View source for Location arithmetic

{{Short description|One of three devices to aid arithmetic calculation described by John Napier in a treatise}}
{{Rabdology}}
{{cleanup |reason=Passages of how-to steps that read like a tutorial and use "we" and "you". |date=April 2020}}
'''Location arithmetic''' (Latin ''arithmetica localis'') is the additive (non-positional) [[binary arithmetic|binary]] [[numeral systems]], which [[John Napier]] explored as a computation technique in his treatise ''[[Rabdology]]'' (1617), both symbolically and on a [[chessboard]]-like grid.

Napier's terminology, derived from using the positions of counters on the board to represent numbers, is potentially misleading because the numbering system is, in facts, non-[[Positional notation|positional]] in current vocabulary.

During Napier's time, most of the computations were made on boards with tally-marks or [[jeton]]s. So, unlike how it may be seen by the modern reader, his goal was not to use moves of counters on a board to multiply, divide and find square roots, but rather to find a way to compute symbolically with pen and paper.

However, when reproduced on the board, this new technique did not require mental trial-and-error computations nor complex carry memorization (unlike base 10 computations). He was so pleased by his discovery that he said in his preface:

{{blockquote|it might be well described as more of a lark than a labor, for it carries out addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and the extraction of square roots purely by moving counters from place to place.{{ref|Napier}}}}

== Location numerals ==

[[Binary notation]] had not yet been standardized, so Napier used what he called '''location numerals''' to represent binary numbers. Napier's system uses [[sign-value notation]] to represent numbers; it uses successive letters from the Latin alphabet to represent successive powers of two: '''a''' = 2<sup>0</sup> = 1, '''b''' = 2<sup>1</sup> = 2, '''c''' = 2<sup>2</sup> = 4, '''d''' = 2<sup>3</sup> = 8, '''e''' = 2<sup>4</sup> = 16 and so on.

To represent a given number as a location numeral, that number is expressed as a sum of powers of two and then each power of two is replaced by its corresponding digit (letter). For example, when converting from a decimal numeral:

: 87 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 16 + 64 = 2<sup>0</sup> + 2<sup>1</sup> + 2<sup>2</sup> + 2<sup>4</sup> + 2<sup>6</sup> = '''abceg'''

Using the reverse process, a location numeral can be converted to another numeral system. For example, when converting to a decimal numeral:

: '''abdgkl''' = 2<sup>0</sup> + 2<sup>1</sup> + 2<sup>3</sup> + 2<sup>6</sup> + 2<sup>10</sup> + 2<sup>11</sup> = 1 + 2 + 8 + 64 + 1024 + 2048 = 3147

Napier showed multiple methods of converting numbers in and out of his numeral system. These methods are similar to modern methods of converting numbers in and out of the [[binary numeral system]], so they are not shown here. Napier also showed how to add, subtract, multiply, divide, and extract square roots.

=== Abbreviated and extended form ===

As in any numeral system using [[sign-value notation]] (but ''not'' those using [[positional notation]]), digits (letters) can be repeated such that multiple numerals can represent a single number. For example:

: '''abbc''' = '''acc''' = '''ad''' = 9

Additionally, the order of digits does not matter. For example:

: '''abbc''' = '''bbca''' = '''bcba''' = ... = 9

Because each digit in a location numeral represents twice the value of its next-lower digit, replacing any two occurrences of the same digit with one of the next-higher digit does not change the numeral's numeric value. Thus, repeatedly applying the rules of replacement '''aa''' → '''b''', '''bb''' → '''c''', '''cc''' → '''d''', etc. to a location numeral removes all repeated digits from that numeral.

Napier called this process '''abbreviation''' and the resulting location numeral the '''abbreviated form''' of that numeral; he called location numerals containing repeated digits '''extended forms'''. Each number can be represented by a unique abbreviated form, not considering the order of its digits (e.g., '''abc''', '''bca''', '''cba''', etc. all represent the number 7).

