View source for Listeria

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria}}
{{For|the disease caused by Listeria|Listeriosis}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Listeria monocytogenes 01.jpg
| image_caption = micrograph of ''Listeria monocytogenes'' bacterium in tissue
| taxon = Listeria
| authority = [[Harvey Pirie|Pirie]] 1940
| type_species = ''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]''
| type_species_authority = (Murray, Webb & Swann 1926) Pirie 1940
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
[[#Phylogeny|See text]]
| synonyms =
* ''Listerella'' <small>Pirie 1927 non Jahn 1906 non Cushman 1933</small>
* "''Mesolisteria''" <small>Orsi & Wiedmann 2016 ex Bouznada et al. 2024</small>
* "''Murraya''" <small>Stuart & Welshimer 1974 ex Bouznada et al. 2024 non König ex von Linné 1771 nom. cons. non Weber & Beaufort 1911</small>
}}

[[File:Listeria monocytogenes grown on Listeria Selective Agar.jpg|thumb|Listeria grown on [[agar]] medium]]
[[File:Listeria monocytogenes PHIL 2287 lores.jpg|thumb|[[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]] [[micrograph]] of ''Listeria monocytogenes'']]

'''''Listeria''''' is a [[genus]] of [[bacteria]] that acts as an [[intracellular parasite]] in mammals. As of 2024, 28 species have been identified.<ref>Jones, D. 1992. Current classification of the genus Listeria. In: Listeria 1992. Abstracts of ISOPOL XI, Copenhagen, Denmark). p. 7-8. ocourt, J., P. Boerlin, F.Grimont, C. Jacquet, and J-C. Piffaretti. 1992. Assignment of Listeria grayi and Listeria murrayi to a single species, Listeria grayi, with a revised description of Listeria grayi. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42:171-174.</ref><ref>Boerlin et al. 1992. L. ivanovii subsp. londoniensis subsp. novi. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 42:69-73. Jones, D., and H.P.R. Seeliger. 1986. International committee on systematic bacteriology. Subcommittee the taxonomy of Listeria. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 36:117-118.</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Orsi |first1=Renato H. |last2=Liao |first2=Jingqiu |last3=Carlin |first3=Catharine R. |last4=Wiedmann |first4=Martin |date=2024-02-14 |editor-last=Prasad |editor-first=Vinayaka R. |title=Taxonomy, ecology, and relevance to food safety of the genus Listeria with a particular consideration of new Listeria species described between 2010 and 2022 |journal=mBio |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=e0093823 |doi=10.1128/mbio.00938-23 |issn=2150-7511 |pmc=10865800 |pmid=38126771}}</ref> The genus is named in honour of the British pioneer of sterile surgery [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]]. ''Listeria'' species are [[Gram-positive]], [[Bacillus (shape)|rod-shaped]], and [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultatively anaerobic]], and do not produce [[endospore]]s.<ref name=Singleton>{{cite book | author = Singleton P| title = Bacteria in Biology, Biotechnology and Medicine | edition = 5th | publisher = Wiley | year = 1999 | pages= 444–454| isbn = 0-471-98880-4}}</ref>

The major [[human pathogen]] in the genus is ''[[Listeria monocytogenes|L. monocytogenes]]''. Although ''L. monocytogenes'' has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in a refrigerator temperature of 4&nbsp;°C (39.2&nbsp;°F) up to the human body temperature of 37&nbsp;°C (98.6&nbsp;°F).<ref name="rts1">{{cite web |last1=Southwick |first1=F. S. |author2=D. L. Purich |title=More About Listeria |url=http://www.med.ufl.edu/biochem/DLPURICH/morelist.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010222054116/http://www.med.ufl.edu/biochem/Dlpurich/morelist.html |archive-date=22 February 2001 |access-date=7 March 2007 |publisher=University of Florida Medical School}} [No longer accessible.  Archived version available [https://web.archive.org/web/20050228084456/http://www.med.ufl.edu/biochem/dlpurich/morelist.html here].]</ref> It is the usual cause of the relatively rare bacterial disease [[listeriosis]], an [[infection]] caused by eating [[foodborne illness|food contaminated]] with the bacteria. The overt form of the disease has a [[case-fatality rate]] of around 20–30%. Listeriosis can cause serious illness in [[pregnancy|pregnant women]], [[neonate|newborns]], adults with [[immunodeficiency|weakened immune systems]] and the [[old age|elderly]], and may cause [[gastroenteritis]] in others who have been severely infected. The incubation period can vary from three to 70 days.<ref name="foodsafety">{{cite web |url=https://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/bacteriaviruses/listeria/index.html |title=Listeria |date=12 April 2019 |website=FoodSafety.gov}}</ref> The two main clinical manifestations are [[sepsis]] and [[meningitis]], often complicated by [[encephalitis]], a pathology unusual for bacterial infections.

''[[Listeria ivanovii|L. ivanovii]]'' is a pathogen of [[mammal]]s, specifically [[ruminant]]s, and rarely causes listeriosis in humans.<ref>Christelle Guillet, Olivier Join-Lambert, Alban Le Monnier, Alexandre Leclercq, Frédéric Mechaï, Marie-France Mamzer-Bruneel, Magdalena K. Bielecka, Mariela Scortti, Olivier Disson, Patrick Berche, José Vazquez-Boland, Olivier Lortholary, and Marc Lecuit. "Human Listeriosis Caused by Listeria ivanovii". ''Emerg Infect Dis.'' 2010 January; 16(1): 136–138.</ref>

