View source for Love

{{Short description|Strong, positive emotional/mental states}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Contains special characters}}
{{Love sidebar|all}}
{{Emotion sidebar}}

'''Love''' is an emotion involving strong attraction, affection, emotional [[attachment (psychology)|attachment]] or concern for a person, animal, or thing.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book|title=Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary|year=1998|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/dkoxfordillustra0000unse/page/485/mode/1up 485]}}
|2={{cite web | title=Love Definition & Meaning | website= Merriam-Webster | date=27 Dec 1987 | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | access-date=30 Sep 2021 | archive-date=17 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517210605/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | url-status=live }}
|3={{Cite web |title=Love Definition & Meaning |url=https://www.yourdictionary.com/love |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=YourDictionary |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712162141/https://www.yourdictionary.com/love |url-status=live}} }}</ref> It is expressed in many forms, encompassing a range of strong and positive emotional and [[mental states]], from the most sublime [[virtue]], good habit, deepest [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal]] [[affection]], to the simplest pleasure.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite encyclopedia |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/love |title=Definition of ''love'' in English |dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |access-date=May 1, 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502140707/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/love |archive-date=2 May 2018 }}
|2={{cite news |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/love |title=Meaning of ''love'' in English |publisher=[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary|Cambridge English Dictionary]] |access-date=May 1, 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502141159/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/love#translations |archive-date=2 May 2018}} 
|3={{cite book | last=Karandashev | first=Victor | title=Romantic Love in Cultural Contexts | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | year=2017 | isbn=978-3-319-42681-5 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42683-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}
|4={{cite book | title=Love and Friendship Across Cultures | publisher=Springer Singapore | publication-place=Singapore | year=2021 | isbn=978-981-334-833-2 | doi=10.1007/978-981-33-4834-9 | s2cid=243232407 | editor-last1=Hongladarom | editor-last2=Joaquin | editor-first1=Soraj | editor-first2=Jeremiah Joven }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}}
|5={{cite book | last1=Treger | first1=Stanislav | last2=Sprecher | first2=Susan | last3=Hatfield | first3=Elaine C. | title=Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research | chapter=Love | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | year=2014 | doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1706 | pages=3708–3712 | isbn=978-94-007-0752-8 | quote=Love is a universal human experience.}} }}</ref> An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a [[spouse]], which differs from the love of [[food]].

Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its [[virtue]] representing [[kindness]], [[compassion]], and [[affection]]—"the unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the good of another"—and its [[vice]] representing a [[morality|moral flaw]] akin to [[vanity]], [[selfishness]], [[amour-propre]], and [[egotism]]. {{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, oneself, or animals.<ref name=Fromm>{{cite book|last=Fromm|first=Erich|title=The Art of Loving|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=1956|edition=Original English|isbn=978-0-06-095828-2}}</ref> In its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of [[interpersonal relationship]]s, and owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the [[creative arts]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Abbas|first=Azhar|date=2011-04-11|title=Just Love |url=http://www.slideshare.net/azharabbas/just-love |access-date=13 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530043739/http://www.slideshare.net/azharabbas/just-love |archive-date=30 May 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Callerame |first=Emmanuelle |date=2022-02-03 |title=An Exploration of Love in Art History |url=https://blog.artsper.com/en/a-closer-look/an-exploration-of-love-in-art-history/ |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=Artsper Magazine |language=en-GB}}</ref> Love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to [[human reproduction|facilitate the continuation of the species]].<ref name="Fisher">{{cite book|first=Helen|last=Fisher|title=Why We Love: the nature and chemistry of romantic love|year=2004|publisher=Henry Holt & Co.|isbn=978-0805069136}}</ref>

