View source for Livonia

{{Short description|Historical region on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea}}
{{Other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
[[File:Livonia in 1534 (English).png|thumb|[[Old Livonia]] in 1534.
{{legend|White|[[State of the Teutonic Order]]}}{{legend|purple|[[Bishopric of Courland]]}}{{legend|green|[[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]]}}
{{legend|#3388FF|[[Bishopric of Dorpat]]}}{{legend|teal|[[Free Imperial City]] of [[Riga]]}}{{legend|olive|[[Archbishopric of Riga]]}}
]]
[[File:Sw_BalticProv_en.png|thumb|Swedish Livonia, between Swedish Estonia and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Courland]] (1600s)]]

'''Livonia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|l|ɪ|ˈ|v|oʊ|n|i|ə}} {{respell|liv-OH-nee-ə}} – from [[Latin]] {{lang|la|Livonia}}; [[Estonian language|Estonian]] {{lang|et|Liivimaa}}; {{langx|liv|Līvõmō}}; [[Latvian language|Latvian]] and {{langx|lt|Livonija}}; {{langx|pl|Inflanty}}}} known in earlier records as '''Livland''',<ref name=EB1911>{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Livonia |volume=16|last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link=Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2=John Thomas |pages=816–817|short=1}}</ref>{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|v|l|ə|n|d}} {{respell|LIV|lənd}}; {{langx|de|Livland}}, {{lang|de|Liefland}} or {{lang|de|Eifland}}; [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and {{langx|sv|Livland}}; {{langx|is|Lífland}}; {{langx|nl|Lijfland}}}} is a [[historical region]] on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]]. It is named after the [[Livonians]], who lived on the shores of present-day [[Latvia]].

By the end of the 13th century, the name was extended to most of present-day [[Estonia]] and Latvia, which the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] had conquered during the [[Livonian Crusade]] (1193–1290). Medieval Livonia, or ''[[Terra Mariana]]'', reached its greatest extent after the [[Saint George's Night Uprising]] (1343–1345), which forced [[Denmark]] to sell the [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)|Duchy of Estonia]] (northern Estonia conquered by Denmark in the 13th century) to the [[State of the Teutonic Order]] in 1346. Livonia, as understood after the retreat of Denmark in 1346, bordered on the [[Gulf of Finland]] in the north, [[Lake Peipus]] and Russia to the east, and [[Lithuania]] to the south.

As a consequence of the [[Livonian War]] (1558–1583), the territory of Livonia was reduced to the southern half of Estonia and the northern half of Latvia.

The indigenous inhabitants of Livonia were various [[Baltic Finns|Finnic]] tribes in the north and [[Balts|Baltic]] tribes in the south. The descendants of the crusaders formed the nucleus of the new ruling class of Livonia after the [[Livonian Crusade]], and they eventually became known as [[Baltic Germans]].

== History ==
{{Further|Terra Mariana}}
[[File:Baltic Tribes c 1200.svg|thumb|[[Baltic tribes]], {{circa}} 1200.]]
Beginning in the 12th century, Livonia became a target for economic and political expansion by [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]] and [[Germans]], particularly for the [[Hanseatic League]] and the [[Cistercian Order]]. 
Around 1160, Hanseatic traders from [[Lübeck]] established a trading post on the site of the future city of [[Riga]], which Bishop [[Albert of Riga|Albrecht von Buxthoeven]] founded in 1201.<ref name=EB1911/>