==Bacteria characteristics==
In the late 1920s, two groups of researchers independently identified ''L. monocytogenes'' from animal outbreaks, naming it ''Bacterium monocytogenes''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=E. G. D. |last2=Webb |first2=R. A. |last3=Swann |first3=M. B. R. |date=1926 |title=A disease of rabbits characterised by a large mononuclear leucocytosis, caused by a hitherto undescribed bacillus Bacterium monocytogenes (n.sp.) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700290409 |journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=407–439 |doi=10.1002/path.1700290409 |issn=0368-3494|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Witts |first1=L. J. |last2=Webb |first2=R. A. |date=1927 |title=The monocytes of the rabbit in B. Monocytogenes infection: A study of their staining reactions and histogenesis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/path.1700300416 |journal=The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology |language=en |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=687–712 |doi=10.1002/path.1700300416 |issn=0368-3494|url-access=subscription }}</ref> They proposed the genus ''Listerella'' in honour of surgeon and early antiseptic advocate [[Joseph Lister]], but that name was already in use for a [[Listerella|slime mould]] and a [[protozoa]]n. Eventually, the genus ''Listeria'' was proposed and accepted. The genus ''Listeria'' was classified in the family Corynebacteriaceae through the seventh edition (1957) of ''[[Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology]]''. [[16S ribosomal RNA|16S rRNA]] cataloging studies demonstrated that ''L. monocytogenes'' is a distinct taxon within the ''[[Lactobacillus]]-[[Bacillus]]'' branch of the bacterial phylogeny<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=COLLINS |first1=M. D. |last2=WALLBANKS |first2=S. |last3=LANE |first3=D. J. |last4=SHAH |first4=J. |last5=NIETUPSKI |first5=R. |last6=SMIDA |first6=J. |last7=DORSCH |first7=M. |last8=STACKEBRANDT |first8=E. |date=1991 |title=Phylogenetic Analysis of the Genus Listeria Based on Reverse Transcriptase Sequencing of 16S rRNA |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/00207713-41-2-240 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=240–246 |doi=10.1099/00207713-41-2-240 |pmid=1713054 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref> constructed by [[Carl Woese]]. In 2004 the genus was placed in the newly created family [[Listeriaceae]], of which the only other genus in the family is ''[[Brochothrix]]''.<ref>Elliot T. Ryser, Elmer H. Marth. ''Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety''. Second edition. Elmer Marth. 1999.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ludwig |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Schleifer |first2=Karl-Heinz |last3=Stackebrandt |first3=Erko |date=1984 |title=16S rRNA analysis of ''Listeria monocytogenes'' and ''Brochothrix thermosphacta'' |journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters |volume=25 |issue=2–3 |pages=199–204 |doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.1984.tb01456.x |issn=0378-1097}}</ref> The first documented human case of listeriosis was in 1929, described by the Danish physician Aage Nyfeldt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nyfeldt |first=A |date=1929 |title=Etiologie de la mononucleose infectieuse |journal=Comptes Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie |volume=101 |pages=590–591}}</ref>

All species within the genus ''Listeria'' are [[gram-positive]], [[catalase]]-positive [[bacillus (shape)|rods]] and do not produce [[endospore]]s. Under the microscope, ''Listeria'' species appear as small rods, sometimes arranged in short chains. In direct smears, they may be [[Coccus|coccoid]], and can be mistaken for [[streptococci]]. Longer cells may resemble [[corynebacteria]]. [[Flagella]] are produced at room temperature, but not at 37&nbsp;°C. Hemolytic activity on blood agar has been used as a marker to distinguish ''L. monocytogenes'' from other ''Listeria'' species, but it is not a definitive criterion. Further biochemical characterization may be necessary to distinguish between the different species of ''Listeria''.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

''[[Listeria monocytogenes]]'' is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, and food''.<ref name="rts1" /> Listeria'' in soil can contaminate vegetables, and animals can be carriers. It has been found in uncooked meats, uncooked vegetables, fruits including [[cantaloupe]]<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/sep/29/listeria-outbreak-us-cantaloupe-melons?newsfeed=true | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Listeria outbreak expected to cause more deaths across US in coming weeks | date=29 September 2011}}</ref> and apples,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/food/dailydish/la-dd-california-farm-massive-apple-recall-listeria-found-20150116-story.html|title=California plant issues massive apple recall due to listeria|first=Los Angeles|last=Times|website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=16 January 2015 }}</ref> pasteurized or [[unpasteurized milk]] and milk products, and processed foods. Pasteurization and sufficient cooking kill ''Listeria''; however, contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. For example, meat-processing plants producing ready-to-eat foods, such as hot dogs and deli meats, must follow extensive sanitation policies and procedures to prevent ''Listeria'' contamination.<ref name=rts4A>{{cite web
  | title =Controlling Listeria Contamination in Your Meat Processing Plant
  | publisher =Government of Ontario
  | date = 27 February 2007
  | url =http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/food/inspection/meatinsp/controllinglisteria.htm
  | access-date =27 April 2010}}</ref>