Ancient Greek philosophers identified [[Greek words for love|six forms of love]]: [[familial love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[storge]]}}), [[friendship|friendly love]] or [[platonic love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[philia]]}}), [[romance (love)|romantic love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Eros (concept)|eros]]}}), [[self-love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[philautia]]}}), [[hospitality|guest love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]}}), and divine or [[unconditional love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[agape]]}}). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: [[Love at first sight|fatuous love]], [[unrequited love]], [[empty love]], [[companionate love]], [[consummate love]], [[compassionate love]], [[Infatuation|infatuated]] love ([[passionate love]] or [[limerence]]), [[obsessive love]], [[amour de soi]], and [[courtly love]]. Numerous cultures have also distinguished {{lang|lzh-Latn|[[Ren (Confucianism)|Ren]]}}, {{lang|zh-Latn|[[Yuanfen]]}}, {{lang|yag-Latn|[[Mamihlapinatapai]]}}, {{lang|pt|[[Physical intimacy|Cafuné]]}}, {{lang|sa-Latn|[[Kama]]}}, {{lang|sa-Latn|[[Bhakti]]}}, {{lang|pi-Latn|[[Mettā]]}}, {{lang|ar-Latn|[[Ishq]]}}, {{lang|he-Latn|[[Chesed]]}}, {{lang|it|[[Cupid|Amore]]}}, [[Charity (virtue)|charity]], {{lang|pt|[[Saudade]]}} (and other [[Religious views on love|variants or symbioses of these states]]), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regard to specified "moments" currently lacking in the English language.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{Cite web|first=Adrian|last=Catron|date=2014-12-05|title=What Is Love? A Philosophy of Life|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-love-a-philosophy_b_5697322|access-date=2020-10-02|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803155921/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-love-a-philosophy_b_5697322|url-status=live}}
|2={{cite book|author-link=Liddell and Scott|author=Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert|date=1940|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dfili%2Fa|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|chapter=φιλία|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103220059/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dfili%2Fa |archive-date=3 January 2017 }}
|3={{cite book |translator-last= Mascaró |translator-first=Juan |title=The Bhagavad Gita |publisher=Penguin|series=Penguin Classics |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-14-044918-1}} }}</ref>

The [[triangular theory of love]] suggests intimacy,{{efn-lr|Intimacy is the attachment and bonding component in the triangular model. This type of relationship is associated with connection and understanding.}} passion,{{efn-lr|Passion is the drive and excitement component in the triangular model. This type of relationship is associated with romance and sexual desire.}} and commitment{{efn-lr|Commitment is the decision and continuation component in the triangular model. This type of relationship is associated with finality and the future.}} are core components of love.<ref name=":10">{{cite journal | last=Sternberg| first= R.J. |year=1986| title=A triangular theory of love| journal=Psychological Review|volume= 93 |issue=2|pages= 119–135| doi= 10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.119}}</ref> Love has additional religious or [[spiritual but not religious|spiritual]] meaning. This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states.

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==Definitions==
The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as "love"; one example is the plurality of [[Greek words for love|Greek concepts for "love"]] ({{transliteration|grc|agape}}, {{transliteration|grc|eros}}, {{transliteration|grc|philia}}, {{transliteration|grc|storge}}).<ref name=Nygren>{{cite book|author-link=Anders Nygren|last=Nygren|first=Anders Theodor Samuel|title=[[Agape and Eros]]|year=1936}}</ref> [[Cultural identity|Cultural differences]] in conceptualizing love makes it difficult to establish a universal definition.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kay|first1=Paul|title=What is the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis?|journal=American Anthropologist|series=New Series|volume=86|issue=1|date=March 1984|pages=65–79|doi=10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050|last2=Kempton|first2=Willett| issn = 0002-7294 }}</ref>

Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what is ''not'' love (antonyms of "love"). Love, as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of ''like''), is commonly contrasted with [[hate]] (or neutral [[apathy]]). As a less sexual and more [[Emotional intimacy|emotionally intimate]] form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with [[lust]]. As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with [[friendship]], although the word ''love'' is often applied to close friendships or platonic love. Further possible ambiguities come with usages like "girlfriend", "boyfriend", and "just good friends".