=== Livonian Crusade and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword (1198–1229) ===
{{main|Livonian Brothers of the Sword}}
The ''[[Livonian Chronicle of Henry]]'' from the 1220s gives a firsthand account of the Christianization of Livonia, granted as a [[fief]] by the [[Hohenstaufen]] (''de facto'' but not known as) the King of Germany, [[Philip of Swabia]] ({{reign|1198|1208}}), to Bishop [[Albert of Riga]] (Albert of Buxhoeveden), nephew of [[Hartwig of Uthlede|Hartwig II]], the [[Archbishop of Bremen]], who sailed (1200) with a convoy of ships filled with armed crusaders to carve out a Catholic territory in the east as part of the [[Livonian Crusade]]. Bishop Albert founded the [[Military order (society)|military order]] of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword ({{langx|la|Fratres militiæ Christi Livoniae}}, {{langx|de|link=no|Schwertbrüderorden}}) in 1202; [[Pope Innocent III]] sanctioned the establishment in 1204. Albert did so in order to aid the [[Bishopric of Riga]] in the conversion of the [[paganism|pagan]] [[Curonians]], [[Livonian people|Livonians]], [[Semigallians]], and [[Latgalians]] living on the shores of the [[Gulf of Riga]]. The membership of the order comprised German "warrior [[monk]]s". Alternative names of the order include the Christ Knights, Sword Brethren, and the Militia of Christ of Livonia. From its foundation, the undisciplined Order tended to ignore its supposed [[vassal]]age to the bishops. In 1215, Albert ordered the construction of a cathedral in [[Riga]]. In 1218, he asked King [[Valdemar II of Denmark]] for assistance, but Valdemar instead arranged a deal with the Brotherhood and conquered the [[Danish Estonia|north of Estonia]] for Denmark. The Brotherhood had its headquarters at [[Viljandi|Fellin (Viljandi)]] in present-day [[Estonia]], where the walls of the Master's castle {{As of|2008|alt= still}} stand. Other strongholds included [[Cēsis|Wenden (Cēsis)]], [[Sigulda|Segewold (Sigulda)]] and [[Aizkraukle|Ascheraden (Aizkraukle)]]. The commanders of Fellin, [[Kuldīga|Goldingen (Kuldīga)]], [[Alūksne|Marienburg (Alūksne)]], [[Tallinn|Reval (Tallinn)]], and the [[bailiff]] of [[Paide|Weißenstein (Paide)]] belonged to the five-member entourage of the Order's Master.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

[[Pope Gregory IX]] asked the Brothers to defend [[Finland]] from [[Finnish-Novgorodian Wars|Novgorodian attacks]] in his letter of 24 November 1232;<ref>
{{cite web|url= http://193.184.161.234/DF/detail.php?id=80 |title= Letter by Pope Gregory IX |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070814083933/http://193.184.161.234/DF/detail.php?id=80 |archive-date= 14 August 2007}}. In Latin. Hosted by the [http://www.narc.fi National Archive of Finland]. See {{cite web|url= http://www.narc.fi/Arkistolaitos/sahkoiset/ |title= Arkistolaitos – Sähköiset palvelut |access-date= 29 May 2007 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070608003759/http://www.narc.fi/Arkistolaitos/sahkoiset/ |archive-date= 8 June 2007}} and ''Diplomatarium Fennicum'' from the menu.
</ref> however, no known information regarding the knights' possible activities in Finland has survived. ([[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] eventually took over Finland after the [[Second Swedish Crusade]] in 1249.) In the Battle of Saule in 1236 the [[Lithuanians]] and [[Semigallians]] decimated the Order. This disaster led the surviving Brothers to become incorporated into the Order of [[Teutonic Knights]] in the following year, and from that point on they became known as the [[Livonian Order]]. They continued, however, to function in all respects ([[monastic rule|rule]], clothing and policy) as an autonomous branch of the Teutonic Order, headed by their own Master (himself ''de jure'' subject to the Teutonic Order's [[Hochmeister|Grand Master]]).{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

=== Internal conflicts in Livonia (1229–1236) ===
{{Further|Baldwin of Alna#In Livonia}}
[[File:LivoniaKnight.jpg|thumb|1870 drawing of a [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knight]] (left) and a [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword|Livonian Sword Brother]].]]
The January 1229 death of Albert of Riga caused a [[diocesan feud]] in the [[Archbishopric of Riga]], as two rival candidates were elected.{{sfn|Selart|2015|pp=129–130}} [[Pope Gregory IX]], through cardinal [[Otto of Tonengo]], tasked [[Baldwin of Alna]] as papal legate to resolve the dispute.{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=130}} After securing the submission of Courland, Baldwin soon found himself in conflict with various factions in Livonia, fleeing to [[Dünamünde]] and temporarily leaving Livonia in early 1232.{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=130}} The pope made him bishop of [[Semigallia]] and gave him papal legation throughout much of Livonia, and Baldwin returned by 1233.{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=130}} He tried to take the castle of Reval (modern [[Tallinn]]) from the Sword Brothers, but in {{circa}} August–September 1233 they defeated Baldwin, who [[excommunicated]] many Sword Brothers in retaliation.{{sfn|Selart|2015|pp=130–131}}

