-1-4193-5659-9 |oclc=70174556|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Spoer |first1=Hans Henry |last2=Nasrallah Haddad |first2=Elias |title=Manual of Palestinean Arabic for self-instruction |year=1909 | publisher=[[Schneller Orphanage]]|oclc=459003050|url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ManualofPalestineanArabic.pdf|ref=none}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary cat|category=North Levantine Arabic language}}{{Incubator|apc}}
* {{Cite web|title=Currasat: Arabic Dialects Corpora|url=https://portal.sina.birzeit.edu/curras/|access-date=2021-07-19|website=[[Birzeit University]]}}
* {{Cite web|title=Dictionaries for Classical Arabic and dialects|url=https://www.livingarabic.com/|access-date=2021-07-17|website=The Living Arabic Project}}
* {{cite web|url=https://sites.google.com/nyu.edu/palestine-lexicon|title=The Open Palestinian Arabic Lexicon "Maknuune"|website=CAMeL Lab, New York University Abu Dhabi}}
* {{Cite web|date=2018-06-27|title=Microsoft Translator launches Levantine Arabic as a new speech translation language|url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/translator/blog/2018/06/27/levantine/|access-date=2021-07-17|website=Microsoft Translator Blog}}

{{Levantine Arabic}}
{{Arabic language}}
{{Languages of Syria}}

[[Category:Levantine Arabic| ]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Levant]]