==Phylogeny==
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the [[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN)<ref name=LPSN>{{cite web |author=A.C. Parte |url=https://lpsn.dsmz.de/family/listeriaceae |title=Listeriaceae |access-date=2022-09-09 |publisher=[[List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature]] (LPSN) |display-authors=et al.}}</ref> and [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI).<ref name=NCBI>{{cite web |author=C.L. Schoch |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=186820&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock |title=Listeriaceae |access-date=2022-09-09 |publisher=[[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (NCBI) taxonomy database |display-authors=et al.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orsi |first1=Renato H. |last2=Wiedmann |first2=Martin |date=2016 |title=Characteristics and distribution of Listeria spp., including Listeria species newly described since 2009 |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |language=en |volume=100 |issue=12 |pages=5273–5287 |doi=10.1007/s00253-016-7552-2 |issn=0175-7598 |pmc=4875933 |pmid=27129530}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=1 | 16S rRNA based [[The All-Species Living Tree Project|LTP]]_10_2024<ref>{{cite web |title=The LTP |url=https://imedea.uib-csic.es/mmg/ltp/#LTP| access-date=10 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LTP_all tree in newick format |url=https://imedea.uib-csic.es/mmg/ltp/wp-content/uploads/ltp/LTP_all_10_2024.ntree |access-date=10 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LTP_10_2024 Release Notes |url=https://imedea.uib-csic.es/mmg/ltp/wp-content/uploads/ltp/LTP_10_2024_release_notes.pdf |access-date=10 December 2024}}</ref>
! colspan=1 | 120 marker proteins based [[Genome Taxonomy Database|GTDB]] 09-RS220<ref name="about">{{cite web |title=GTDB release 09-RS220 |url=https://gtdb.ecogenomic.org/about#4%7C |website=[[Genome Taxonomy Database]] |access-date=10 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="tree">{{cite web |title=bac120_r220.sp_labels |url=https://data.gtdb.ecogenomic.org/releases/release220/220.0/auxillary_files/bac120_r220.sp_labels.tree |website=[[Genome Taxonomy Database]] |access-date=10 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="taxon_history">{{cite web |title=Taxon History |url=https://gtdb.ecogenomic.org/taxon_history/ |website=[[Genome Taxonomy Database]] |access-date=10 May 2024}}</ref>
|- 
| style="vertical-align:top|
{{Clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%
|1={{clade
  |1={{clade
  |label1="''[[Murraya]]''"
  |1=''[[Listeria grayi|M. grayi]]''
     }}
  |2={{clade
    |1={{clade
    |label1="''[[Mesolisteria]]''"
    |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
        |1="''[[Listeria costaricensis|M. costaricensis]]''"
        |2="''M. ilorinensis''"
         }}
      |2={{clade
        |1="''[[Listeria floridensis|M. floridensis]]''"
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1="''[[Listeria thailandensis|M. thailandensis]]''" <small>(Leclercq et al. 2019) Bouznada et al. 2024</small><ref name="Lthail">{{Cite journal |last1=Leclercq |first1=Alexandre |last2=Moura |first2=Alexandra |last3=Vales |first3=Guillaume |last4=Tessaud-Rita |first4=Nathalie |last5=Aguilhon |first5=Christine |last6=Lecuit |first6=Marc |date=2019 |title=Listeria thailandensis sp. nov. |url=https://hal-pasteur.archives-ouvertes.fr/pasteur-02319983/file/IJSEM_Lthailandensis_20181004%2Bfigs_HAL.pdf |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=74–81 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.003097 |pmid=30457511 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 
            |2="''M. valentina''"
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1="''[[Listeria aquatica|M. aquatica]]''"
            |2={{clade
              |1="''[[Listeria goaensis|M. goaensis]]''"
              |2="''[[Listeria fleischmannii|M. fleischmannii]]''"
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
       }}
    |2={{clade
      |1=''[[Brochothrix]]''
      |2={{clade
        |label1="''[[Paenilisteria]]''"
        |1={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1="''[[Listeria booriae|P. booriae]]''"
            |2="''[[Listeria riparia|P. riparia]]''"
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1="''[[Listeria weihenstephanensis|P. weihenstephanensis]]''"
            |2={{clade
              |1="''[[Listeria cornellensis|P. cornellensis]]''"
              |2={{clade
                |1="''P. rustica''"
                |2={{clade
                  |1="''[[Listeria grandensis|P. grandensis]]''"
                  |2={{clade
                    |1="''[[Listeria newyorkensis|P. newyorkensis]]''"
                    |2="''[[Listeria rocourtiae|P. rocourtiae]]''"
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
        |label2=''Listeria'' s.s.
        |2={{clade
          |1=''[[Listeria welshimeri|L. welshimeri]]''
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Listeria marthii|L. marthii]]''
            |2={{clade
              |1={{clade
                |1=''L. cossartiae cayugensis''
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''L. cossartiae''
                  |2=''[[Listeria monocytogenes|L. monocytogenes]]''
                   }}
                 }}
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Listeria innocua|L. innocua]]''
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Listeria seeligeri|L. seeligeri]]''
                  |2={{clade
                    |1=''L. immobilis''
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Listeria ivanovii|L. ivanovii]]''
                      |2="''L. londonensis''"
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
|
{{barlabel |size=0 |at1=-1 |label1="''[[Mesolisteria]]''" |bar1=green |at2=3.5 |label2="''[[Murraya]]''" s.s. |bar2=green |at3=9 |label3=''Listeria'' s.s. |bar3=green 
|cladogram=
{{Clade | style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%
|1={{clade
  |1=''[[Brochothrix]]''
  |2={{clade
    |label1="''[[Paenilisteria]]''"
    |1={{clade
      |1={{clade
        |1="''[[Listeria booriae|P. booriae]]''" <small>(Weller et al. 2015) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=Daniel |last2=Andrus |first2=Alexis |last3=Wiedmann |first3=Martin |last4=den Bakker |first4=Henk C. |date=2015 |title=Listeria booriae sp. nov. and Listeria newyorkensis sp. nov., from food processing environments in the USA |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.070839-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=65 |issue=Pt_1 |pages=286–292 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.070839-0 |pmid=25342111 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
        |2="''[[Listeria riparia|P. riparia]]''" <small>(Den Bakker et al. 2014) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref name=":2" /> 
         }}
      |2={{clade
        |1="''[[Listeria grandensis|P. grandensis]]''" <small>(Den Bakker et al. 2014) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref name=":2" />
        |2={{clade
