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{{Short description|16th-century war in Eastern Europe}}
{{good article}}
{{Use British English|date = January 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Livonian War
| image             = [[File:Siege of Narva 1558.jpg|300px|alt=A battle is shown raging outside a fortress, with some attackers attempting to use ladders to climb the large wall.]]
| caption           = ''Siege of Narva by the Russians in 1558'', by [[Boris Chorikov]], 1836
| date              = 22 January 1558 – 10 August 1583<br />({{age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=01|day1=22|year1=1558|month2=08|day2=10|year2=1583}})
| place             = [[Northern Europe]]: [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]], [[duchy of Livonia|Livonia]], [[Ingria]], [[Tsardom of Russia|Russia]]
| result            = [[Denmark–Norway|Dano–Norwegian]], [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish–Lithuanian]] and [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Swedish]] victory
| territory         = Cession of:
* Estonia to [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]]
* Livonia, [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia|Courland and Semigallia]] to [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
* [[Saaremaa|Ösel]] to [[Denmark–Norway]]
| combatant1        = [[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|18px]] [[Livonian Confederation]]<br />{{flag|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}}<br /><small>(before 1569 the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]])</small><br />{{flagicon|Denmark–Norway}} [[Denmark–Norway]]<br />{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[History of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]]<br />{{flagicon image|Transylvanian flag, 1601.svg}} [[Principality of Transylvania (1570–1711)|Principality of Transylvania]] (after 1577){{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}
| combatant2        = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Tsardom of Russia]]<br />[[Qasim Khanate]]<br />[[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Kingdom of Livonia]]
| commander1        = {{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Sigismund II Augustus]]<br />{{flagicon|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth}} [[Stephen Báthory]]<br />[[File:Baltic coat of arms.svg|20px|link=]] [[Gotthard Kettler]]<br />{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II]]<br />{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]]<br />{{flagicon|Sweden|1562}} [[John III of Sweden|John III]]
| commander2        = {{Flagicon image|Flag of Oryol ship (variant).svg}} [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV]]<br />[[Shahghali]]<br />[[Simeon Bekbulatovich|Sain-Bulat]]<br />[[File:Coat of arms of the Kingdom of Livonia.svg|18px]] [[Magnus, Duke of Holstein|Magnus of Livonia]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Livonian War}}
{{Polish-Russian Wars}}
{{Russo–Swedish War Series}}

The '''Livonian War''' (1558–1583) concerned control of [[Terra Mariana|Old Livonia]] (in the territory of present-day [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]). The [[Tsardom of Russia]] faced a varying coalition of the [[Denmark–Norway|Dano-Norwegian Realm]], the [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Kingdom of Sweden]], and the [[Polish–Lithuanian union|Union]] (later [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Commonwealth]]) of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]].

From 1558 to 1578, Russia dominated the region with early military successes at [[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu) and [[Narva]]. The Russian dissolution of the [[Livonian Confederation]] brought Poland–Lithuania into the conflict, and Sweden and Denmark-Norway intervened between 1559 and 1561. [[Swedish Estonia]] was established despite constant invasion from Russia, and [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway]] bought the old [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek]], which he placed under the control of his brother [[Magnus of Holstein]]. Magnus attempted to expand his Livonian holdings to establish the Russian [[vassal state]], the [[Kingdom of Livonia]], which nominally existed until his defection in 1576.

In 1576, [[Stephen Báthory]] became King of Poland as well as Grand Duke of Lithuania and turned the tide of the war with his successes between 1578 and 1581, including the joint Swedish–Polish–Lithuanian offensive at the [[Battle of Wenden (1578)|Battle of Wenden]]. That was followed by an extended [[Livonian campaign of Stefan Batory|campaign through Russia]], culminating in the long and difficult [[Siege of Pskov]]. Under the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]], which ended the war between Russia and Poland–Lithuania, Russia lost all of its former holdings in Livonia and Polotsk to Poland–Lithuania. The following year, Sweden and Russia signed the [[Truce of Plussa]], with Sweden gaining most of [[Ingria]] and northern Livonia while retaining the Duchy of Estonia.

==Prelude==

===Pre-war Livonia===
[[File:Livonia in 1534 (English).png|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Old Livonia]], before the Livonian War:
{{legend|White|Livonian Order}}{{legend|purple|Bishopric of Courland}}{{legend|green|Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek}}
{{legend|#3388FF|Bishopric of Dorpat}}{{legend|teal|City of Riga}}{{legend|olive|Archbishopric of Riga}}]]

By the mid-16th century, economically prosperous [[Old Livonia]]<ref name=rabe306>{{harvnb|Rabe|1989|p=306}}</ref> had become a region organised into the decentralised and religiously divided [[Livonian Confederation]].<ref name=dybas193>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2009|p=193}}</ref> Its territories consisted of the [[Livonian Order|Livonian branch]] of the [[Teutonic Order]], the [[prince-bishopric]]s [[Bishopric of Dorpat|of Dorpat]] (Tartu), [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], as well as [[Bishopric of Courland|Courland]], the [[Archbishopric of Riga]] and the city of [[Riga]].<ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> Together with Riga, the cities of [[Dorpat|Dorpat (Tartu)]] and [[Reval]] (Tallinn), along with the knightly estates, enjoyed privileges enabling them to act almost independently.<ref name=buelow73>{{harvnb|Bülow|2003|p=73}}</ref> The only common institutions of the Livonian estates were the regularly held common assemblies known as ''[[Landtag]]s''.<ref name=rabe306/> As well as a divided political administration, there were also persistent rivalries between the Archbishop of Riga and the ''Landmeister'' of the Order for hegemony.<ref group=nb>The Order was led by a ''[[Hochmeister]]'', an office that since 1525 had been executed by the ''Deutschmeister'' responsible for the bailiwicks in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]; the Order's organisation in Livonia was led by a circle of ''Gebietigers'' headed by a ''Landmeister'' elected from amongst the membership</ref><ref name=rabe306/><ref name=buelow73/> A schism had existed within the Order since the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] had spread to Livonia in the 1520s, although the transformation of the country into a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] region was a gradual process, resisted by part of the Order that to a varying degree remained sympathetic to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|pp=46, 51–53}}</ref> As war approached, Livonia had a weak administration subject to internal rivalries, lacked any powerful defences or outside support, and was surrounded by monarchies pursuing expansionist policies. [[Robert I. Frost]] notes of the volatile region: "Racked with internal bickering and threatened by the political machinations of its neighbours, Livonia was in no state to resist an attack."<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=2}}</ref>