=== Arithmetic ===

==== Addition ====

Location numerals allow for a simple and intuitive algorithm for addition:

# join the numerals end-to-end
# when necessary, rearrange this conjoined numeral's digits so they are in ascending order
# abbreviate this rearranged and conjoined numeral

For example, to add 157 = '''acdeh''' and 230 = '''bcfgh''', join the numerals end-to-end:

: '''acdeh''' + '''bcfgh''' → '''acdehbcfgh'''

rearrange the digits of the previous result (because the digits of '''acdehbcfgh''' are not in ascending order):

: '''acdehbcfgh''' → '''abccdefghh'''

and abbreviate the previous result:

: '''abccdefghh''' → '''abddefghh''' → '''abeefghh''' → '''abffghh''' → '''abgghh''' → '''abhhh''' → '''abhi'''

The final result, '''abhi''', equals 387 ('''abhi''' = 2<sup>0</sup> + 2<sup>1</sup> + 2<sup>7</sup> + 2<sup>8</sup> = 1 + 2 + 128 + 256 = 387); this is the same result achieved by adding 157 and 230 in decimal notation.

==== Subtraction ====

Subtraction is also intuitive, but may require expanding abbreviated forms to extended forms to perform [[Carry (arithmetic)|borrows]].

Write the [[Subtraction|minuend]] (the largest number you want to diminish) and remove from it all the digits appearing in the [[Subtraction|subtrahend]] (the smallest number). In case the digit to be removed does not appear in the minuend, then ''borrow'' it by expanding the unit just larger. Repeat until all the digit of the subtrahend have been removed.

A few examples show it is simpler than it sounds :

* Subtract 5 = '''ac''' from 77 = '''acdg''' :
: '''acdg''' - '''ac''' = '''<s>ac</s>dg''' = '''dg''' = 8+64 = 72. 
 
* Subtract 3 = '''ab''' from 77 = '''acdg''' :
: '''acdg''' - '''ab''' = '''abbdg''' - '''ab''' = '''<s>ab</s>bdg''' = '''bdg''' = 2+8+64 = 74.

* Subtract 7 = '''abc''' from 77 = '''acdg''' :
: '''acdg''' - '''abc''' = '''abbccg''' - '''abc''' = '''<s>ab</s>b<s>c</s>cg''' = '''bcg''' = 2+4+64 = 70.

==== Doubling, halving, odd and even ====

Napier proceeded to the rest of arithmetic, that is multiplication, division and [[square root]], on an abacus, as it was common in his times. However, since the development of micro-processor computer, a lot of applicable algorithms have been developed or revived based on doubling and halving.

Doubling is done by adding a numeral to itself, which mean doubling each of its digit. This gives an extended form, which has to be abbreviated if needed. This operation can be done in one step by changing each digit of a numeral to the next larger digit. For example, the double of '''a''' is '''b''', the double of '''b''' is '''c''', the double of '''ab''' is '''bc''', the double of '''acfg''' is '''bdgh''', etc.

Similarly, multiplying by a power of two, is just translating its digits. To multiply by '''c''' = 4, for example, is transforming the digits '''a''' → '''c''', '''b''' → '''d''', '''c''' → '''e''',...  
 
Halving is the reverse of doubling: change each digit to the next smaller digit. For example, the half of '''bdgh''' is '''acfg'''.

One sees immediately that it is only feasible when the numeral to be halved does not contain an '''a''' (or, if the numeral is extended, an odd number of '''a'''s). In other words, an abbreviated numeral is odd if it contains an '''a''' and even if it does not.

With these basic operations (doubling and halving), all the binary algorithms can be adapted starting by, but not limited to, the [[Bisection method]] and [[Dichotomic search]].

==== Multiplication ====

Napier performed multiplication and division on an abacus, as was common in his times. However, [[Egyptian multiplication and division|Egyptian multiplication]] gives an elegant way to carry out multiplication without tables using only doubling, halving and adding.