          |1="''[[Listeria weihenstephanensis|P. weihenstephanensis]]''" <small>(Lang Halter et al. 2013) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lang Halter |first1=Evi |last2=Neuhaus |first2=Klaus |last3=Scherer |first3=Siegfried |date=2013 |title=Listeria weihenstephanensis sp. nov., isolated from the water plant Lemna trisulca taken from a freshwater pond |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.036830-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=63 |issue=Pt_2 |pages=641–647 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.036830-0 |pmid=22544790 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
          |2={{clade
            |1={{clade
              |1="''P. portnoyi''" <small>(Carlin et al. 2021) Bouznada et al. 2024</small><ref name=":1" />  
              |2="''P. rustica''" <small>(Carlin et al. 2021) Bouznada et al. 2024</small><ref name=":1" /> 
               }}
            |2={{clade
              |1="''[[Listeria rocourtiae|P. rocourtiae]]''" <small>(Leclercq et al. 2010) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Leclercq |first1=Alexandre |last2=Clermont |first2=Dominique |last3=Bizet |first3=Chantal |last4=Grimont |first4=Patrick A. D. |last5=Le Flèche-Matéos |first5=Anne |last6=Roche |first6=Sylvie M. |last7=Buchrieser |first7=Carmen |last8=Cadet-Daniel |first8=Véronique |last9=Le Monnier |first9=Alban |last10=Lecuit |first10=Marc |last11=Allerberger |first11=Franz |date=2010 |title=Listeria rocourtiae sp. nov. |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.017376-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=2210–2214 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.017376-0 |pmid=19915117 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
              |2={{clade
                |1="''[[Listeria cornellensis|P. cornellensis]]''" <small>(Den Bakker et al. 2014) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref name=":2" />
                |2="''[[Listeria newyorkensis|P. newyorkensis]]''" <small>(Weller et al. 2015) Orsi & Wiedmann 2016</small><ref name=":3" /> 
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
    |label2=''Listeria''
    |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
        |1={{clade
          |1=''[[Listeria costaricensis|L. costaricensis]]''" <small>Núñez-Montero et al. 2018</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Núñez-Montero |first1=Kattia |last2=Leclercq |first2=Alexandre |last3=Moura |first3=Alexandra |last4=Vales |first4=Guillaume |last5=Peraza |first5=Johnny |last6=Pizarro-Cerdá |first6=Javier |last7=Lecuit |first7=Marc |date=2018 |title=Listeria costaricensis sp. nov. |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.002596 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=844–850 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.002596 |pmid=29458479 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|barbegin1=green
          |2=''L. ilorinensis'' <small>Raufu et al. 2022</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Raufu |first1=Ibrahim Adisa |last2=Moura |first2=Alexandra |last3=Vales |first3=Guillaume |last4=Ahmed |first4=Olayiwola Akeem |last5=Aremu |first5=Abdulfatai |last6=Thouvenot |first6=Pierre |last7=Tessaud-Rita |first7=Nathalie |last8=Bracq-Dieye |first8=Hélène |last9=Krishnamurthy |first9=Ramar |last10=Leclercq |first10=Alexandre |last11=Lecuit |first11=Marc |date=2022 |title=Listeria ilorinensis sp. nov., isolated from cow milk cheese in Nigeria |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.005437 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=72 |issue=6 |page=005437 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.005437 |pmid=35731854 |issn=1466-5034}}</ref>|bar2=green
           }}
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1=''[[Listeria goaensis|L. goaensis]]'' <small>Doijad et al. 2018</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doijad |first1=Swapnil P. |last2=Poharkar |first2=Krupali V. |last3=Kale |first3=Satyajit B. |last4=Kerkar |first4=Savita |last5=Kalorey |first5=Dewanand R. |last6=Kurkure |first6=Nitin V. |last7=Rawool |first7=Deepak B. |last8=Malik |first8=Satya Veer Singh |last9=Ahmad |first9=Rafed Yassin |last10=Hudel |first10=Martina |last11=Chaudhari |first11=Sandeep P. |last12=Abt |first12=Birte |last13=Overmann |first13=Jörg |last14=Weigel |first14=Markus |last15=Hain |first15=Torsten |date=2018 |title=Listeria goaensis sp. nov. |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.002980 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=68 |issue=10 |pages=3285–3291 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.002980 |pmid=30156532 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|bar1=green
            |2=''[[Listeria fleischmannii|L. fleischmannii]]'' <small>Bertsch et al. 2013</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bertsch |first1=David |last2=Rau |first2=Jörg |last3=Eugster |first3=Marcel R. |last4=Haug |first4=Martina C. |last5=Lawson |first5=Paul A. |last6=Lacroix |first6=Christophe |last7=Meile |first7=Leo |date=2013 |title=Listeria fleischmannii sp. nov., isolated from cheese |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.036947-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=63 |issue=Pt_2 |pages=526–532 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.036947-0 |pmid=22523164 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|bar2=green
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Listeria floridensis|L. floridensis]]'' <small>Den Bakker et al. 2014</small><ref name=":2" />|bar1=green
            |2={{clade
              |1=''[[Listeria aquatica|L. aquatica]]'' <small>Den Bakker et al. 2014</small><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=den Bakker |first1=Henk C. |last2=Warchocki |first2=Steven |last3=Wright |first3=Emily M. |last4=Allred |first4=Adam F. |last5=Ahlstrom |first5=Christina |last6=Manuel |first6=Clyde S. |last7=Stasiewicz |first7=Matthew J. |last8=Burrell |first8=Angela |last9=Roof |first9=Sherry |last10=Strawn |first10=Laura K. |last11=Fortes |first11=Esther |last12=Nightingale |first12=Kendra K. |last13=Kephart |first13=Daniel |last14=Wiedmann |first14=Martin |date=2014 |title=Listeria floridensis sp. nov., Listeria aquatica sp. nov., Listeria cornellensis sp. nov., Listeria riparia sp. nov. and Listeria grandensis sp. nov., from agricultural and natural environments |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.052720-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=64 |issue=Pt_6 |pages=1882–1889 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.052720-0 |pmid=24599893 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|bar1=green
              |2={{clade
                |1="''L. kieliensis''" <small>Kabisch 2018</small>|bar1=green
                |2=''L. valentina'' <small>Quereda et al. 2020</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Quereda |first1=Juan J. |last2=Leclercq |first2=Alexandre |last3=Moura |first3=Alexandra |last4=Vales |first4=Guillaume |last5=Gómez-Martín |first5=Ángel |last6=García-Muñoz |first6=Ángel |last7=Thouvenot |first7=Pierre |last8=Tessaud-Rita |first8=Nathalie |last9=Bracq-Dieye |first9=Hélène |last10=Lecuit |first10=Marc |date=2020 |title=Listeria valentina sp. nov., isolated from a water trough and the faeces of healthy sheep |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijsem.0.004494 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=70 |issue=11 |pages=5868–5879 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.004494 |pmid=33016862 |issn=1466-5034}}</ref>|barend2=green