The Order's ''Landmeister'' and the ''Gebietigers'', as well as the owners of Livonian estates, were all lesser nobles who guarded their privileges and influence by preventing the creation of a higher, more powerful noble class.<ref name=kreem50>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=50}}</ref> Only the archbishopric of Riga successfully overcame resistance of the lesser nobles.<ref name=kreem51>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=51}}</ref> [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]] was appointed as Archbishop of Riga and [[Christoph von Mecklenburg]] as his [[Coadjutor archbishop|Coadjutor]], with the help of his brother [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Albert (Albrecht) of Brandenburg–Ansbach]], the former Prussian ''Hochmeister'' who had [[Secularization|secularised]] the southern [[Teutonic Order state]] and in 1525 established himself as [[Duchy of Prussia|duke in Prussia]].<ref name=koerber26>{{harvnb|Körber|1998|p=26}}</ref> Wilhelm and Christoph were to pursue Albert's interests in Livonia, among which was the establishment of a hereditary Livonian duchy styled after the Prussian model.<ref name=koerber26/> At the same time the Order agitated for its re-establishment ("''Rekuperation''") in Prussia,<ref>{{harvnb|Kreem|2006|p=46}}</ref> opposed secularization, and creation of a hereditary duchy.<ref name=kreem51/>

===Aspirations of Livonia's neighbours===

By the time the Livonian War broke out, the [[Hanseatic League]] had already lost its monopoly on the profitable and prosperous [[Baltic Sea]] trade.<ref name=Frost3>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=3}}</ref> While still involved and with increasing sales, it now shared the market with European mercenary fleets, most notably from the [[Low Countries|Dutch]] [[Seventeen Provinces]] and France.<ref name=Frost3/> The Hanseatic vessels were no match for contemporary warships,<ref name=Frost5>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=5}}</ref> and since the league was unable to maintain a large navy because of a declining share of trade,<ref name=Frost6>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=6}}</ref> its Livonian members [[Riga]], [[Reval]] (Tallinn), and trading partner [[Narva]] were left without suitable protection.<ref name=Frost4>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=4}}</ref> The [[Kingdom of Denmark|Danish]] navy, the most powerful in the Baltic Sea, controlled the [[Öresund|entrance to the Baltic Sea]],<ref name=Frost5/> collected [[Sound Dues|requisite tolls]],<ref name=Frost6/> and held the strategically important Baltic Sea islands of [[Bornholm]] and [[Gotland]].<ref name=Frost5/>

A long bar of Danish territories in the south and lack of sufficient year-round ice-free ports severely limited [[Kingdom of Sweden|Sweden]]'s access to Baltic trade.<ref name=Frost7>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=7}}</ref> Nevertheless, the country prospered due to exports of timber, iron, and most notably copper, coupled with the advantages of a growing navy<ref name=Frost7/> and proximity to the Livonian ports across the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]].<ref name=Bain84>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=84}}</ref> Before the Livonian War, Sweden had sought expansion into Livonia, but the intervention of the Russian tsar temporarily stalled these efforts through the [[Russo-Swedish War (1554–1557)|Russo-Swedish War of 1554–1557]], which culminated in the 1557 [[Treaty of Novgorod (1557)|Treaty of Novgorod]].<ref name=Frost7/>

Through its absorption of the principalities of [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]] (1478) and [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] (1510),<ref name=Frost10>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=10}}</ref> the [[Tsardom of Russia]] had become Livonia's eastern neighbour and grown stronger after annexing the [[khanate]]s of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1552) and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] (1556). The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. The new [[Ivangorod]] port – built in 1550 during the reign of Tsar Ivan IV on the eastern shore of the [[Narva River]] – was considered unsatisfactory on account of its shallow waters.<ref name=Madariaga124>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=124}}</ref> Thereafter the tsar demanded that the Livonian Confederation pay about 6,000 [[mark (money)|marks]] to keep the [[Bishopric of Dorpat]], based on the claim that every adult male had paid Pskov one mark when it had been an independent state.<ref name=Madariaga124/> The Livonians eventually promised to pay this sum to [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan]] by 1557, but were sent from Moscow when they failed to do so, ending negotiations.<ref name=Madariaga124/> Ivan continued to point out that the existence of the Order required passive Russian support, and was quick to threaten use of military force if necessary.<ref name=Madariaga124/> He aimed to establish a corridor between the Baltic and the new territories on the [[Caspian Sea]], because if Russia were to engage in open conflict with major western powers, it would need imports of more sophisticated weaponry.<ref name=Madariaga124/>

The Polish King and Lithuanian Grand Duke [[Sigismund II Augustus]] was wary of Russian expansionist aspirations. Expansion of Russia into Livonia would have meant not only a stronger political rival but also loss of lucrative trade routes.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|pp=203–204}}</ref> Therefore, Sigismund supported his cousin [[Wilhelm von Brandenburg]], archbishop of Riga, in his conflicts with [[Wilhelm von Fürstenberg]], the Livonian Order's ''landmeister''.<ref name=Hartmannxiii>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIII}}</ref> Sigismund hoped that Livonia, just like the [[Duchy of Prussia]] under [[Albert, Duke of Prussia|Duke Albert]], would become a vassal state of Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=204}}</ref> With weak support in Livonia,<ref name=Hartmannxiii/> von Brandenburg had to largely rely on external allies. Among his few Livonian supporters was ''landmarschall'' [[Jasper von Munster]], with whom he planned an April 1556 attack on his opponents that would involve military aid from both Sigismund and Albert.<ref name=Hartmannxiv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XIV}}</ref> However, Sigismund hesitated over participation in the action, fearing that it would leave the [[Kiev Voivodeship]] exposed to a pending Russian attack.<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> When von Fürstenberg learned of the plan, he led a force into the archbishopric of Riga and in June 1556 captured the main strongholds of [[Kokenhusen]] and [[Rauna Castle|Ronneburg]].<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Jasper von Munster fled to Lithuania, but von Brandenburg and Christoph von Mecklenburg were captured and detained at [[Adsel]] and [[Turaida Castle|Treiden]]. This resulted in a diplomatic mission to petition for their release being dispatched by the [[Duchy of Pomerania|Pomeranian dukes]], the Danish King,<ref name=Hartmannxiv/> Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], and the estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name=Hartmannxv>{{harvnb|Hartmann|2005|p=XV}}</ref> A cross-party meeting in [[Lübeck]] to resolve the conflict was scheduled for 1&nbsp;April 1557, but was cancelled due to quarrels between Sigismund and the Danish envoys.<ref name=Hartmannxv/> Sigismund used the killing of his envoy Lancki by the ''landmeister's'' son as an excuse to invade the southern portion of Livonia with an army of around 80,000. He forced the competing parties in Livonia to reconcile at his camp in [[Pozvol]] in September 1557.<ref name=Bain84/> There they signed the [[Treaty of Pozvol]], which created a mutual defensive and offensive alliance, with its primary target Russia, and provoked the Livonian War.<ref name=Bain84/>