Multiplying a single-digit number by another single-digit number is a simple process. Because all letters represent a power of 2, multiplying digits is the same as adding their exponents. This can also be thought of as finding the index of one digit in the alphabet ('''a''' = 0, '''b''' = 1, ...) and incrementing the other digit by that amount in terms of the alphabet ('''b''' + 2 => '''d''').

For example, multiply 4 = '''c''' by 16 = '''e'''

'''c''' * '''e''' = 2^2 * 2^4 = 2^6 = '''g'''

or...

''AlphabetIndex''('''c''') = 2, so... '''e''' => '''f''' => '''g'''

To find the product of two multiple digit numbers, make a two column table. In the left column write the digits of the first number, one below the other. For each digit in the left column, multiply that digit and the second number and record it in the right column. Finally, add all the numbers of the right column together.

As an example, multiply 238 = '''bcdfgh''' by 13 = '''acd'''

:{|
|- 
| '''a''' || '''bcdfgh'''
|- 
| '''c''' ||  '''defhij''' 
|-
| '''d''' ||   '''efgijk''' 
|}

The result is the sum in the right column '''{{not a typo|bcdfgh defhij efgijk}}''' = '''{{not a typo|bcddeefffgghhiijjk}}''' = '''bcekl''' = 2+4+16+1024+2048 = 3094.

It is interesting to notice that the left column can also be obtained by successive halves of the first number, from which the even numbers are removed. In our example, '''acd''', '''<s>bc</s>''' (even), '''ab''', '''a'''. Noticing that the right column contains successive doubles of the second number, shows why the [[Egyptian multiplication and division|peasant multiplication]] is exact.

==== Division, remainder ====

Division can be carried out by successive subtractions: the quotient is the number of time the divisor can be subtracted from the dividend, and the remainder is what is left after all the possible subtractions.

This process, which can be very long, may be made efficient if instead of the divisor we subtract multiple of the divisor, and computations are easier if we restrict to multiple by a power of 2.

In fact, this is what we do in the [[long division]] method.

==The grid==

Location arithmetic uses a square grid where each square on the grid represents a value. Two sides of the grid are marked with
increasing powers of two. Any inner square can be identified by two numbers on these two sides, one being vertically below the inner
square and the other to its far right. The value of the square is the product of these two numbers.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+'''Example grid'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 32
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 16
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 8
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|'''32'''
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''4'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 2
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color:gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 1
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|32
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|'''8'''
| style="width:30px;"|4
| style="width:30px;"|2
| style="width:30px;"|1
|}
For instance, the square in this example grid represents 32, as it is the product of 4 on the right column and 8 from the bottom row. The grid itself can be any size, and larger grids simply permit us to handle larger numbers.

Notice that moving either one square to the left or one square up doubles the value. This property can be used to perform binary
addition using just a single row of the grid.

===Addition===
First, lay out a binary number on a row using counters to represent the 1s in the number. For example, 29 (= 11101 in binary) would be placed on the board like this:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''11101 (= 29) on one row'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
|}
The number 29 is clearly the sum of the values of the squares on which there are counters. Now overlay the second number on this row.  Say we place 9 (= 1001 in binary) on it like this.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''Overlay 1001 (= 9)'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
|}
The sum of these two numbers is just the total value represented by the counters on the board, but some of the squares have more than one counter.  Recall however, that moving to the left of a square doubles its value. So we replace two counters on a square with one counter to its left without changing the total value on the board. Note that this is the same idea used to abbreviate
location numerals. Let's start by replacing the rightmost pair of counters with a counter to its left, giving:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|←
|}
We still have another square with two counters on it, so we do it again:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|←
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
But replacing this pair created another square with two counters on it, so we replace a third time:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''Result 100110 = 38'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|←
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
|}
Now each square has just one counter, and reading off the result in binary 100110 (= 38) gives the correct result.