At that point, Livonia was divided into two camps: Baldwin's Bishopric of Semigallia, the Bishopric of Dorpat and the late Albert of Riga's Buxhöveden family plus several monasteries, most Estonians and Curonians, versus the Livonian Sword Brothers, Nicholas' Bishopric of Riga, and the city of Riga.{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=131}} Previous generations of historians have argued that Baldwin attempted to make the whole Baltic region an ecclesiastical state, but {{ill|Manfred Hellmann (historian)|de|Manfred Hellmann (Historiker)|lt=Manfred Hellmann}} (1993) refuted this idea as "fanciful speculation".{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=131}} Similarly, the traditional assertion that Baldwin had extensive plans to conquer and convert eastwards into parts of  Pskov and Novgorod do not stand up under scrutiny, showing that papal correspondence with Baldwin was primarily concerned with ending the internal conflict in Livonia on terms favourable to Rome.{{sfn|Selart|2015|pp=131–133}} Therefore, no Livonian faction was allowed to form an alliance with an external power, be they pagan or Novgorodian, to prevent the internal conflict from spilling over and threaten Livonia's external security.{{sfn|Selart|2015|pp=131–133}}

In 1234, the pope recalled Baldwin, and replaced him with [[William of Modena]].{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=138}} The pope did not give a verdict until April 1236, when the Sword Brothers were tasked to return Reval to the Danish king.{{sfn|Selart|2015|p=138}} The terms of the agreement were not finalised until the [[Treaty of Stensby]] (7 June 1238), when the Livonian Sword Brothers, crushed at [[Battle of Saule|Saule]] and now submitted to the [[Teutonic Order]], relinquished their claims to Reval and much of northern Estonia to Denmark, and to share future territorial gains with two-thirds for the Danish king and one third for the Livonian Order.{{sfn|Selart|2015|pp=142–143}}

=== Livonian Order, the Bishoprics and Riga from 1237 until 1418 ===
{{Further|Livonian Order}}
[[File:Medieval Livonia 1260.svg|right|thumb|200px|[[Medieval Livonia]] ca. 1260.]]
The Livonian Order was a largely autonomous branch of the [[Teutonic Knights]] (or Teutonic Order) and a member of the [[Livonian Confederation]] from 1418 to 1561. After being defeated by [[History of Lithuania (1219–1295)|Lithuania]]n forces in the 1236 [[Battle of Saule]], the remnants of the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] were incorporated into the Teutonic Knights as the Livonian Order in 1237. Between 1237 and 1290, the Livonian Order conquered all of [[Courland]], Livonia, and [[Semigallia]], but their attack on northern Russia was repelled in the [[Battle of Wesenberg (1268)|Battle of Rakvere]] (1268). In 1346, after the [[St. George's Night Uprising]] the Order purchased the rest of [[Estonia]] from King [[Valdemar IV of Denmark]]. The ''[[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia]]'' and the ''[[Livonian Rhymed Chronicle]]'' describe conditions within the Order's territory. The Teutonic Order fell into decline following its defeat in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410 and the secularization of its Prussian territories by [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert of Brandenburg]] in 1525, but the Livonian Order managed to maintain an independent existence.

=== Livonian Confederation (1418–1561) ===
{{main|Livonian Confederation}}

In 1418, the [[Archbishopric of Riga|Archbishop of Riga]], [[Johannes Ambundii]], organised the five ecclesiastical states of the Holy Roman Empire in Medieval Livonia (Livonian Order, Courland, Ösel–Wiek, Dorpat and Riga) into the [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=b3b5nU4bnw4C&pg The History of the Baltic States] By Kevin O'Connor; {{ISBN|0-313-32355-0}}; p. 23</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 | last1 = Pihlajamäki
 | first1 = Heikki
 | chapter = The outset: The Livonian and Swedish Legal orders at the Time of the Swedish Conquest
 | title = Conquest and the Law in Swedish Livonia (ca. 1630–1710): A Case of Legal Pluralism in Early Modern Europe
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=s9fzDQAAQBAJ
 | series = The Northern World
 | location = Leiden
 | publisher = Brill
 | date = 2017
 | page = 24
 | isbn = 9789004331532
 | access-date = 19 June 2020
 | quote = A division into five rival small principalities thus developed during the thirteenth century: the State of the Teutonic Order, the Archbishopric of Riga, the bishoprics of Dorpat, Oesel–Wiek and Courland. The five principalities formed the Livonian Confederation, the Ordenstaat, until its dissolution in 1561.
}}
</ref>
A diet or ''[[Landtag]]'' was formed in 1419. The city of [[Walk, Livonia|Walk]] was chosen as the site of the diet.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