==1558–1562: Dissolution of the Livonian Order==

===Russian invasion of Livonia===
[[File:Livonian war map (1558-1560)-es.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Three Russian campaigns are visible in 1558, 1559 and 1560, all from east to west. One Polish–Lithuanian campaign in 1561 is shown advancing up the central part of Livonia. Refer to the text for details.|Map of campaigns in Livonia, 1558–1560]]

Ivan IV regarded the [[Livonian Confederation]]'s approach to the [[Polish–Lithuanian union]] for protection under the [[Treaty of Pozvol]] as ''[[casus belli]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=127}}</ref> In 1554 Livonia and Russia had signed a fifteen-year truce in which Livonia agreed not to enter into an alliance with Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=205}}</ref> On 22 January 1558, Ivan reacted with the invasion of Livonia. The Russians were seen by local peasants as liberators from the German control of Livonia.<ref name=Oakley26>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=26}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA26 online])</ref> Many Livonian fortresses surrendered without resistance while Russian troops took Dorpat (Tartu) in May, Narva in July<ref group=nb>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}} says Narva in May and Dorpat in July.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=24}}</ref> and laid siege to Reval (Tallinn).<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=128}}</ref> Reinforced by 1,200 [[Landsknecht]]s, 100 gunners, and ammunition from Germany, Livonian forces successfully retook [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]] (Rakvere) along with a number of other fortresses. Although the Germans raided Russian territory, Dorpat (Tartu), Narva, and many lesser fortresses remained in Russian hands.<ref name=Frost25/> The initial Russian advance was led by the [[Qasim Khanate|Khan of Qasim]] [[Shahghali]], with two other Tatar princes at the head of a force that included Russian [[boyar]]s, Tatar, and [[Landed Army|Pomestnoe]] cavalry, as well as [[Cossack]]s,<ref name=Stevens85>{{harvnb|Stevens|2007|p=85}}</ref> who at that time were mostly armed foot soldiers.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=50}}</ref> Ivan gained further ground in campaigns during the years 1559 and 1560.<ref name=Frost25/> In January 1559, Russian forces again invaded Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=129}}</ref> A six-month truce covering May to November was signed between Russia and Livonia while Russia fought in the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name="madariaga30">{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=130}}</ref>

Prompted by the Russian invasion, Livonia first unsuccessfully sought help from Emperor [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], then turned to Poland–Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Cynarski|2007|p=207}}</ref> ''Landmeister'' von Fürstenburg fled to Poland–Lithuania to be replaced by [[Gotthard Kettler]]. In June 1559, the estates of Livonia came under Polish–Lithuanian protection through the first [[Treaty of Vilnius (1559)|Treaty of Vilnius]]. The Polish ''[[general sejm|sejm]]'' refused to agree to the treaty, believing it to be a matter affecting only the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].<ref name=Bain84/> In January 1560, Sigismund sent ambassador Martin Volodkov to the court of Ivan in Moscow in an attempt to stop the Russian cavalry rampaging through rural Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=117}}</ref>

[[File:Russian atrocities in Livonia ib XVI century.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|alt=Printed woodcarving showing archers using hanged naked women as target practice. Beneath them lie the bodies of children, cut open.|Russian atrocities in Livonia. Printed in ''Zeyttung'' published in [[Nuremberg]] in 1561.]]

Russian successes followed similar patterns featuring a multitude of small campaigns, with sieges where musketmen played a key role in destroying wooden defences with effective artillery support.<ref name=Stevens85/> The Tsar's forces took important fortresses like [[Fellin]] (Viljandi), yet lacked the means to gain the major cities of [[Riga]], Reval (Tallinn), or [[Pernau]] (Pärnu).<ref name=Frost25/> The Livonian knights suffered a disastrous defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Ērģeme]] in August 1560. Some historians believe the Russian nobility were split over the timing of the invasion of Livonia.<ref name="madariaga30"/>

[[Eric XIV]], the new King of Sweden, turned down Kettler's requests for assistance, along with a similar request from Poland. Kettler turned to Sigismund for help.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=118}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=dPQwweeMSvMC&pg=PA118 online])</ref> The weakened [[Livonian Order]] was dissolved by the [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|second Treaty of Vilnius]] in 1561. Its lands were secularised as the [[Duchy of Livonia]] and [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] and assigned to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kettler became the first Duke of Courland, in doing so converting to Lutheranism.<ref name=Bain84/> Included in the treaty was the ''[[Privilegium Sigismundi Augusti]]'' by which Sigismund guaranteed the Livonian estates privileges including religious freedom with respect to the [[Augsburg Confession]], the ''[[Indygenat]]'', and continuation of the traditional German administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36/> The terms regarding religious freedom forbade any regulation of the Protestant order by religious or secular authorities.<ref name=Kahle17>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=17}}</ref>

Some members of the Lithuanian nobility opposed the growing Polish–Lithuanian union and offered the Lithuanian crown to Ivan IV.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=25–26}}</ref> The Tsar publicly advertised this option, either because he took the offer seriously, or because he needed time to strengthen his Livonian troops.<ref name=Frost26/> Throughout 1561, a Russo-Lithuanian truce (with a scheduled expiration date of 1562) was respected by both sides.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Danish and Swedish interventions===

In return for a loan and a guarantee of Danish protection, Bishop Johann von Münchhausen signed a treaty on 26&nbsp;September 1559 giving [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederick II of Denmark-Norway]] the right to nominate the bishop of [[bishopric of Ösel–Wiek|Ösel–Wiek]], an act which amounted to the sale of these territories for 30,000 [[thaler]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Pauker|1854|p=289}}</ref> Frederick II nominated his brother, [[Magnus of Holstein|Duke Magnus of Holstein]] as bishop, who then took possession in April 1560. Lest Danish efforts create more insecurity for Sweden, Denmark-Norway made another attempt to mediate a peace in the region.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|2006|p=56}}</ref> Magnus at once pursued his own interests, purchasing the [[Bishopric of Courland]] without Frederick's consent and trying to expand into [[Harju County|Harrien]]–[[Virumaa|Wierland]] (Harju and Virumaa). This brought him into direct conflict with Eric.<ref name=Frost25/>