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
      |2={{clade
        |1=''[[Listeria grayi|L. grayi]]'' <small>Errebo, Larsen & Seeliger 1966</small>|barbegin1=green|barend1=green
        |2={{clade
          |1={{clade
            |1=''L. immobilis'' <small>Carlin et al. 2021</small><ref name=":1" />|barbegin1=green
            |2={{clade
              |1=''[[Listeria seeligeri|L. seeligeri]]'' <small>Rocourt & Grimont 1983</small>|bar1=green
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Listeria ivanovii|L. ivanovii]]'' <small>Seeliger et al. 1984</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=SEELIGER |first1=HEINZ P. R. |last2=ROCOURT |first2=JOCELYNE |last3=SCHRETTENBRUNNER |first3=ANGELIKA |last4=GRIMONT |first4=PATRICK A. D. |last5=JONES |first5=DOROTHY |date=1984 |title=Notes: Listeria ivanovii sp. nov. |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/00207713-34-3-336 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=336–337 |doi=10.1099/00207713-34-3-336 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|bar1=green
                |2="''L. londonensis''" <small>(Boerlin et al. 1992) Bouznada et al. 2024</small>|bar2=green
                 }}
               }}
             }}
          |2={{clade
            |1=''[[Listeria welshimeri|L. welshimeri]]'' <small>Rocourt & Grimont 1983</small>|bar1=green
            |2={{clade
              |1=''L. farberi'' <small>Carlin et al. 2021</small>|bar1=green
              |2={{clade
                |1=''[[Listeria innocua|L. innocua]]'' <small>Seeliger & Schoofs 1979 ex Seeliger 1983</small>|bar1=green
                |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Listeria monocytogenes|L. monocytogenes]]'' <small>(Murray, Webb & Swann 1926) Pirie 1940</small>|bar1=green
                  |2={{clade
                    |1={{clade
                      |1=''L. cossartiae'' <small>Carlin et al. 2021</small><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Carlin |first1=Catharine R. |last2=Liao |first2=Jingqiu |last3=Weller |first3=Dan |last4=Guo |first4=Xiaodong |last5=Orsi |first5=Renato |last6=Wiedmann |first6=Martin |date=2021 |title=Listeria cossartiae sp. nov., Listeria immobilis sp. nov., Listeria portnoyi sp. nov. and Listeria rustica sp. nov., isolated from agricultural water and natural environments |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=71 |issue=5 |page=004795 |doi=10.1099/ijsem.0.004795 |issn=1466-5034 |pmc=8289207 |pmid=33999788}}</ref>|bar1=green
                      |2=''L. cossartiae cayugensis'' <small>Carlin et al. 2021</small>|bar2=green
                       }}
                    |2={{clade
                      |1=''[[Listeria marthii|L. marthii]]'' <small>Graves et al. 2010</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Graves |first1=Lewis M. |last2=Helsel |first2=Leta O. |last3=Steigerwalt |first3=Arnold G. |last4=Morey |first4=Roger E. |last5=Daneshvar |first5=Maryam I. |last6=Roof |first6=Sherry E. |last7=Orsi |first7=Renato H. |last8=Fortes |first8=Esther D. |last9=Milillo |first9=Sara R. |last10=den Bakker |first10=Henk C. |last11=Wiedmann |first11=Martin |last12=Swaminathan |first12=Balasubramanian |last13=Sauders |first13=Brian D. |date=2010 |title=Listeria marthii sp. nov., isolated from the natural environment, Finger Lakes National Forest |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/ijs.0.014118-0 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=60 |issue=6 |pages=1280–1288 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.014118-0 |pmid=19667380 |issn=1466-5034|url-access=subscription }}</ref>|bar1=green
                      |2="''L. swaminathanii''" <small>Carlin et al. 2022</small><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Carlin |first1=Catharine R. |last2=Liao |first2=Jingqiu |last3=Hudson |first3=Lauren K. |last4=Peters |first4=Tracey L. |last5=Denes |first5=Thomas G. |last6=Orsi |first6=Renato H. |last7=Guo |first7=Xiaodong |last8=Wiedmann |first8=Martin |date=2022-06-29 |editor-last=Wolfe |editor-first=Benjamin E. |others=Alexandre Leclercq |title=Soil Collected in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park Yielded a Novel Listeria sensu stricto Species, L. swaminathanii |journal=Microbiology Spectrum |language=en |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=e0044222 |doi=10.1128/spectrum.00442-22 |issn=2165-0497 |pmc=9241783 |pmid=35658601}}</ref>|barend2=green
                       }}
                     }}
                   }}
                 }}
               }}
             }}
           }}
         }}
       }}
     }}
   }}
}}
}}
|}
* ''Listeria denitrificans'', previously thought to be part of the genus ''Listeria'', was reclassified into the new genus ''[[Jonesia]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rocourt |first1=J. |last2=Wehmeyer |first2=U. |last3=Stackebrandt |first3=E. |date=1987-07-01 |title=Transfer of Listeria dentrificans to a New Genus, Jonesia gen. nov., as Jonesia denitrificans comb. nov. |url=https://www.microbiologyresearch.org/content/journal/ijsem/10.1099/00207713-37-3-266 |journal=International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology |language=en |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=266–270 |doi=10.1099/00207713-37-3-266 |issn=0020-7713|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Pathogenesis==
{{main|Listeriosis|Listeria monocytogenes#Pathogenesis}}''Listeria'' is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal [[foodborne illness]]. The case fatality rate for those with a severe form of infection may approach 25%.<ref name="rts2">{{cite web |year=2003 |title=Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology |url=http://textbookofbacteriology.net/Listeria.html |access-date=7 March 2007 |work=Listeria monocytogenes and Listeriosis |publisher=Kenneth Todar University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of Biology}}</ref> (''[[Salmonellosis]]'', in comparison, has a mortality rate estimated at less than 1%.<ref name="rts3">{{cite web |date=27 February 2007 |title=Statistics about Salmonella food poisoning |url=http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/s/salmonella_food_poisoning/stats.htm |access-date=7 March 2007 |publisher=WrongDiagnosis.com}}</ref>)  Although ''L. monocytogenes'' has low infectivity, it is hardy and can grow in temperatures from a refrigerator temperature of 4&nbsp;°C (39.2&nbsp;°F) up to the human body temperature of 37&nbsp;°C (98.6&nbsp;°F).<ref name="rts1" />  Listeriosis may manifest as meningitis, and can affect newborns due to its ability to penetrate the endothelial layer of the [[placenta]].<ref name="rts2" />
''Listeria'' uses the cellular machinery to move around inside the host cell. It induces directed polymerization of [[actin]] by the [[Actin assembly-inducing protein|ActA]] [[transmembrane protein]], thus pushing the bacterial cell around.<ref name="rts5">{{cite journal
  | title =Trends in Microbiology
  | journal =How the Listeria Monocytogenes ActA Protein Converts Actin Polymerization into a Motile Force
  | publisher = Cell Press
  | volume = 5
  | pages = 272–276
  |date=July 1997
  | pmid=9234509
  | doi=10.1016/S0966-842X(97)01048-2
  | issue=7, number 7
  |author1=Smith, G. A. |author2=Portnoy D. A. | doi-access=free
}}</ref>