From the 14th to the 16th centuries, [[Middle Low German]] – as spoken in the towns of the [[Hanseatic League]] — functioned as the established language of the Livonian lands, but [[High German]] subsequently succeeded it as the official language in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries.<ref name=Koch59>{{cite book|last= Koch|first= Kristine|title= Deutsch als Fremdsprache im Russland des 18. Jahrhunderts | trans-title = German as a foreign language in 18th-century Russia |publisher= Walter de Gruyter|location= Berlin/New York|year= 2002|series= Die Geschichte des Deutschen als Fremdsprache|volume= 1|isbn= 3-11-017503-7|language= de|page= 59}}</ref>

=== Livonian War (1558–1583) ===
{{main|Livonian War}}
[[File:LivonianLady.jpg|thumb|''Livonian lady'' (1502). [[Albrecht Dürer]].]]
[[File:Livlandritter16jh.jpg|thumb|Livonian knight in the 16th century]]
[[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]] once again asked for help of [[Gustav I of Sweden]], and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] also began direct [[negotiation]]s with Gustav, but nothing resulted because on 29 September 1560, Gustav I Vasa died. The chances for success of [[Magnus von Lyffland|Magnus]], (who had become Bishop of Courland and of Ösel-Wiek) in 1560 and his supporters looked particularly good in 1560 (and in 1570). In 1560 he had been [[Recognition (international law)|recognised]] as their [[Monarch|sovereign]] by the [[Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek]] and by the [[Bishopric of Courland]], and as their prospective ruler by the authorities of the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]]; the [[Bishopric of Reval]] with the [[Harrien]]-[[Wierland]] [[gentry]] were on his side; the [[Livonian Order]] conditionally recognised his right of [[ownership]] of the (future) [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]]. Then along with [[Archbishop]] [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] of the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]] [[Christopher, Duke of Mecklenburg-Gadebusch|Christoph von Mecklenburg]], [[Gotthard Kettler|Kettler]], the last Master of the Teutonic Order, gave to Magnus the portions of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] which he had taken possession of, but they refused to give him any more land.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Once [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] became king in September 1560 he took quick actions to get involved in the war. He negotiated a continued [[peace]] with [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] and spoke to the [[Burgess (title)|burghers]] of [[Reval]] city. He offered them goods to submit to him as well as threatening them. By 6 June 1561,they submitted to him contrary to the [[persuasion]]s of Kettler to the burghers. King Eric's brother and future King [[John III of Sweden|Johan]] married the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagiellon]] in 1562. Wanting to obtain his own land in Livonia, he loaned Poland money and then claimed the castles that they had pawned as his own instead of using them to pressure Poland. After Johan returned to [[Finland]], Erik XIV forbade him to deal with any foreign countries without his consent.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Shortly after that, Erik XIV quickly lost any allies that he was about to obtain, either in the form of Magnus or of the Archbishop of [[Riga]]. Magnus was upset that he had been tricked out of his [[inheritance]] of [[Holstein]]. After Sweden [[Military occupation|occupied]] Reval, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] made a treaty with Erik XIV of Sweden in August 1561. Magnus and his brother Frederick II were in great disagreement, and Frederick II negotiated a treaty with Ivan IV on 7 August 1562 to help his brother obtain more land and to stall further Swedish advances. Erik XIV did not like this, and the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) broke out, with Sweden pitted against the [[Free City of Lübeck]], Denmark, and Poland-Lithuania. While only losing land and trade, Frederick II and Magnus were not faring well. But in 1568 Erik XIV became [[insane]] and his brother Johan took his place as King [[John III of Sweden]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Johan III, due to his friendship with Poland-Lithuania, began a policy against Muscovy. He would try to obtain more land in Livonia and to dominate Denmark. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King [[Sigismund II Augustus]] of [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]] concluded the Northern Seven Years' War.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