[[File:Columpio Veracruz 059.jpg|thumb|left|Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from {{CE|250 to 900}}, of [[Huastec civilization|Huastec]] origin). [[Xalapa Museum of Anthropology|Museum of Anthropology]] in [[Xalapa]], [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]]]] Abstractly discussed, ''love'' usually refers to a feeling one person experiences for another person. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. [[vulnerability and care theory of love]]), including oneself (cf. [[narcissism]]). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after [[Middle Ages|the Middle Ages]], although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.TrueOpenLove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html
 |title=Ancient Love Poetry
 |url-status=usurped
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072056/http://www.trueopenlove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html
 |website=TrueOpenLove
 |archive-date=30 September 2007
}}</ref>

The complex nature of love often reduces its discourse to a [[thought-terminating cliché]]. Several common [[proverb]]s regard love, from [[Virgil]]'s "[[Amor Vincit Omnia (Caravaggio)|Love conquers all]]" to [[The Beatles]]' "[[All You Need Is Love]]". [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], following [[Aristotle]], defines love as "to will the good of another."<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Aristotle]]|title=[[Nicomachean Ethics]]|at=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters/text/book-8#part-8-1 VIII]}}</ref><ref name="newadvent.org">{{cite book |title-link=Summa Theologica|last=Aquinas|first=Thomas|title=Summa Theologiae|year=1485|at=[https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2026.htm#article4 I–II, Q26, Art.4] |publisher=New Advent }}</ref> [[Bertrand Russell]] describes love as {{clarify|text=a condition of|date=August 2023}} "absolute value," as opposed to [[relative value (economics)|relative value]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirsh |first=Marvin Eli |year=2013 |title=Philosophy, Science and Value |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2250431 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2250431 |ssrn=2250431 |issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Philosopher [[Gottfried Leibniz]] said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another."<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Confessio_philosophi
|first=Gottfried
|last=Leibniz
|title=Confessio philosophi
|year=1673
|publisher=Wikisource edition
|access-date=25 March 2009
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427115126/http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Confessio_philosophi
|archive-date=27 April 2009
|url-status=live
}}</ref> [[Meher Baba]] stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love."<ref>{{cite book | last=Baba | first=Meher | author-link=Meher Baba | title=Discourses | year=1995 | isbn=978-1-880619-09-4 | location=Myrtle Beach |publisher= Sheriar Press | page=113}}</ref> Biologist [[Jeremy Griffith]] defines love as "unconditional selflessness".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.humancondition.com/book-of-answers-what-is-love/|chapter=What is love?|title=The Book of Real Answers to Everything!|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116041234/http://www.worldtransformation.com/what-is-love/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 |last=Griffith|first=Jeremy|year=2011|isbn=978-1-74129-007-3}}</ref> According to [[Ambrose Bierce]], love is a temporary insanity curable by marriage.<ref>[http://dict.org/bin/Dict?Form=Dict2&Database=devil&Query=Love "Love" entry in ''The Devil's Dictionary''] at [[Dict.org]]</ref>

== Impersonal ==
People can express love towards things other than humans; this can range from expressing a strong liking of something, such as "I love popcorn" or that something is essential to one's identity, such as "I love being an actor".<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Helm |first=Bennett |title=Love |date=2021 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/love/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |edition=Fall 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>

People can have a profound dedication and immense appreciation for an object, principle, or objective, thereby experiencing a sense of love towards it. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, [[altruism]], and strong spiritual or political convictions.{{r|Fromm}}

People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called [[paraphilia]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Paraphilia |url=http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html|website=DiscoveryHealth |access-date=16 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212105714/http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html |archive-date=12 December 2007 }}</ref>

== Interpersonal ==
{{Close Relationships|emotions}}
Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a much more potent sentiment than ''liking'' a person. [[Unrequited love]] refers to feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with [[interpersonal relationship]]s.{{r|Fromm}} Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are several psychological disorders related to love, such as [[erotomania]].