''Listeria monocytogenes'', for example, encodes virulence genes that are [[thermoregulate]]d. The expression of virulence factor is optimal at 39&nbsp;°C, and is controlled by a transcriptional activator, PrfA, whose expression is thermoregulated by the [[PrfA thermoregulator UTR]] element. At low temperatures, the PrfA transcript is not translated due to [[Cis-regulatory element|structural elements]] near the ribosome binding site.  As the bacteria infect the host, the temperature of the host denatures the structure and allows translation initiation for the virulence genes.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

The majority of ''Listeria'' bacteria are attacked by the [[immune system]] before they are able to cause [[infection]].  Those that escape the immune system's initial response, however, spread through intracellular mechanisms, which protects them from circulating immune factors (AMI).<ref name=rts2/>

To invade, ''Listeria'' induces macrophage [[phagocytosis|phagocytic]] uptake by displaying D-galactose in their [[teichoic acid]]s that are then bound by the [[macrophage]]'s [[polysaccharide]]s. Other important adhesins are the [[internalin]]s.<ref name=rts3/> ''Listeria'' uses internalin A and B to bind to cellular receptors. Internalin A binds to E-cadherin, while internalin B binds to the cell's Met receptors. If both of these receptors have a high enough affinity to ''Listeria''{{'}}s internalin A and B, then it will be able to invade the cell via an indirect zipper mechanism.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is encapsulated by the host cell's acidic [[phagolysosome]] organelle.<ref name=rts1/>  ''Listeria'', however, escapes the phagolysosome by lysing the vacuole's entire membrane with secreted [[hemolysin]],<ref name=Tinley89>{{cite journal |author= Tinley, L. G. |year=1989|url=http://www.jcb.org/cgi/reprint/109/4/1597|title= Actin Filaments and the Growth, Movement, and Spread of the Intracellular Bacterial Parasite, ''Listeria monocytogenes'' |journal=The Journal of Cell Biology |volume=109 |pages=1597–1608|doi= 10.1083/jcb.109.4.1597|pmid= 2507553 | issue=4 Pt 1 | pmc=2115783 |display-authors= 1 |last2= Portnoy |first2=D. A.}}</ref> now characterized as the exotoxin [[listeriolysin O]].<ref name=rts1/>  The bacteria then replicate inside the host cell's cytoplasm.<ref name=rts2/>

''Listeria'' must then navigate to the cell's periphery to spread the infection to other cells.  Outside the body, ''Listeria'' has [[flagella]]r-driven motility, sometimes described as a "tumbling motility". However, at 37&nbsp;°C, flagella cease to develop and the bacterium instead usurps the host cell's [[cytoskeleton]] to move.<ref name=rts2/> Inventively, ''Listeria'' polymerizes an actin tail or "comet",<ref name=Tinley89/> from actin monomers in the host's cytoplasm<ref name=rts4>{{cite web
  | title =Listeria
  | publisher =MicrobeWiki.Kenyon.edu
  | date = 16 August 2006
  | url =http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Listeria&oldid=5472
  | access-date =7 March 2007
}}</ref> with the promotion of virulence factor ActA.<ref name=rts2/> The comet forms in a polar manner<ref name=Laine98>{{cite journal |author1=Laine R. O. |author2=Phaneuf K. L. |author3=Cunningham C. C. |author4=Kwiatkowski D. |author5=Azuma T. |author6=Southwick F. S. |title=Gelsolin, a protein that caps the barbed ends and severs actin filaments, enhances the actin-based motility of ''Listeria monocytogenes'' in host cells |journal=Infect. Immun. |volume=66 |issue=8 |pages=3775–82 |date=1 August 1998|doi=10.1128/IAI.66.8.3775-3782.1998 |pmid=9673261 |pmc=108414 |url=}}</ref> and aids the bacterial migration to the host cell's outer membrane. Gelsolin, an actin filament severing protein, localizes at the tail of ''Listeria'' and accelerates the bacterium's motility.<ref name=Laine98/> Once at the cell surface, the actin-propelled ''Listeria'' pushes against the cell's membrane to form protrusions called [[filopod]]s<ref name=rts1/> or "rockets". The protrusions are guided by the cell's leading edge<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Galbraith C. G. |author2=Yamada K. M. |author3=Galbraith J. A. |title=Polymerizing actin fibers position integrins primed to probe for adhesion sites |journal=Science |volume=315 |issue=5814 |pages=992–5 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17303755 |doi=10.1126/science.1137904 |bibcode=2007Sci...315..992G |s2cid=39441473 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230882 }}</ref> to contact adjacent cells, which then engulf the ''Listeria'' rocket and the process is repeated, perpetuating the infection.<ref name=rts2/> Once phagocytosed, the bacterium is never again extracellular: it is an [[intracellular parasite]]<ref name=Tinley89/> such as ''[[Shigella flexneri|S. flexneri]],'' ''[[Rickettsia]]'' spp., and [[Chlamydia trachomatis|''C. trachomatis'']].<ref name=rts2/>