===Subtraction===
Subtracting is not much more complicated than addition: instead of adding counters on the board we remove them. To "borrow" a value, we replace a counter on a square with two to its right.

Let's see how we might subtract 12 from 38. First place 38 (= 100110 in binary) on a row, and then place 12 (= 1100 in binary) under it:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white; color: black;"|'''38'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| '''12'''
|}
For every counter on the lower row that has a counter above it, remove both counters. We can remove one such pair on the board,
resulting in:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
Now we need to "borrow" counters to get rid of the remaining counter on the bottom. First replace the leftmost counter on the top row with two to its right:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
Now replace one of the two counters with two more to its right, giving:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
We can now take away one of the counters on the top row with the remaining counter on the bottom row:
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''11010 = 26'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
and read off 26, the final result.

===Some properties of the grid===

Unlike addition and subtraction, the entire grid is used to multiply, divide, and extract square roots. The grid has some useful properties utilized in these operations. First, all the squares on any diagonal going from the bottom left to the top right have the same value.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|256
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 32
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|256
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="background-color: white;" | 16
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|256
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 8
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 4
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 2
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 1
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|32
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|8
| style="width:30px;"|4
| style="width:30px;"|2
| style="width:30px;"|1
|}
Since a diagonal move can be broken down into a move to the right (which halves the value) followed by a move
up (which doubles the value), the value of the square stays the same.

In conjunction with that diagonal property, there is a quick way to divide the numbers on the bottom and right edges of the grid.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''32 ÷ 8'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal half.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''32'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 16
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 8
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;background-color: gray;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="background-color: white;" | '''4'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 2
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical half.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 1
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|32
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|'''8'''
| style="width:30px;"|4
| style="width:30px;"|2
| style="width:30px;"|1
|}
To perform 32÷8, one locates the dividend 32 along the right side and the divisor 8 on the bottom edge of the grid. Extending a diagonal from the dividend to the square where it intersects a vertical line of the divisor, the quotient lies at the right end of the grid from this square, in this example 4.

This works as moving along the diagonal does not change the value; the value of the square on the intersection is still the dividend. Thus, the dividend is the product of the squares along the bottom and right edge. Since the square on the bottom edge is the divisor, the square on the right edge is the quotient.

==Multiplication==
To multiply a pair of binary numbers, first mark the two numbers
on the bottom and the right side of the grid. Say we want to
multiply 22 (= 10110) by 9 (= 1001).
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+'''10110 * 1001'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
|}
Now place counters at every "intersection" of vertical and
horizontal rows of the 1s in each number.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | 
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic vertical.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic horizontal.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
|}
Notice that each row of counters on the grid is just
22 multiplied by some
power of two. In fact, the total value of the counters is the
sum of two rows
: 22*8 + 22*1 = 22*(8+1) = 22*9
So the counters on the board actually represent the product
of the two numbers, except it is not possible to "read off" the
answer just yet.

Recall that moving counters diagonally does not change the value,
so move all the counters on inner squares diagonally until they
hit either the bottom row or the left column.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal half.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal half.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal half.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
Now we make the same moves we did for addition. Replace two counters on a square with one to its left. If the square is on the left column, replace two counters with one ''above'' it. Recall that the value of a square doubles if you move up, so this does not change the value on the grid.

Let's first replace the two counters on the second square at the bottom with one to its left which leaves two counters at the corner.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|←
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
Finally, replace the two counters on the corner with one above it
and "read off" the binary number in an L-shaped fashion, starting from
the top left down to the bottom left corner, and then over to the
bottom right.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+ '''Result 11000110'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 
| style="width:30px;"|↑
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
|}
Read the counters along the L but do not double count the corner square.
You will read the binary result 11000110 = 198 which is indeed 22*9.