In 1561, Swedish forces arrived and the [[Baltic Noble Corporations|noble corporations]] of Harrien–Wierland and [[Järva County|Jerwen]] (Järva) yielded to [[Kingdom of Sweden (1523–1611)|Sweden]] to form the [[Swedish Estonia|Duchy of Estonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eriksson|2007|pp=45–46}}</ref> Reval (Tallinn), similarly, accepted Swedish rule.<ref name=Frost25>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=25}}</ref> Denmark-Norway dominated the Baltic, and Sweden wished to challenge this by gaining territory on the Eastern side of the Baltic.<ref name="elliott14">{{harvnb|Elliott|2000|p=14}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=zfGrxQBcuXgC&pg=PA14 online])</ref> Doing so would help Sweden control the West's trade with Russia. This helped to precipitate the [[Northern Seven Years' War]]<ref name="elliott14"/> since in 1561, Frederick II had already protested against Swedish presence in Reval (Tallinn), claiming historical rights relating to [[Danish Estonia]].<ref name=Frost26>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=26}}</ref> When Eric XIV's forces seized Pernau (Pärnu) in June 1562, his diplomats tried to arrange Swedish protection for Riga, which brought him into conflict with Sigismund.<ref name=Frost26/>

Sigismund maintained close relations with Eric XIV's brother, [[John III of Sweden|John, Duke of Finland]] (later John III), and in October 1562 John married Sigismund's sister, [[Catherine Jagellon|Catherine]], thereby preventing her marrying Ivan IV.<ref name=Oakley27>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=27}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA27 online])</ref> While Eric XIV had approved the marriage, he was upset when John lent Sigismund 120,000 [[Swedish riksdaler|dalers]] and received seven Livonian castles as security.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=209}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA209 online])</ref> This incident led to John's capture and imprisonment in August 1563 on Eric XIV's behalf, whereupon Sigismund allied with Denmark and [[Lübeck]] against Eric XIV in October the same year.<ref name=Frost26/>

==1562–1570==

The intervention of Denmark-Norway, Sweden, and Poland-Lithuania into Livonia began a period of struggle for control of the Baltic, known contemporaneously as the ''[[dominium maris baltici]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=24}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=wPXEp45wAeQC&pg=PA24 online])</ref> While the initial war years were characterised by intensive fighting, a period of low-intensity warfare began in 1562 and lasted until 1570 when fighting once more intensified.<ref name=Frost77>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=77}}</ref> Denmark, Sweden, and to some extent Poland–Lithuania were occupied with the [[Nordic Seven Years' War]] (1563–1570) taking place in the Western Baltic,<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=30ff}}</ref> but Livonia remained strategically important.<ref name=Frost25/> In 1562, Denmark and Russia concluded the [[Treaty of Mozhaysk]], respecting each other's claims in Livonia and maintaining amicable relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|pp=317–318}}</ref> In 1564, Sweden and Russia concluded a seven-years truce.<ref>{{harvnb|Hübner|1998|p=318}}</ref> Both Ivan IV and Eric XIV showed signs of [[mental disorder]],<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=26–27}}</ref> with Ivan IV turning against part of the Tsardom's nobility and people with the ''[[oprichina]]'' that began in 1565, leaving Russia in a state of political chaos and civil war.<ref name=Frost26/>

===Russian war with Lithuania===
[[File:Cannibalism 1571.PNG|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Human cannibalism|Cannibalism]] in Lithuania during the Russian invasion in 1571, German plate]]

When the Russo-Lithuanian truce expired in 1562, Ivan IV rejected Sigismund's offer of an extension.<ref name=Frost26/> The Tsar had used the period of the truce to build up his forces in Livonia, and he invaded Lithuania.<ref name=Frost26/> His army raided [[Vitebsk]] and, after a series of border clashes, took [[Polotsk]] in 1563.<ref name=Frost26/> Lithuanian victories came at the [[Battle of Ula]] in 1564<ref name=Frost26/> and at [[Chashniki|Czasniki]] (Chashniki) in 1567, a period of intermittent conflict between the two sides. Ivan continued to gain ground among the towns and villages of central Livonia but was held at the coast by Lithuania.<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|p=123}}</ref> The defeats of Ula and Czasniki, along with the defection of [[Andrey Kurbsky]], led Ivan IV to move his capital to the [[Alexandrov Kremlin]] while the perceived opposition against him was repressed by his ''oprichniki''.<ref name=Frost26/>

A "grand" party of diplomats left Lithuania for Moscow in May 1566.<ref name=Madariaga195>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=195}}</ref> Lithuania was prepared to split Livonia with Russia, with a view to a joint offensive to drive Sweden from the area. However, this was seen as a sign of weakness by Russian diplomats, who instead suggested that Russia take the whole of Livonia, including Riga, through the ceding of [[Courland]] in southern Livonia and Polotsk on the Lithuanian–Russian border.<ref name=Madariaga196>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=196}}</ref> The transfer of Riga, and the surrounding entrance to the [[Western Dvina|River Dvina]], troubled the Lithuanians, since much of their trade depended on safe passage through it and they had already built fortifications to protect it.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Ivan expanded his demands in July, calling for Ösel in addition to Dorpat (Tartu) and Narva. No agreement was forthcoming and a ten-day break was taken in negotiations, during which time various Russian meetings were held (including the ''[[zemsky sobor]]'', the ''Assembly of the Land'') to discuss the issues at stake.<ref name=Madariaga196/> Within the Assembly, the church's representative stressed the need to "keep" Riga (though it had not yet been conquered),<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=202}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA202 online])</ref> while the Boyars were less keen on an overall peace with Lithuania, noting the danger posed by a joint Polish-Lithuanian state. Talks were then halted and hostilities resumed upon the return of the ambassadors to Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga196/>

In 1569, the [[Union of Lublin|Treaty of Lublin]] unified Poland and Lithuania into the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. The [[Duchy of Livonia]], tied to Lithuania in [[real union]] since the [[Union of Grodno (1566)|Union of Grodno]] in 1566, came under Polish–Lithuanian [[joint sovereignty]].<ref name=Dybas109>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=109}}</ref> In June 1570 a three-year truce was signed with Russia.<ref name=Madariaga262>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=262}}</ref> Sigismund II, the Commonwealth's first King, died in 1572 leaving the Polish throne with no clear successor for the first time since 1382 and thus began the first [[Free election (Polish throne)|free election]] in Polish history. Some Lithuanian nobles, in an effort to retain Lithuanian autonomy, proposed a Russian candidate. Ivan, however, demanded the return of [[Kiev]], an Orthodox coronation, and a hereditary monarchy in parallel to Russia's, with his son, [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]], as King.<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=119}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA119 online])</ref> The electorate rejected these demands and instead chose [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] (''Henryk Walezy''), brother of King [[Charles IX of France]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bain|1971|pp=90–91}}</ref>