==Epidemiology==
Some of the foods most commonly implicated in ''Listeria'' contaminations include ready-to-eat salads and seafood, deli meats, soft and semi-soft cheese, and frozen vegetables.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sampedro |first1=Fernando |last2=Pérez-Rodríguez |first2=Fernando |last3=Servadio |first3=Joseph L. |last4=Gummalla |first4=Sanjay |last5=Hedberg |first5=Craig W. |title=Quantitative risk assessment model to investigate the public health impact of varying Listeria monocytogenes allowable levels in different food commodities: A retrospective analysis |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |date=16 December 2022 |volume=383 |article-number=109932 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109932 |pmid=36182750 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Cold-cut meats were implicated in an [[2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak|outbreak in Canada in 2008]] and a widespread one the US in 2024.<ref name="Roubein and Heim">Rachel Roubein and Joe Heim. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2024/09/30/boars-head-deli-meat-listeria-outbreak-what-happened/ How ignored warnings at Boar's Head plant led to a deadly listeria outbreak.] Washington Post 9/30/2024.</ref> Improperly handled cantaloupe was implicated in both the [[2011 United States listeriosis outbreak|outbreak of listeriosis from Jensen Farms in Colorado in 2011]],<ref name="coloradofarms">{{cite news |title=Deaths From Cantaloupe Listeria Rise |author=William Neuman |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/28/business/deaths-from-cantaloupe-listeria-rises.html?_r=1 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=27 September 2011 |access-date=13 November 2011}}</ref> and a similar listeriosis outbreak across eastern Australia in early 2018.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Claughton|first1=David|last2=Kontominas|first2=Bellinda|last3=Logan|first3=Tyne|title=Rockmelon listeria: Rombola Family Farms named as source of outbreak|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-03-13/rockmelon-disaster-may-take-industry-years-to-recover/9543346|website=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News Australia]]|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=14 March 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316010337/http://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-03-13/rockmelon-disaster-may-take-industry-years-to-recover/9543346|archive-date=16 March 2018|language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Australian Associated Press|title=Third death confirmed in Australia's rockmelon listeria outbreak|url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/mar/03/third-death-confirmed-in-australias-rockmelon-listeria-outbreak|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=3 March 2018|access-date=16 March 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316010334/https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2018/mar/03/third-death-confirmed-in-australias-rockmelon-listeria-outbreak|archive-date=16 March 2018|author1-link=Australian Associated Press}}</ref> 35 people died across these two outbreaks.<ref name="coloradofarms" /><ref>{{cite web|author1=Australian Associated Press|title=Fifth person dies as a result of rockmelon listeria outbreak|url=https://www.sbs.com.au/news/fifth-person-dies-as-a-result-of-rockmelon-listeria-outbreak|website=[[SBS World News|SBS News]]|publisher=[[Special Broadcasting Service]]|url-status=live|date=16 March 2018|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316010328/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/fifth-person-dies-as-a-result-of-rockmelon-listeria-outbreak|archive-date=16 March 2018|language=en-AU|author1-link=Australian Associated Press}}</ref> The Australian company GMI Food Wholesalers was fined [[A$]]236,000 for providing ''L. monocytogenes''-contaminated [[wrap (sandwich)|chicken wraps]] to the airline [[Virgin Australia|Virgin Blue]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite news |title=$236,000 fine for foul flight chicken |author=Josephine Tovey |url=http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-incidents/236000-fine-for-foul-flight-chicken-20111115-1nh99.html |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=16 November 2011 |access-date=13 November 2011 |archive-date=16 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116183226/http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-incidents/236000-fine-for-foul-flight-chicken-20111115-1nh99.html }}</ref> Caramel apples have also been cited as a source of listerial infections which hospitalized 26 people, of whom five died.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/health/warning-prepackaged-caramel-apples-linked-to-5-105611703552.html|title=Warning: Prepackaged Caramel Apples Linked To 5 Deaths|publisher=Yahoo Health |date=December 19, 2014|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/12/19/caramel-apples-listeria-outbreak/20636809/|title=Listeria outbreak from caramel apples has killed four|publisher=USA TODAY|date=December 20, 2014|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> <!-- uncited, conflicts with above[[Case fatality rate]] of the disease is 30 percent.-->

In 2019, the [[United Kingdom]] experienced nine cases of the disease, of which six<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-49194197 Listeria outbreak: Toll rises to six as Sussex patient dies] 1 August 2019 ''bbc.co.uk'' accessed 2 August 2019</ref> were fatal, in an outbreak caused by contaminated meat (produced by North Country Cooked Meats) in hospital sandwiches.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-48636206|title=Two more deaths brings death toll up to five|publisher=BBC News|date= 14 June 2019}}</ref> In 2019, two people in Australia died after probably eating smoked salmon and a third fell ill but survived the disease.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-49094165|title='Smoked salmon' listeria kills two in Australia|date=2019-07-24|access-date=2019-07-24|language=en-GB}}</ref> In September 2019, three deaths and a miscarriage were reported in the Netherlands after the consumption of listeria-infected deli meats produced by Offerman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nltimes.nl/2019/10/04/three-deaths-miscarriage-tied-meat-supplier-listeria-cases|title=Three deaths, miscarriage tied to meat supplier in listeria cases|date=4 October 2019|website=NL Times|access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref>

==Prevention==
Preventing listeriosis as a [[foodborne illness]] requires effective sanitation of food contact surfaces.<ref>{{cite news |agency=The Canadian Press |title=Maple Leaf Foods assessing Listeria-killing chemical |date=2008-10-12 |publisher=ctvglobemedia |url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/maple-leaf-foods-assessing-listeria-killing-chemical-1.333029 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018051642/http://www.ctvnews.ca/maple-leaf-foods-assessing-listeria-killing-chemical-1.333029 |archive-date=18 October 2012 |work=ctv.ca |access-date=15 October 2008 }}</ref> [[Ethanol]] is an effective topical sanitizer against ''Listeria''. [[Quaternary ammonium]] can be used in conjunction with alcohol as a food-contact safe sanitizer with increased duration of the sanitizing action.

Keeping foods in the home refrigerated below {{convert|4|C|F}} discourages bacterial growth. Unpasteurized dairy products may pose a risk.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodsafety.gov/poisoning/causes/bacteriaviruses/listeria/ |title=Food Safety - Listeria |access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref> Heating of meats (including beef, pork, poultry, and seafood) to a sufficient internal temperature, typically {{convert|74|C|F}}, will kill the food-borne pathogen.<ref name="USDA1">{{cite web |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/safe-temperature-chart |title=Safe Minimum Internal Temperature Chart |work= fsis.usda.gov/food-safety |access-date=3 Sep 2024}}</ref>

==Treatment==
''Non-invasive listeriosis'': bacteria are retained within the digestive tract. Symptoms are mild, lasting only a few days and requiring only supportive care. Muscle pain and fever can be treated with over-the-counter pain relievers; diarrhea and gastroenteritis can be treated with over-the-counter medications.<ref name="cdc">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/listeria/index.html |title=CDC - Listeria - Home |work= cdc.gov/listeria |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref>