It is, however, more difficult to estimate the scope and magnitude of the support Magnus received in Livonian cities.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Compared to the Harrien-Wierland gentry, the Reval city council, and hence probably the majority of citizens, demonstrated a much more reserved attitude towards Denmark and towards King Magnus of Livonia. Nevertheless, there is no reason to speak about any strong pro-Swedish sentiments among the residents of Reval. The citizens who had fled to the Bishopric of Dorpat or had been deported to Muscovy hailed Magnus as their saviour until 1571. Analysis indicates that during the [[Livonian War]] a pro-independence wing emerged among the Livonian gentry and townspeople, forming the so-called "Peace Party".{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} Dismissing hostilities, these forces perceived an agreement with Muscovy as a chance to escape the atrocities of war and to avoid the division of Livonia. Thus Magnus, who represented Denmark and later struck a deal with [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]], proved a suitable figurehead for this faction.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

The Peace Party, however, had its own armed forces – scattered bands of household troops (''[[Hofleute]]'') under diverse command, which only united in action in 1565 ([[Battle of Pärnu (1565)|Battle of Pärnu]] and [[Siege of Reval (1565)|Siege of Reval]]), in 1570–1571 ([[Siege of Reval (1570–1571)|Siege of Reval]]; 30 weeks), and in 1574–1576 (first on Sweden's side, then came the sale of [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]] to the [[Monarchy of Denmark|Danish Crown]], and the loss of territory to [[Tsardom of Russia]]). In 1575, after Muscovy attacked Danish claims in Livonia, Frederick II dropped out of the competition, as did the Holy Roman Emperor. After this Johan III held off on his pursuit for more land due to Muscovy obtaining lands that Sweden controlled. He used the next two years of truce to get in a better position. In 1578, he resumed the fight, not only for Livonia, but also for everywhere due to an understanding that he made with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. In 1578, Magnus retired to the Commonwealth and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

During the many years of the [[Livonian War]] (1558–1582), the Livonian Order suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of troops of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovite Russia]] in the [[Battle of Ergeme]] in 1560 and continued living under great threat. Letters to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] arrived from many European countries, warning ''that Moscow has its eyes on much more than only a few harbors or the province of Liefland'' ... the East Sea (Ostsee-[[Baltic Sea]]) and the West Sea (Atlantic) are equally in danger. [[Barnim XI|Barnim the Elder]], [[Duke of Pomerania]] for almost 50 years, warned ''that never before did he experience the fear than now, where people sent by Moscow are everywhere even in his land''.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}} At stake was the [[Narva]]-trade-route and practically all trade in the North, and with that all of Europe. Due to the religious upheavals of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] the distant [[Holy Roman Empire]] could not send troops, which it could not afford anyway. The [[Duchy of Prussia]] was not able to help for much of the same reason, and [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albrecht]] ({{reign | 1525 | 1568}}) was under continuous ban by the Empire. The Hanseatic League was greatly weakened by this{{clarify|date=June 2020}} and the [[Free City of Lübeck|city state of Luebeck]] fought its last great war. The emperor [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]] ({{reign | 1564 | 1576}}) diffused the greatest threat by remaining on friendly terms with Tsar [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV of Russia]] ({{reign | 1533 | 1584}}), but not sending Ivan IV troops as requested in his struggles with the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

In 1570, Tsar Ivan IV of Russia installed [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Duke Magnus]] as [[Kingdom of Livonia|King of Livonia]]. The other forces opposed this appointment. The Livonian Order saw no other way than to seek protection from [[Sigismund II Augustus]] ([[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|King of Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duke of Lithuania]]), who had intervened in a war between Bishop [[William of Brandenburg|William]] of Riga and the Brothers in 1557. After coming to an [[Wilno Pact|agreement]] with Sigismund II Augustus and his representatives (especially [[Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł]]), the last Livonian Master, [[Gotthard Kettler]], secularized the Order and converted to [[Lutheranism]]. In the southern part of the Brothers' lands, he set up the [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] for his family. Most of the remaining lands were seized by the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Denmark and [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] re-occupied the north of Estonia.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

=== Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621) ===
{{main|Duchy of Livonia (1561–1621)}}
{{Rzeczpospolita 1618|size=200px}}
In 1561, during the [[Livonian War]], Livonia fell to the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]<ref name="Bumblauskas"
>{{cite book | author = Alfredas Bumblauskas | title = Senosios Lietuvos istorija 1009 – 1795 | year = 2005 | pages = 256–259 | publisher = R. Paknio leidykla | location = [[Vilnius]] | isbn = 9986-830-89-3|language= lt}}</ref><ref name="Obolensky">{{cite book | author = [[Robert Auty]] | title = Companion to Russian Studies: Volume 1 Vol 1 Introduction to Russian History | year = 1981 | editor = D. Obolensky | pages = 101 | publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]] | location = [[Cambridge]] | isbn = 0-521-28038-9 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xxREnBcMFcEC&q=Obolensky+livonia&pg=PA101}}</ref><ref name="Szilvia"
>{{cite book 
| author = Szilvia Rédey, Endre Bojtár | title = Foreword to the Past: a cultural history of the Baltic People | year = 1999 | pages = 172 | publisher = [[Central European University Press]] | isbn = 963-9116-42-4 
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5aoId7nA4bsC&q=Szilvia+R%C3%A9dey+Endre+Bojt%C3%A1r+livonia+australis&pg=PA172}}</ref> and became a dependent vassal of Lithuania.<ref name="Szilvia"/> Eight years later, in 1569, when the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland formed the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], Livonia became a joint domain administered directly by the king and grand duke.<ref name="Bumblauskas"/><ref name="Szilvia"/><ref name="Davies">{{cite book | author = [[Norman Davies]] | title = Europe: a History | year = 1996 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0/page/555 555] | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = Oxford | isbn = 0-19-820171-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0| url-access = registration | quote = Livonia 1561. }}</ref><ref name="Miller">{{cite book | author = [[George Miller (historian)|George Miller]] | title = History, philosophically illustrated, from the fall of the Roman empire to the French revolution | year = 1832 | pages = 258 | chapter = Modern History | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6eDVcRegbxQC&q=Livonia+1561&pg=PA258}}</ref><ref name="Bilmanis">{{cite book | author =[[Alfrēds Bīlmanis]] | title =Baltic Essays | year =1945| pages =69–80 | publisher =The Latvian Legation |oclc=1535884 | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=DIkNAAAAIAAJ&q=Livonia+1561}}</ref><ref name="Kidd">{{cite book | author =[[Beresford James Kidd]] | title =The Counter-reformation, 1550–1600 | year =1933 | pages =121 | publisher =Society for promoting Christian knowledge | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=KTgdUIiBYfQC&q=Livonia+1561 }}</ref> 
Having rejected peace proposals from its enemies, [[Ivan the Terrible]] found himself in a difficult position by 1579, when [[Crimean Khanate]] devastated Muscovian territories and burnt down Moscow (see [[Russo-Crimean Wars]]), the drought and [[epidemics]] have fatally affected the economy, [[Oprichnina]] had thoroughly disrupted the government, while The [[Grand Principality of Lithuania]] [[Union of Lublin|had united with]] The [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)]] and acquired an energetic leader, [[Stefan Batory]], supported by [[Ottoman Empire]] (1576). Stefan Batory replied with a series of three [[Offensive (military)|offensives]] against Muscovy, trying to cut The [[Kingdom of Livonia]] from Muscovian territories. During his first offensive in 1579, with 22,000 men, he retook [[Polotsk]]; during the second, in 1580, with 29,000-strong army, he took [[Wielkie Łuki|Velikie Luki]], and in 1581 with a 100,000-strong army he started the [[Siege of Pskov]]. [[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway]] had trouble continuing the fight against Muscovy unlike [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] and Poland. He came to an agreement with [[John III of Sweden|John III]] in 1580, giving him the titles in Livonia. That war would last from 1577 to 1582. Muscovy recognized Polish–Lithuanian control of [[Ducatus Ultradunensis]] only in 1582. After [[Magnus von Lyffland]] died in 1583, Poland invaded his territories in The [[Duchy of Courland]], and Frederick II decided to sell his rights of [[inheritance]]. Except for the island of [[Œsel]], [[Denmark]] was out of the [[Baltic region|Baltic]] by 1585. As of 1598 [[Inflanty Voivodeship]] was divided onto:
 
* [[Wenden Voivodeship]] (''województwo wendeńskie'', [[Kieś]])
* [[Dorpat Voivodeship]] (''województwo dorpackie'', [[Dorpat]])
* [[Parnawa Voivodeship]] (''województwo parnawskie'', [[Parnawa]])

Based on a guarantee by Sigismund II Augustus from the 1560s, the German language retained its official status.<ref name=Koch59/>

=== Kingdom of Livonia (1570–1578) ===
{{main|Kingdom of Livonia}}
[[File:LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Livonia, as shown in the map of 1573 of [[Theatrum orbis terrarum]].]]