Throughout history, philosophy and religion have speculated about the phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of [[psychology]] has studied the subject. The sciences of [[anthropology]], [[neuroscience]], and biology have also added to the understanding of the concept of love.

=== Biological basis ===
{{Main|Biology of romantic love}}
[[File:Chemical basis of love.svg|thumb|Simplistic overview of chemicals implicated in love]]

Biological models tend to view romantic love as a [[mammal]]ian drive or motivation system, much like hunger or thirst.<ref name="Lewis">{{cite book | last1 = Lewis | first1 = Thomas |last2=Amini|first2= F. |last3=Lannon|first3= R. | title = A General Theory of Love | publisher = Random House | year = 2000 |isbn=978-0-375-70922-7| title-link = A General Theory of Love }}</ref><ref name="refuting">{{cite journal |last1=Langeslag |first1=Sandra |date=2024 |title=Refuting Six Misconceptions about Romantic Love |journal=Behavioral Sciences |volume=14 |issue=5 |page=383 |doi=10.3390/bs14050383 |pmc=11117554 |pmid=38785874 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{cite journal |last1=Aron |first1=Arthur |author-link=Arthur Aron |last2=Fisher |first2=Helen |author-link2=Helen Fisher (anthropologist) |last3=Mashek |first3=Debra J. |last4=Strong |first4=Greg |last5=Li |first5=Haifang |last6=Brown |first6=Lucy L. |year=2005 |title=Reward, Motivation, and Emotion Systems Associated With Early-Stage Intense Romantic Love |url=http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/94/1/327#R48 |journal=Journal of Neurophysiology |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=327–337 |doi=10.1152/jn.00838.2004 |pmid=15928068 |s2cid=396612 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[Helen Fisher (anthropologist)|Helen Fisher]], an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three brain systems which can operate independently of one another: ''lust'', ''attraction'', and ''attachment''. ''Lust'' is the feeling of [[sexual desire]]; ''attraction'' determines what partners find attractive and pursue, conserving time and energy by choosing a preferred mating partner over others; and ''attachment'' involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security.<ref name="brain systems">
{{cite journal|url=http://homepage.mac.com/helenfisher/archives_of_sex_beh.pdf |title=Defining the Brain Systems of Lust, Romantic Attraction, and Attachment |access-date=3 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628051603/http://homepage.mac.com/helenfisher/archives_of_sex_beh.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=31|number=5|year=2002|first1=Helen E.|last1=Fisher|first2=Arthur|last2=Aron|first3=Debra|last3=Mashek|first4=Haifang|last4=Li|first5=Lucy L.|last5=Brown |pages=413–419 |doi=10.1023/A:1019888024255 |pmid=12238608 |s2cid=14808862 }}</ref><ref name="fisher4">{{cite journal |last1=Fisher |first1=Helen |last2=Aron |first2=Arthur |last3=Brown |first3=Lucy |date=13 Nov 2006 |title=Romantic love: a mammalian brain system for mate choice |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]] |volume=361 |issue=1476 |pages=2173–2186 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1938 |pmc=1764845 |pmid=17118931}}</ref>

[[File:Gothaer Liebespaar.jpg|thumb|left|180px|''Pair of Lovers''. 1480–1485]]
[[Lust]] is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes [[Mating (human)|mating]], and involves the increased release of [[hormones]] such as [[testosterone]] and [[estrogen]]. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. [[Interpersonal attraction|Attraction]] is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate form. Recent studies in [[neuroscience]] have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the [[neuroendocrine|neurotransmitter hormones]] [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[serotonin]], the same compounds released by [[amphetamine]], stimulating the brain's [[pleasure center]] and leading to side effects such as increased [[heart rate]], [[Anorexia (symptom)|reduced appetite]] and [[insomnia|sleep]], and an [[euphoria|intense feeling of excitement]]. Research indicates that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.<ref name="human">{{cite book | publisher=Holt, Rinehart, & Winston | title=Holt World History: The Human Legacy | date=2008-01-01 | isbn=978-0-03-093780-4 }}</ref>

Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. [[Attachment theory|Attachment]] is the [[human bonding|bonding]] that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals [[oxytocin]] and [[vasopressin]], to a greater degree than what is found in short-term relationships.<ref name="human"/> [[Enzo Emanuele]] and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the [[nerve growth factor]] (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Emanuele|first1= E.|last2=Polliti|first2= P.|last3=Bianchi|first3= M.|last4=Minoretti|first4= P.|last5=Bertona|first5= M.|last6=Geroldi|first6= D.|year=2005|title=Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453005001976|journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology|doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.09.002|volume=31|pmid=16289361|issue=3|pages=288–294|s2cid=18497668|access-date=3 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206142641/http://www.biopsychiatry.com/lovengf.htm|archive-date=6 December 2006|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Psychological basis ===
{{Further|Human bonding}}
[[File:Sri Lankan woman and child.jpg|thumb|Grandmother and grandchild in [[Sri Lanka]]]]

[[Psychologist]] [[Robert Sternberg]] formulated a [[triangular theory of love]] in which love has three components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is when two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. Non-love does not include any of these components. Liking only includes intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion. Empty love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Consummate love includes all three components.<ref name=":10" />

American psychologist [[Zick Rubin]] sought to define ''love'' by [[psychometrics]] in the 1970s. His work identifies a different set of three factors that constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Zick|title=Measurement of Romantic Love|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=16|pages=265–273|year=1970|doi=10.1037/h0029841|pmid=5479131|issue=2|citeseerx=10.1.1.452.3207}}
|2={{cite book|last=Rubin|first=Zick|title=Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/likinglovinginvi00rubi|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston|year=1973|isbn=978-0030830037}} }}</ref>

Following developments in electrical theories such as [[Coulomb's law]], which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were envisioned, such as "opposites attract". Research on human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as [[immune system]]s, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), perhaps because this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Berscheid | first1 = Ellen | author-link1 = Ellen S. Berscheid |last2=Walster|first2= Elaine H. | title = Interpersonal Attraction | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Co | year = 1969 | lccn = 69-17443 | isbn = 978-0-201-00560-8 }}</ref>

In recent years, various [[human bonding]] theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some [[Western culture|Western]] authorities {{clarify|text=disaggregate|reason=disaggregate what?|date=August 2023}} into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of [[M. Scott Peck|Scott Peck]], whose work in the field of [[applied psychology]] explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another" and simple narcissism.<ref name="peck">{{cite book | title=The Road Less Traveled | isbn=978-0-671-25067-6 | last=Peck | first=Scott | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1978 | page=[https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_0/page/169 169] | url=https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_0/page/169 }}</ref> In combination, love is an ''activity'', not simply a feeling.

Psychologist [[Erich Fromm]] maintained in his book ''[[The Art of Loving]]'' that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.{{r|Fromm}} Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration.{{r|Fromm}} Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.{{r|Fromm}}