''Invasive listeriosis'': bacteria have spread to the bloodstream and central nervous system. Treatment includes intravenous delivery of high-dose [[antibiotics]] and hospital in-patient care of (probably) not less than two weeks stay, depending on the extent of the infection.<ref name="cdc" /> [[Ampicillin]], [[penicillin]], or [[amoxicillin]] are typically administered for invasive listeriosis; [[gentamicin]] may be added in cases of patients with compromised immune systems.<ref name="temple">{{cite journal |author1=Temple, M. E. |author2=Nahata, M. C. |title=Treatment of listeriosis |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=656–61 |date=May 2000 |pmid=10852095 |doi= 10.1345/aph.19315|s2cid=11352292 }}</ref> In cases of allergy to penicillin, [[trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole]], [[vancomycin]], and [[fluoroquinolones]] may be used.<ref name="temple" /> For effective treatment the antibiotic must penetrate the host cell and bind to [[Penicillin binding proteins|penicillin-binding protein 3]] (PBP3). [[Cephalosporins]] are not effective for treating listeriosis.<ref name="temple" />

In cases of pregnancy, prompt treatment is critical to prevent bacteria from infecting the [[fetus]]; antibiotics may be given to pregnant women even in non-invasive listeriosis.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/listeria-infection/symptoms-causes/syc-20355269 |title=Listeria infection (listeriosis): symptoms and causes |work=mayoclinic.org |access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> Mirena Nikolova, ''et al.'', states that applying antibiotics is crucial during the third trimester because cell-mediated immunity is reduced during this time. Pfaff and Tillet say that listeriosis can cause long-term consequences—including meningitis, preterm labor, newborn sepsis, stillbirths—when contracted during pregnancy. Oral therapies in less severe cases may include amoxicillin or [[erythromycin]].<ref name="temple" />  Higher doses may be given to pregnant women to ensure penetration of the [[umbilical cord]] and [[placenta]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Janakiraman V |title=Listeriosis in pregnancy: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention |journal=Rev Obstet Gynecol |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=179–85 |year=2008 |pmid=19173022 |pmc=2621056 }}</ref> Infected pregnant women may receive [[ultrasound scan]]s to monitor the health of the fetus.

[[Asymptomatic]] patients who have been exposed to ''Listeria'' typically are not treated, but are informed of the signs and symptoms of the disease and advised to return for treatment if any develop.<ref name="cdc" />

==Research==
Some ''Listeria'' species are opportunistic pathogens: ''L. monocytogenes'' is most prevalent in the elderly, pregnant mothers, and patients infected with HIV.  With improved healthcare leading to a growing elderly population and extended life expectancies for HIV infected patients, physicians are more likely to encounter this otherwise-rare infection (only seven per 1,000,000 healthy people are infected with virulent ''Listeria'' each year).<ref name=rts1/> Better understanding the cell biology of ''Listeria'' infections, including relevant virulence factors, may lead to better treatments for listeriosis and other intracytoplasmic parasite infections.

In oncology, researchers are investigating the use of ''Listeria'' as a cancer vaccine, taking advantage of its "ability to induce potent innate and adaptive immunity" by activating [[gamma delta T cell]]s.<ref name=rts4/><ref>{{cite journal |author=Greenemeier L |title=Recruiting a Dangerous Foe to Fight Cancer and HIV |journal=Scientific American |date=21 May 2008 |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=recruiting-a-dangerous-foe&sc=rss}}</ref>

Researchers have also been investigating the continuous presence of ''Listeria'' in food processing plants. The bacteria's presence has been partially attributed to the formation of [[biofilm]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Xin |last2=Xia |first2=Xuejuan |last3=Liu |first3=Yangtai |last4=Li |first4=Zhuosi |last5=Shi |first5=Tianqi |last6=Zhang |first6=Hongzhi |last7=Dong |first7=Qingli |date=2024-03-01 |title=Recent advances on the formation, detection, resistance mechanism, and control technology of Listeria monocytogenes biofilm in food industry |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0963996924001376 |journal=Food Research International |volume=180 |article-number=114067 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2024.114067 |pmid=38395584 |issn=0963-9969|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This increases the likelihood of food contamination and is further complicated by the fact that biofilms are highly resistant to many disinfectants.<ref name=ref1>{{cite journal | title = Biofilm formation in food industries: A food safety concern |journal=Food Control|volume=31|issue=2|date=June 2013| vauthors = Srey S, Jahid ID, Ha SD |pages =572–585|issn= 0956-7135|doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.12.001 }}</ref> The detection of these biofilms was made much easier through the use of quantitative techniques such as plate counting and crystalline violet staining. Although the structures and components of these biofilms have been extensively studied, how they are formed at the molecular level remains a subject of contention. This uncertainty surrounding their formation complicates any methods to completely eradicate the biofilms. However, it has been observed that certain antimicrobial agents such as bacteriophages and enzymes have made promising progress in the effort to eradicate the ''Listeria'' biofilm. The enzymes specifically have been noted to have the capability to disrupt specific chemical components of the biofilms, degrading them in the process. More research and development is needed to make these biofilm elimination processes more affordable and efficient to be used on a larger scale. In another study, scientists isolated a strain of ''[[Lactiplantibacillus plantarum]]'' that was able to completely eradicate ''Listeria'' from a sample of sauerkraut.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Xinyu |last2=Peng |first2=Zheng |last3=He |first3=Mengni |last4=Li |first4=Zhibin |last5=Fu |first5=Guihua |last6=Li |first6=Shaolei |last7=Zhang |first7=Juan |date=2024-01-01 |title=Screening, probiotic properties, and inhibition mechanism of a Lactobacillus antagonistic to Listeria monocytogenes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969723062149 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |volume=906 |article-number=167587 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167587 |pmid=37797767 |bibcode=2024ScTEn.90667587Y |issn=0048-9697|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[2008 Canada listeriosis outbreak]]
* [[2011 United States listeriosis outbreak]]
* [[2017–2018 South African listeriosis outbreak]]
* [[2018 Australian rockmelon listeriosis outbreak]]
* [[2024 United States listeriosis outbreak]]
* [[List of Bacteria genera]]
* [[List of bacterial orders]]
* [[List of foodborne illness outbreaks]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
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==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://patricbrc.org/view/Taxonomy/1637#view_tab=overview Listeria] genomes and related data at [https://patricbrc.org/ PATRIC], funded by the [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]]
* [http://bacdive.dsmz.de/index.php?search=Listeria&submit=Search ''Listeria'' at Bac''Dive'' - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase]

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[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
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