The armies of [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan the Terrible]] were initially successful, taking [[Polotsk]] (1563) and [[Parnawa]] (1575) and overrunning much of Grand Duchy of Lithuania up to some {{convert|250|km|mi|abbr=on}} proximity of [[Vilnius]]. Eventually, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland formed the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1569 under the [[Union of Lublin]]. [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] did not like this, and the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] between the [[Free City of Lübeck]], Denmark, Poland, and Sweden broke out. While only losing land and trade, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] and [[Magnus von Lyffland]] of the [[Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek|Œsel-Wiek]] did not fare well. But, in 1569, Erik XIV became [[insane]] and his brother [[John III of Sweden]] took his place. After all parties had been financially drained, Frederick II let his ally, King [[Sigismund II Augustus|Zygmunt II August]], know that he was ready for peace. On 15 December 1570, the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]] was concluded.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

In the next phase of the conflict, in 1577, Ivan IV took advantage of the Commonwealth's internal strife following the [[Danzig rebellion]] during the reign of [[Stefan Batory]] and invaded Livonia, quickly taking almost the entire territory, with the exception of [[Riga]] and [[Reval]]. In 1578, [[Magnus of Livonia]] recognized the [[sovereignty]] of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (not ratified by the [[Sejm]] of Poland-Lithuania, nor recognized by Denmark). The Kingdom of Livonia was beaten back by Muscovy on all fronts. In 1578, Magnus of Livonia retired to the [[Bishopric of Courland]], and his brother all but gave up the land in Livonia.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

===Swedish Livonia (1629–1721)===
{{main|Swedish Livonia}}
[[Swedish Empire|Sweden]] was given roughly the same area as the former Duchy of Livonia after the 1626–1629 [[Polish–Swedish War (1626–1629)|Polish–Swedish War]]. The area, usually known as [[Swedish Livonia]], became a very important Swedish dominion, with Riga being the second largest Swedish city and Livonia paying for one third of the Swedish war costs. Sweden lost Swedish Livonia, [[Duchy of Estonia (1561–1721)|Duchy of Estonia]] and [[Swedish Ingria]] to the [[Russian Empire]] almost 100 years later, by the [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia]] in 1710 and the [[Treaty of Nystad]] in 1721.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Northern Wars. War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe 1558–1721 |first=Robert I |last=Frost |publisher=Longman |location=Harlow |year=2000 |page=294 |isbn=978-0-582-06429-4}}</ref>

=== Livonian Voivodeship (1620s–1772) ===
{{main|Livonian Voivodeship}}

[[File:IRP Livland voivodship.PNG|right|thumb|200px|[[Inflanty Voivodeship]], 1620s–1772.]]

The Livonian Voivodeship ({{langx|lt|Livonijos vaivadija}}; {{langx|pl|Województwo inflanckie}}) was a unit of administrative division and local government in the [[Inflanty Voivodeship|Duchy of Livonia]], part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], since it was formed in the 1620s out of the [[Wenden Voivodeship]] until the [[Partitions of Poland|First Partition of Poland]] in 1772.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

=== Riga Governorate (1721–1796) ===
{{main|Riga Governorate}}
The [[Russian Empire]] conquered Swedish Livonia during the course of the [[Great Northern War]] and acquired the province in the [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia]] in 1710, confirmed by the [[Treaty of Nystad]] in 1721. Peter the Great confirmed German as the exclusive official language.<ref name=Koch59/> Russia then added Polish Livonia in 1772 during the [[Partitions of Poland]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

=== Governorate of Livonia (1796–1918) ===
[[File:Governorate of Livonia 1820.jpg|thumb|[[Governorate of Livonia]], 1820]]
{{main|Governorate of Livonia}}
{{See also|Governor-General of Baltic provinces}}
In 1796, the Riga Governorate was renamed as the Governorate of Livonia ({{langx|ru|link=no|Лифляндская губе́рния}} / {{lang|ru-latn|Liflyandskaya guberniya}}, {{langx|lv|Vidzemes guberņa}}, {{langx|et|Liivimaa kubermang}}). From 1845 to 1876, the Baltic governorates of [[Governorate of Estonia|Estonia]], Livonia, and [[Courland Governorate|Courland]] — an area roughly corresponding to the historical [[medieval Livonia]] — were administratively subordinated to a common [[Governor-General]]. Among the holders of this post were Count [[Alexander Arkadyevich Suvorov]]<ref>[http://www.encspb.ru/en/article.php?kod=2804024941 Suvorov A.A. governor-general in 1861–66 :: ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF SAINT PETERSBURG]</ref> and Count [[Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov]].