==== Love as a necessity ====
The extent to which love can be labelled as a necessity varies in [[psychology]]. For infants, [[attachment theory]] states that there is a need to form a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver to ensure their survival, and to develop healthy social and emotional functioning (particularly between the ages of six months and two years). As children grow, they use these attachment figures as a secure base from which to explore the world and return to for comfort.<ref name="Cassidy">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1999 |title=The Nature of a Child's Ties |encyclopedia=Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical Applications |publisher=Guilford Press |location=New York | veditors = Cassidy J, Shaver PR |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/3 3–20] |isbn=1-57230-087-6 | vauthors = Cassidy J |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofattach0000unse/page/3 }}</ref><ref name="Abrams Turner Baumann Karel 2013 pp. 149–155">{{cite book | last1=Abrams | first1=David B. | last2=Turner | first2=J. 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Bryant | last31=Harlapur | first31=Manjunath | last32=Shimbo | first32=Daichi | last33=Ohta | first33=Keisuke | last34=Yahagi | first34=Naoya | last35=Franzmann | first35=Elizabeth | last36=Singh | first36=Abanish | last37=Baumann | first37=Linda C. | last38=Karel | first38=Alyssa | last39=Johnson | first39=Debra | last40=Clarke | first40=Benjamin L. | last41=Johnson | first41=Debra | last42=Millstein | first42=Rachel | last43=Niven | first43=Karen | last44=Niven | first44=Karen | last45=Miles | first45=Eleanor | last46=Turner | first46=J. Rick | last47=Resnick | first47=Barbara | last48=Gidron | first48=Yori | last49=Lennon | first49=Carter A. | last50=DeMartini | first50=Kelly S. | last51=MacGregor | first51=Kristin L. | last52=Collins | first52=Susan E. | last53=Kirouac | first53=Megan | last54=Turner | first54=J. Rick | last55=Singh | first55=Abanish | last56=Gidron | first56=Yori | last57=Yamamoto | first57=Yoshiharu | last58=Nater | first58=Urs M. | last59=Nisly | first59=Nicole | last60=Johnson | first60=Debra | last61=Johnston | first61=Derek | last62=Zanstra | first62=Ydwine | last63=Johnston | first63=Derek | last64=Kim | first64=Youngmee | last65=Matheson | first65=Della | last66=McInroy | first66=Brooke | last67=France | first67=Christopher | last68=Fukudo | first68=Shin | last69=Tsuchiya | first69=Emiko | last70=Katayori | first70=Yoko | last71=Deschner | first71=Martin | last72=Anderson | first72=Norman B. | last73=Barrett | first73=Chad | last74=Lumley | first74=Mark A. | last75=Oberleitner | first75=Lindsay | last76=Bongard | first76=Stephan | last77=Ye | first77=Siqin | last78=Marcano-Reik | first78=Amy Jo | last79=Hurley | first79=Seth | last80=Hurley | first80=Seth | last81=Patino-Fernandez | first81=Anna Maria | last82=Phillips | first82=Anna C. | last83=Akechi | first83=Tatsuo | last84=Phillips | first84=Anna C. | last85=Marcano-Reik | first85=Amy Jo | last86=Brandt | first86=Nicole | last87=Flurie | first87=Rachel | last88=Aldred | first88=Sarah | last89=Lavoie | first89=Kim | last90=Harlapur | first90=Manjunath | last91=Shimbo | first91=Daichi | last92=Jansen | first92=Kate L. | last93=Fortenberry | first93=Katherine T. | last94=Clark | first94=Molly S. | last95=Millstein | first95=Rachel | last96=Okuyama | first96=Toru | last97=Whang | first97=William | last98=Al’Absi | first98=Mustafa | last99=Li | first99=Bingshuo | last100=Gidron | first100=Yori | last101=Turner | first101=J. Rick | last102=Pulgaron | first102=Elizabeth R. | last103=Wile | first103=Diana | last104=Baumann | first104=Linda C. | last105=Karel | first105=Alyssa | last106=Schroeder | first106=Beth | last107=Davis | first107=Mary C. | last108=Zautra | first108=Alex | last109=Stark | first109=Shannon L. | last110=Whang | first110=William | last111=Soto | first111=Ana Victoria | last112=Gidron | first112=Yori | last113=Wheeler | first113=Anthony J. | last114=DeBerard | first114=Scott | last115=Allen | first115=Josh | last116=Mitani | first116=Akihisa | last117=Mitani | first117=Akihisa | last118=Pulgaron | first118=Elizabeth R. | last119=Mitani | first119=Akihisa | last120=Carter | first120=Jennifer | last121=Whang | first121=William | last122=Schroeder | first122=Beth | last123=Hicks | first123=Angela M. | last124=Korbel | first124=Carolyn | last125=Baldwin | first125=Austin S. | last126=Spink | first126=Kevin S. | last127=Nickel | first127=Darren | last128=Richter | first128=Michael | last129=Wright | first129=Rex A. | last130=Thayer | first130=Julian F. | last131=Richter | first131=Michael | last132=Wright | first132=Rex A. | last133=Wiebe | first133=Deborah J. | title=Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine | chapter=Attachment Theory | publisher=Springer New York | publication-place=New York, NY | year=2013 | doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_939 | pages=149–155| isbn=978-1-4419-1004-2 |quote=Bowlby (1969, 1988) described an attachment as an emotional bond that is characterized by the tendency to seek out and maintain proximity to a specific attachment figure, particularly during times of distress.}}</ref>