===Russian war with Sweden===
{{See also|Correspondence between John III and Ivan IV}}
In 1564, Sweden and Russia agreed the [[Treaty of Dorpat]], whereby Russia recognised Sweden's right to Reval (Tallinn) and other castles, and Sweden accepted Russia's patrimony over the rest of Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=192}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFVn1v3FMUC&pg=PA192 online])</ref> A seven-year truce was signed between Russia and Sweden in 1565.<ref name="Madariaga195" /> [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] was overthrown in 1568 after he killed several nobles in the [[Sture Murders]] (''Sturemorden'') of 1567, and was replaced by his half-brother [[John III of Sweden|John III]].<ref name="Frost27">{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=27}}</ref> Both Russia and Sweden had other problems and were keen to avoid an expensive escalation of the war in Livonia.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=255}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA255 online])</ref> Ivan IV had requested the delivery of John's wife, the Polish-Lithuanian princess [[Catherine Jagellonica]], to Russia, since he had competed with John to marry into the Lithuanian-Polish royal family. In July 1569 John sent a party to Russia, led by [[Paul Juusten]], [[Bishop of Åbo]],<ref name="Madariaga261">{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=261}}</ref> which arrived in [[Novgorod]] in September, following the arrival in Moscow of the ambassadors sent to Sweden in 1567 by Ivan to retrieve Catherine. Ivan refused to meet with the party himself, forcing them to negotiate instead with the Governor of Novgorod.<ref name="Madariaga261" /> The Tsar requested that Swedish envoys should greet the governor as 'the brother of their king', but Juusten refused to do so. The Governor then ordered an attack on the Swedish party, that their clothes and money be taken, and that they be deprived of food and drink and be paraded naked through the streets.<ref name="Madariaga261" />
[[File:Rakvere, hrad.jpg|thumb|[[Rakvere]] castle ruins, Lääne-Viru County, Estonia.]]
Although the Swedes were also to be moved to Moscow, this occurred at the same time Ivan and his ''[[oprichnik]]i'' were on their way to launch an [[massacre of Novgorod|assault on Novgorod]] in northern Russia.<ref name=Madariaga262/> In an act of vengeance against the perceived treason of the local Orthodox church in Novgorod, Ivan's forces launched an attack on the city, where 2,000–15,000 people were killed.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Апреликова|first=Наталия Руслановна|date=16 December 2020|title=Становление представлений о познавательных потребностях в процессе развития психологической теории|journal=Научные труды Московского гуманитарного университета|issue=5|doi=10.17805/trudy.2020.5.4|issn=2587-8441|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{relevance|date=June 2024}}

On his return to Moscow in May 1570, Ivan refused to meet the Swedish party, and with the signing of a three-year truce in June 1570 with the Commonwealth he no longer feared war with Poland–Lithuania.<ref name=Madariaga262/> Russia considered the delivery of Catherine to be a precondition of any deal, and the Swedes agreed to meet in Novgorod to discuss the matter.<ref name=Madariaga262/> According to Juusten, at the meeting the Russians demanded the Swedes to abandon their claim to Reval (Tallinn), provide two or three hundred cavalry when required, pay 10,000 thaler in direct compensation, surrender Finnish silver mines near the border with Russia, and allow the Tsar to style himself "Lord of Sweden". The Swedish party left following an ultimatum from Ivan that Sweden should cede its territory in Livonia or there would be war.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=271}}</ref> Juusten was left behind while John rejected Ivan's demands, and war broke out anew.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=272}}</ref>

===Impact of the Northern Seven Years' War===
Quarrels between Denmark-Norway and Sweden led to the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] in 1563, which ended in 1570 with the [[Treaty of Stettin (1570)|Treaty of Stettin]].<ref name=Frost2937>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=29–37}}</ref> Primarily fought in western and southern [[Scandinavia]], the war involved important naval battles fought in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]].<ref name=Frost2937/> When Danish-held [[Varberg Fortress|Varberg]] surrendered to Swedish forces in 1565, 150 Danish mercenaries escaped the subsequent massacre of the garrison by defecting to Sweden.<ref name=Frost76>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=76}}</ref> Among them was [[Pontus de la Gardie]],<ref name=Frost76/> who thereafter became an important Swedish commander in the Livonian War.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=44, 51}}</ref> Livonia was also affected by the naval campaign of Danish admiral [[Peder Munk]], who bombarded Swedish Reval (Tallinn) from sea in July 1569.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=36}}</ref>

The Treaty of Stettin made Denmark the supreme and dominating power in [[Northern Europe]], yet failed to restore the [[Kalmar Union]]. Unfavourable conditions for Sweden led to a series of conflicts that only ended with the [[Great Northern War]] in 1720.<ref name=Nordstrom36>{{harvnb|Nordstrom|2000|p=36}}</ref> Sweden agreed to turn over her possessions in Livonia in return for a payment by [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]]. Maximilian failed to pay the promised compensation, however, and thereby lost his influence on Baltic affairs.<ref name=Nordstrom36/> The terms of the treaty regarding Livonia were ignored, and thus the Livonian War continued.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=90}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA90 online])</ref> From Ivan's point of view, the treaty enabled the powers involved to form an alliance against him, now that they were no longer fighting each other.<ref name=Madariaga264>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=264}}</ref>

==1570–1577: Russian dominance and the Kingdom of Livonia==
{{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=300|image1=Krievu zvērības Livonijā 1577. gada jūlijā un augustā.jpg|caption1=Russian atrocities in 1577.|image2=LIVONIAE NOVA DESCRIPTIO 1573-1578.jpg|caption2=Map of Livonia in 1573.|image3=Livonian war map (1570-1577).svg|caption3=Map showing areas of Russian and Polish–Lithuanian forces, 1570–1577.
{{legend|#f7d3aa|occupied by Russian forces in 1570}}
{{legend|#e1d2c0|occupied by Russian forces 1572–1577}}
{{legend|#ffc864|occupied by Lithuanian forces}}}}

During the early 1570s, King John III of Sweden faced a Russian offensive on his positions in Estonia.<ref name=Peterson91>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=91}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA91 online])</ref> Reval (Tallinn) withstood a Russian siege in 1570 and 1571,<ref>{{harvnb|Black|1996|p=59}}</ref> but several smaller towns were taken by Russian forces. On 23 January a Swedish army of 700 infantry and 600 cavalry under command of [[Clas Åkesson Tott]] (the Elder) clashed with a Russian and Tartar army of 16,000 men under the command of Khan [[Sain-Bulat]] at the [[Battle of Lode]] by the village of [[Koluvere, Lääne County|Koluvere]]. The Russian advance concluded with the sacking of [[Paide|Weissenstein]] (Paide) in 1573, where, after its capture, the occupying forces roasted some of the leaders of the Swedish garrison alive, including the commander. This triggered a retaliatory campaign by John centred on Wesenberg,<ref name=Peterson91/> to which the army departed in November 1573<ref>{{harvnb|Fischer|Kirkpatrick|1907|p=63}}</ref> with Klas Åkesson Tott in overall command and [[Pontus de la Gardie]] as field commander.<ref name=Peterson91/> There were also Russian raids into Finland, including one as far as [[Helsingfors]] (Helsinki) in 1572. A two-year truce on this front was signed in 1575.<ref name=Roberts258>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=258}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref>