Livonia remained within the Russian Empire until the end of [[World War I]], when it was split between the newly independent states of Latvia and Estonia. The [[United Baltic Duchy]], alternately known as the "Grand Duchy of Livonia", proclaimed by the Baltic German nobility on 12 April 1918, was never recognised by any state, and dissolved at the German surrender in November 1918. Livonia had ceased to exist. From 1918 to 1920, both Soviet troops and German [[Freikorps]] fought against Latvian and Estonian troops for control over former Livonia, but their attempts were defeated.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

== Legacy ==
The historical land of Livonia has been split between [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]] ever since 1918. The [[Livonian language]] is spoken by fewer than 100 individuals as a second language, and is understood to be fast approaching [[dead language|extinction]]. The last native Livonian speaker died in June 2013.

The unofficial anthem of the Livonians, "[[Min izāmō]]", shares the melody of the [[Maamme|Finnish]] and [[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm|Estonian]] [[national anthem]]s.

== See also ==
{|
| valign="top"width="25%" |
*[[Bishopric of Reval]]
*[[Courland]]
*[[Livonian Coast]]
*[[Duchy of Courland]]
| valign="top"width="25%" |
*[[History of Estonia]]
*[[History of Latvia]]
*[[History of Lithuania]]
*[[History of Poland]]
|}

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
Europe mediterranean 1190.jpg|Livonia in Europe, 1190.
Europe 1550.jpg|Europe, 1550.
Litvania map 1570.png|Livonia on a 1570 map
Europe 1740.jpg|Europe, 1740.
Europe1815 1905.jpg|Europe, 1815.
Meyerbaltikum.jpg|Livonia, 1898.
</gallery>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |last=Selart |first=Anti |author-link=Anti Selart |title=Livonia, Rus' and the Baltic Crusades in the Thirteenth Century |chapter=Chapter 3: Livonia and Rus' in the 1230s and 1240s |publisher=BRILL |publication-place=Leiden/Boston |date=2015 |pages=127–170 |isbn=978-90-04-28475-3 |doi=10.1163/9789004284753_005}}
** {{cite journal |last=Conedera |first=Sam |title=Review: Livonia, Rus' and the Baltic Crusades in the Thirteenth Century (East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 450–1450, 29) by Anti Selart |journal=Archivum Historiae Pontificiae |publisher=Gregorian Biblical Press |volume=50 |year=2012 |issn=0066-6785 |jstor=44627101 |pages=221–224 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/44627101 |access-date=5 November 2024}}

== Further reading ==
* ''[https://www.cairn.info/revue-esprit-2021-5-page-137.htm?ref=doi Les pays baltiques, le pluriculturalisme en héritage]'', [[Yves Plasseraud]]; Armeline, 2020.
* ''[https://www.fnac.com/a3713436/Suzanne-Pourchier-Plasseraud-Les-Germano-Baltes Les Germano-baltes]'', [[Yves Plasseraud]]; S. Pourchier-Plasseraud; Armeline, 2022.

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://virtuallivonia.info Virtual Livonia]
*[http://www.Baltische-Ritterschaften.de Deutsch-Baltische Ritterschaften in Livland, Kurland, Estland, Oesel] {{in lang|de}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060311011901/http://www.kirmus.ee/Asutus/portantius.php Joann Portantiuse Liivimaa kaart 1573. aastast]
*[http://www.mois.ee/english/ Estonian Manors Portal] the English version includes the description of 438 well-preserved historical manors of nowadays Estonia (historically – northern part of Old-Livonia/Alt-Livland)
*[http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2571 ''Atlas of Livonia, or of the Two Governments and Duchies Livonia and Estonia, and of the Province of Oesel''] from the [[World Digital Library]]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Livonia| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Latvia]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Latvia]]
[[Category:Historical regions in Estonia]]