Why can we read the binary number in this L-shaped fashion? The
bottom row is of course just the first six powers of two, but
notice that the leftmost column has the next five powers of
two. So we can directly read off an 11 digit binary number from
the L-shaped set of 11 squares that lie along the left and bottom
sides of the grid.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 1024
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 512
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 256
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 128
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 64
| style="width:30px;"|↓
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="background-color: white;" | 
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|→
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| 
| style="width:30px;"|32
| style="width:30px;"|16
| style="width:30px;"|8
| style="width:30px;"|4
| style="width:30px;"|2
| style="width:30px;"|1
|}
Our small 6x6 grid can only multiply numbers each up to 63, and in
general an ''n''x''n'' grid can multiply two numbers each up to
2<sup>''n''</sup>-1. This scales very fast, so board with 20 numbers per side, for
instance, can multiply numbers each up to a little over one million.

==Division==
[[Martin Gardner]] presented a slightly easier to understand
version {{ref|Gardner-86}} of Napier's division method, which is what is
shown here.

Division works pretty much the reverse of multiplication. Say we want
to divide 485 by 13. First place counters for 485 (= 111100101) along
the bottom edge and mark 13 (= 1101) along the right edge. To save
space, we'll just look at a rectangular portion of the board because
that's all we actually use.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|+'''485 ÷ 13'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
Starting from the left, the game is to move counters diagonally into
"columns of divisors" (that is, with one counter on each row marked
with a 1 from the divisor.) Let's demonstrate this with the leftmost
block of counters.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''↑'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
Now the next block of counters we might try would begin with the
leftmost counter on the bottom, and we might attempt something like
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
except that we do not have any counters that we can move diagonally from the bottom edge into squares that would form the rest of the "column of divisors".

In such cases, we instead "double down" the counter on the bottom row and form a column one over to the right. As you will soon see, it will always be possible to form a column this way. So first replace the counter on the bottom with two to its right.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
and then move one diagonally to the top of the column, and move
another counter located on the edge of the board into its spot.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|↑
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
It looks like we still do not have a counter on the bottom edge to move
diagonally into the remaining square, but notice that we can instead
double down the leftmost counter again and then move it into the
desired square.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic two counters.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
and now move one counter diagonally to where we want it.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
Let's proceed to build the next column. Once again, notice that moving the leftmost counter to the top of the column does not leave enough counters at the bottom to fill in the remaining squares.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
|}
So we double down the counter and move one diagonally into the next column over. Let's also move the rightmost counter into the column, and here is how it looks after these steps.
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|'''?'''
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic bent.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color:gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|↑
|}
We still have a missing square, but we just double down again and move
the counter into this spot and end up with
{| border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center; background-color: white; color: black;"
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''0'''
| style="width:30px;"|'''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px; background-color: gray;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic diagonal.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="background-color: white;" | '''0'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color: silver;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="background-color: white;" | '''1'''
|- style="height:30px; background-color:white; color: black;"
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|→
| style="width:30px;"|[[Image:Location arithmetic one counter.svg]]
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
| style="width:30px;"|&nbsp;
|}
At this point, the counter on the bottom edge is so far to the right
that it cannot go diagonally to the top of any column, which signals
that we are done.

The result is "read" off the columns—each column with counters is
treated as a 1 and empty columns are 0. So the result is
100101 (= 37) and the remainder is the binary value of any counters
still left along the bottom edge. There is one counter on the third
column from the right, so we read it as 100 (= 4) and we get 485
÷ 13 = 37 with a remainder 4.

==See also==
*[[Jeton]]

==References==
#{{note|Napier}}John Napier; translated by William Frank Richardson; introduction by Robin E. Rider (1990). ''Rabdology''. MIT Press. {{isbn|0-262-14046-2}}.
#{{note|Gardner-86}}Martin Gardner (1986). ''Knotted doughnuts and other mathematical entertainments''. W. H. Freeman and Company. {{isbn|0-7167-1794-8}}.

;Specific
<references />

==External links==
* [http://courses.cs.vt.edu/~cs1104/Napier/Chessboard.html Javascript simulation of Location arithmetic]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Location Arithmetic}}
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Arithmetic]]