John's counter-offensive stalled at the [[siege of Wesenberg]] in 1574, when German and Scottish units of the Swedish army turned against each other.<ref name=Peterson92>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|pp=92–93}}</ref> This failure has also been blamed on the difficulties of fighting in the bitter winter conditions, particularly for the infantry.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=51}}</ref> The war in Livonia was a great financial burden for Sweden, and by the end of 1573, Sweden's German mercenaries were owed 200,000 ''[[Swedish riksdaler|daler]]''.<ref name=Roberts258/> John gave them the castles of [[Hapsal]], [[Lihula|Leal]], and [[Lode Parish|Lode]] as security, but when he failed to pay they were sold to Denmark.<ref name=Roberts258/>

Meanwhile, efforts by [[Magnus of Holstein|Magnus]] to besiege Swedish-controlled Reval (Tallinn) were faltering, with support from neither Ivan nor Magnus' brother, [[Frederick II of Denmark]] forthcoming.<ref name=Madariaga264/> Ivan's attention was focused elsewhere, while Frederick's reluctance perhaps stemmed from a new spirit of Swedish–Danish unity that made him unwilling to invade Livonia on behalf of Magnus, whose state was a vassal of Russia. The siege was abandoned in March 1571,<ref name=Madariaga264/> whereupon Swedish action in the Baltic escalated, with the passive backing of Sigismund, John's brother-in-law.<ref name=Madariaga264/>

At the same time [[Crimean Tatars]] devastated Russian territories and burned and looted Moscow during the [[Russo-Crimean Wars]].<ref name=Peterson91/> Drought and epidemics had fatally affected the Russian economy while ''[[oprichnina]]'' had thoroughly disrupted the government. Following the defeat of Crimean and [[Nogai Horde|Nogai]] forces in 1572, ''[[oprichnina]]'' was wound down and with it the way Russian armies were formed also changed.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|pp=277–278}}</ref> Ivan IV had introduced a new strategy whereby he relied on tens of thousands of native troops, Cossacks and Tatars instead of a few thousand skilled troops and mercenaries, as was the practice of his adversaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=93}}</ref>

Ivan's campaign reached its height in 1576 when another 30,000 Russian soldiers crossed into Livonia in 1577<ref name=Frost27/> and devastated Danish areas in retaliation for the Danish acquisition of Hapsal, Leal, and Lode. Danish influence in Livonia ceased, as Frederick accepted deals with Sweden and Poland to end nominal Danish involvement.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|pp=258–259}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA258 online])</ref> Swedish forces were besieged in Reval (Tallinn) and central Livonia raided as far as [[Daugavpils|Dünaburg]] (Daugavpils), formally under Polish–Lithuanian control since the 1561 [[Treaty of Vilnius (1561)|Treaty of Vilnius]].<ref name=Peterson92/> The conquered territories submitted to Ivan or his vassal, Magnus,<ref name=Peterson92/> declared monarch of the [[Kingdom of Livonia]] in 1570.<ref name="Frost27"/> Magnus defected from Ivan IV during the same year,<ref name=Oakley37>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=37}}</ref> having started to appropriate castles without consulting the Tsar. When [[Koknese|Kokenhusen]] (Koknese) submitted to Magnus to avoid fighting Ivan IV's army, the Tsar sacked the town and executed its German commanders.<ref name=Frost27/> The campaign [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|then focussed on Wenden]] ([[Cēsis]], Võnnu), "the heart of Livonia", which as the former capital of the Livonian Order was not only of strategic importance, but also symbolic of Livonia itself.<ref name=Peterson92/>

==1577–1583: Defeat of Russia==

===Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian alliance and counter-offensives===
{{Further|Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory}}
{{multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 300
| image1            = Polacak, 1579.jpg
| alt1              = Coloured illustration. The city, central is being attacked by a group of knights and cannon from the east, and large numbers of foot soldiers from the north. Some citizens appear to be surrendering to the foot soldiers.
| caption1          = The siege of Polotsk, 1579, in a contemporary illustration.
| alt2              = See text and the article [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stephen Báthory]] for further information.
| image2            = Campaigns of Stefan Batory.svg
| caption2          = [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|The campaigns of Stephen Báthory]], the bold line marks the border by 1600.
}}

In 1576, the [[Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711)|Transylvanian prince]] [[Stephen Báthory]] became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania after [[Royal elections in Poland|a contested election to the joint Polish–Lithuanian throne]] with the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian II]].<ref name=Stone122>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=122}}</ref> Both Báthory's fiancée [[Anna Jagiellon]] and Maximilian II had been proclaimed elected to the same throne in December 1575, three days apart;<ref name=Stone122/> Maximilan's death in October 1576 prevented the conflict from escalating.<ref>{{harvnb|De Madariaga|2006|p=310}}</ref> Báthory, ambitious to expel Ivan IV from Livonia, was constrained by the opposition of [[Danzig]] (Gdansk), which resisted Báthory's accession with Danish support.<ref name=Stone123>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=123}}</ref> The ensuing [[Siege of Danzig (1577)|Danzig War]] of 1577 ended when Báthory conceded further autonomous rights to the city in return for a payment of 200,000 [[Polish zloty#Kingdom of Poland and Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|zlotys]].<ref name=Stone123/> For a further 200,000 zloty payment, he appointed [[House of Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern]] [[George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George Frederick]] as administrator of [[Duchy of Prussia|Prussia]] and secured the latter's military support in the planned campaign against Russia.<ref name=Stone123/>

Báthory received only few soldiers from his Polish vassals and was forced to recruit mercenaries, primarily Poles, [[Hungarians]], [[Bohemia]]ns, [[Germans]], and [[Wallachia]]ns. A separate Szekler brigade fought in Livonia.{{sfn|Liptai|1984|p={{page needed|date=June 2021}}}}

Swedish King John III and Stephen Báthory allied against Ivan IV in December 1577, despite problems caused by the death of Sigismund which meant that the issue of the substantial inheritance due to John's wife, Catherine, had not been resolved.<ref name=Roberts260>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=260}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA260 online])</ref> Poland also claimed the whole of Livonia, without accepting Swedish rule of any part of it.<ref name=Roberts260/> The 120,000 ''daler'' lent in 1562 had still not been repaid, despite Sigismund's best intentions to settle it.<ref name=Roberts260/>

By November, Lithuanian forces moving northward had captured Dünaburg<ref name=Frost28>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=28}}</ref> while a Polish–Swedish force took the town and castle of Wenden in early 1578.<ref name=Peterson94>{{harvnb|Peterson|2007|p=94}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CPJWfVPgFawC&pg=PA94 online])</ref> Russian forces failed to retake the town in February,<ref name=Frost28/> an attack followed by a Swedish offensive, targeting [[Pärnu|Pernau]] (Pärnu), Dorpat, and [[Novgorod]] among others. In September, Ivan responded by sending in an army of 18,000 men, who recaptured [[Põltsamaa|Oberpahlen]] (Põltsamaa) from Sweden and then marched on Wenden.<ref name=Frost28/><ref name=Peterson94/> Upon their arrival at Wenden, the Russian army laid siege to the town, but was met by a relief force of around 6,000 German, Polish, and Swedish soldiers.<ref name=Peterson94/> In the ensuing [[Battles of Wenden (1577–1578)|Battle of Wenden]], Russian casualties were severe with armaments and horses captured, leaving Ivan IV with his first serious defeat in Livonia.<ref name=Peterson94/>

Báthory accelerated the formation of the [[hussars]], a new well-organised cavalry troop that replaced the feudal levy.<ref name=stone126>{{harvnb|Stone|2001|pp=126–127}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=LFgB_l4SdHAC&pg=PA126 online])</ref> Similarly, he improved an already effective artillery system and recruited [[cossacks]].<ref name=stone126/> Báthory gathered 56,000 troops, 30,000 of them from Lithuania,<ref name=stone126/> for his first assault on Russia at Polotsk, as part of a [[Livonian campaign of Stephen Báthory|wider campaign]]. With Ivan's reserves in Pskov and Novgorod to guard against a possible Swedish invasion, the city fell on 30 August 1579.<ref name=stone126/> Báthory then appointed a close ally and powerful member of his court, [[Jan Zamoyski]], to lead a force of 48,000, including 25,000 men from Lithuania, against the fortress of [[Velikie Luki]] which he went on to capture on 5&nbsp;September 1580.<ref name=stone126/> Without further significant resistance, garrisons such as Sokol, Velizh, and Usvzat fell quickly.<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=174}}</ref> In 1581, the force [[Siege of Pskov|besieged Pskov]], a well-fortified and heavily defended fortress. However, financial support from the Polish parliament was dropping, and Báthory failed to lure Russian forces in Livonia out into open field before the onset of winter.<ref name=stone126/> Not realising that the Polish–Lithuanian advance was on the wane, Ivan signed the [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]].<ref name=stone126/>

The failure of the Swedish siege of Narva in 1579 led to [[Pontus de la Gardie]]'s appointment as commander-in-chief.<ref name=Roberts263>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=263}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA263 online])</ref> The towns of [[Kexholm]] and [[Padise Parish|Padise]] were taken by Swedish forces in 1580,<ref name=Roberts263/> then in 1581, concurrent with the fall of [[Rakvere|Wesenberg]], a [[mercenary]] army hired by Sweden recaptured the strategic city of Narva.<ref name=Roberts263/> A target of John III's campaigns, since it could be attacked by both land and sea, the campaign made use of Sweden's considerable fleet<ref name=Oakley34>{{harvnb|Oakley|1993|p=34}}</ref> but later arguments over formal control in the long term hampered any alliance with Poland.<ref name=Oakley34/> Following la Gardie's taking of the city, and in retaliation for previous Russian massacres,<ref>{{harvnb|Solovyov|1791|p=881}}</ref> 7,000 Russians were killed according to [[Balthasar Russow|Russow]]'s contemporary chronicle.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=80}}, referring to Russow, B. (1578): ''Chronica der Provintz Lyfflandt'', p. 147</ref> The fall of Narva was followed by those of [[Ivangorod]], [[Kingisepp|Jama]], and [[Koporye]],<ref name=Roberts264/> leaving Sweden content with its gains in Livonia.<ref name=Roberts264/>

===Truces of Jam Zapolski and Plussa===
[[File:Map of Poland and Lithuania in 1600.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Division of Livonia by 1600:{{Legend|#ffaeae|Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#ffaef6|Vassal duchies of Poland–Lithuania}}{{Legend|#b0ffbd|Russia}}{{Legend|#c3ccff|Kingdom of Sweden}}{{Legend|#ff7e5c|Denmark-Norway}}]]
Subsequent negotiations led by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[papal legate]] [[Antonio Possevino]] resulted in the 1582 [[Truce of Jam Zapolski]] between Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.<ref name=Roberts264>{{harvnb|Roberts|1968|p=264}} ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x243AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA264 online])</ref> This was a humiliation for the Tsar, in part because he requested the truce.<ref name=Roberts264/> Under the agreement Russia would surrender all areas in Livonia it still held and the city of Dorpat (Tartu) to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, while Polotsk would remain under Commonwealth control. Any captured Swedish territory—specifically Narva—could be retained by the Russians and Velike Luki would be returned from Báthory's control to Russia.<ref name=Roberts264/> Possevino made a half-hearted attempt to get John III's wishes taken into consideration, but this was vetoed by the Tsar, probably in collusion with Báthory.<ref name=Roberts264/> The armistice, which fell short of a full peace arrangement, was to last ten years and was renewed twice, in 1591 and 1601.<ref>{{harvnb|Wernham|1968|p=393}}</ref> Báthory failed in his attempts to pressure Sweden into relinquishing its gains in Livonia, particularly Narva.<ref name=Roberts264/>

Following a decision by John, the war with Russia ended when the Tsar concluded the [[Truce of Plussa]] (''Plyussa, Pljussa, Plusa'') with Sweden on 10 August 1583.<ref name=Roberts264/><ref name=Frost44>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=44}}</ref> Russia relinquished most of Ingria, leaving Narva and Ivangorod as well under Swedish control.<ref name=Frost44/> Originally scheduled to last three years, the Russo-Swedish truce was later extended until 1590.<ref name=Frost44/> During the negotiations, Sweden made vast demands for Russian territory, including Novgorod. Whilst these conditions were probably only for the purposes of negotiation, they may have reflected Swedish aspirations of territory in the region.<ref name=Roberts264/>

==Aftermath==

The post-war [[Duchy of Courland and Semigallia]] south of the [[Düna]] (Daugava) river experienced a period of political stability based on the 1561 Treaty of Vilnius, later modified by the 1617 ''Formula regiminis'' and ''Statuta Curlandiæ'', which granted indigenous nobles additional rights at the duke's expense.<ref name=Dybas110>{{harvnb|Dybaś|2006|p=110}}</ref> North of the Düna, Báthory reduced the privileges Sigismund had granted the [[Duchy of Livonia]], regarding the regained territories as the spoils of war.<ref name=Dybas109/> Riga's privileges had already been reduced by the [[Treaty of Drohiczyn]] in 1581.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen37>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=37}}</ref> [[Polish language|Polish]] gradually replaced [[German language|German]] as the administrative language and the establishment of [[voivodeships]] reduced the [[Baltic German]] administration.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen36>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=36}}</ref> The local clergy and the Jesuits in Livonia embraced the [[Counter-Reformation]]<ref name="Kahle17"/> in a process assisted by Báthory, who gave the [[Roman Catholic Church]] revenues and estates confiscated from Protestants as well as initiating a largely unsuccessful recruitment campaign for Catholic colonists.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38>{{harvnb|Tuchtenhagen|2005|p=38}}</ref> Despite these measures, the Livonian population did not convert ''en masse'', while the Livonian estates in Poland–Lithuania were alienated.<ref name=Tuchtenhagen38/>

[[File:Swedish Empire in the Baltic (1560-1721).png|thumb|Map showing Sweden in the Baltic, 1560 to 1721. Dates are those of occupation, and those in brackets dates of loss.]]
In 1590, the Russo-Swedish truce of Plussa expired and fighting resumed<ref name=Frost44/> while the ensuing [[Russo-Swedish War (1590–1595)|Russo-Swedish War of 1590–5]] ended with the [[Treaty of Teusina]] (Tyavzino, Tyavzin), under which Sweden had to cede [[Ingria]] and [[Kexholm]] to Russia.<ref name=Frost45>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=45}}</ref> The Swedish–Polish alliance began to crumble when the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Sigismund III Vasa|Sigismund III]], who as son of [[John III of Sweden]] (died 1592) and Catherine Jagellonica, was the successor to the Swedish throne, met with resistance from a faction led by his uncle, [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles of Södermanland]] (later Charles IX), who claimed regency in Sweden for himself.<ref name=Frost45/> Sweden descended into a civil war in 1597, followed by the 1598–1599 [[war against Sigismund]], which ended with the deposition of Sigismund by the Swedish ''[[Riksdag of the Estates|riksdag]]''.<ref name=Frost45/>

Local nobles turned to Charles for protection in 1600 when the conflict spread to Livonia, where Sigismund had tried to incorporate [[Swedish Estonia]] into the Duchy of Livonia.<ref name=Steinke120>{{harvnb|Steinke|2009|p=120}}</ref> Charles then expelled the Polish forces from Estonia<ref name=Steinke120/> and [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1611)|invaded the Livonian duchy]], starting a series of [[Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629)|Polish–Swedish wars]].<ref name=Frost46>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=46}}</ref> At the same time, Russia was embroiled in civil war over the vacant Russian throne ("[[Time of Troubles]]") when none of the many claimants had prevailed. This conflict became intertwined with the Livonian campaigns when Swedish and Polish–Lithuanian forces intervened on opposite sides, the latter starting the [[Polish–Muscovite War (1605–1618)|Polish–Muscovite War]].<ref name=Frost46/> Charles IX's forces were expelled from Livonia<ref name=Frost47>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=47}}</ref> after major setbacks at the battles of [[Battle of Kokenhausen|Kokenhausen(1601)]] and [[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]] (1605).<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=62, 64ff}}</ref><ref name=Frost47/> During the later [[Ingrian War]], Charles' successor [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] retook Ingria and Kexholm which were formally ceded to Sweden under the 1617 [[Treaty of Stolbovo]]<ref name=Frost47/> along with the bulk of the Duchy of Livonia. In 1617, when Sweden had recovered from the [[Kalmar War]] with Denmark, several Livonian towns were captured, but only [[Pernau]] (Pärnu) remained under Swedish control after a [[Polish–Swedish War (1617–1618)|Polish–Lithuanian counter-offensive]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=102}}</ref> [[Polish–Swedish War (1621–1625)|A second campaign]] then started with the capture of Riga in 1621 and expelled Polish–Lithuanian forces from most of Livonia, where the [[Dominions of Sweden|dominion]] of [[Swedish Livonia]] was created.<ref name=Steinke120/> Swedish forces then advanced through [[Royal Prussia]] and Poland–Lithuania accepted Swedish gains in Livonia in the 1629 [[Treaty of Altmark]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=103}}</ref>

The [[Øsel|Danish province of Øsel]] was ceded to Sweden under the 1645 [[Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)|Treaty of Brömsebro]], which ended the [[Torstenson War]], one theatre of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|pp=103–104}}</ref> It was retained after the [[Peace of Oliva]] and the [[Treaty of Copenhagen (1660)|Treaty of Copenhagen]], both in 1660.<ref>{{harvnb|Frost|2000|p=183}}</ref> The situation remained unchanged until 1710 when [[Capitulation of Estonia and Livonia|Estonia and Livonia capitulated to Russia]] during the [[Great Northern War]], an action formalised in the [[Treaty of Nystad]] (1721).<ref name=Kahle18>{{harvnb|Kahle|1984|p=18}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Livonians]]
* [[Russo-Turkish wars]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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==Further reading==
{{See also|Bibliography of the history of Poland|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Ukrainian history}}
* {{citation |last=Karamzin |first=Nikolai Mikhailovich |author-link=Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin |title=Istoriya gosudarstva Rossiyskogo |language=ru |volume=VIII |chapter=III |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w851ixSKr9AC |publisher=Olma Media Group |location=Moscow |orig-year=1826 |year=2003 |isbn=978-5-224-04058-2}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* Oscar Halecki, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090504232233/http://victorian.fortunecity.com/wooton/34/halecki/11.htm The Struggle for the Dominium Maris Baltici]
* [[William Urban]], [http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm The Origin of the Livonian War, 1558] – {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808094814/http://www.lituanus.org/1983_3/83_3_02.htm |date=8 August 2012 }} (Lituanus, Volume 29, No.3 – Fall 1983)
* Andres Adamson, [http://www.tlulib.ee/files/arts/96/andre267b2fbf346f36611be2ffd9aedf3d07.pdf The Role of Duke Magnus of Holstein in the Baltic Sea Region during the Livonian War] – {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002035441/http://www.tlulib.ee/files/arts/96/andre267b2fbf346f36611be2ffd9aedf3d07.pdf |date=2 October 2011 }} (2006, dissertation)

{{Campaigns and treaties of the Livonian War}}
{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Russian Conflicts}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Livonian War| ]]
[[Category:Northern Wars]]
[[Category:16th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Polish–Russian wars]]
[[Category:1558 in Lithuania]]
[[Category:1558 in Poland]]
[[Category:1558 in Russia]]
[[Category:1558 in Sweden]]
[[Category:1583 in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]]
[[Category:1583 in Russia]]
[[Category:1583 in Sweden]]