Psychiatrist Stephanie Cacioppo states, "the need for love might be less immediate than the need to avoid danger, but it is by no means a luxury",<ref>{{Cite web |title=Are We Hard-Wired for Love? {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/am-i-right/202210/are-we-hard-wired-for-love |access-date=2025-03-16 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en-US}}</ref> vaguely placing love neither as a complete need or want, but in between. Professor Ingrid V. Albrecht suggests that "love participates in a unique form of practical necessity, different from both moral and psychological necessity, yet bearing resemblances to each." It is further described as "an engagement with a person as essentially particular, rather than as an instance of a rational agent in general." Ingrid's view suggests that morality or rationality are not the limiting factors of love, but that love is its own distinct need independent of those factors.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Albrecht |first=Ingrid |title=Love, self-constitution, and practical necessity |date=2013-02-03 |publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign |url=https://www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/42234}}</ref>

Psychologist [[Abraham Maslow]] places love as a basic and foundational human [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|need]].<ref name="Geher">{{cite web |last= Geher |first= Glenn |date= 27 May 2022 |title= The Psychology of Feeling Unloved |url= https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/darwins-subterranean-world/202205/the-psychology-of-feeling-unloved |website= Psychology Today |access-date= 2 July 2025}}</ref> In his model, love is a [[drive theory|driving factor]] of [[human behavior]] that a person necessitates to fulfill their psychological needs. For many people, it is usually prioritized after one's physiological and safety needs are met.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H.|year=1943 |title=A theory of human motivation|journal=Psychological Review| volume=50| issue=4| pages=370–396|via=psychclassics.yorku.ca|url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|doi=10.1037/h0054346|hdl=10983/23610|citeseerx=10.1.1.334.7586 |access-date=March 13, 2007|archive-date=September 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914183817/http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Maslow/motivation.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maslow |first=Abraham H. |url=https://archive.org/details/motivationperson00masl_0 |title=Motivation and personality |publisher=Harper |year=1954 |isbn=978-0-06-041987-5 |location=New York, NY |url-access=registration}}</ref>

===Evolutionary basis===
[[File:Place des Abbesse (the plaque with the je t'aime=te iubesc in 311 laguages).jpg|thumb|''[[Wall of Love]]'' on [[Montmartre]] in Paris: "I love you" in 250 languages, by calligraphist Fédéric Baron and artist Claire Kito (2000)]]

{{main|Sexual selection}}
[[Evolutionary psychology]] has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as early as [[Charles Darwin]] identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credited love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Another factor may be that [[sexually transmitted disease]]s can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced [[fertility]], injury to the fetus, and increase complications during [[childbirth]]. This would favor monogamous relationships over [[polygamy]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|editor-first=David M.|editor-last=Buss|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2005|chapter=Commitment, Love, and Mate Retention|first1=Lorne|last1=Campbell|first2=Bruce J.|last2=Ellis}}</ref>

===Adaptive benefit===
Interpersonal love between a man and woman provides an evolutionary adaptive benefit since it facilitates mating and [[sexual reproduction]].<ref name = Michod1989>{{cite journal|last=Michod|first=Richard E.|title=What's love got to do with it? The solution to one of evolution's greatest riddles|journal=The Sciences|year=1989|pages=22–27|doi=10.1002/j.2326-1951.1989.tb02156.x}}</ref> However, some organisms can reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] without mating. Understanding the adaptive benefit of interpersonal love depends on understanding the adaptive benefit of sexual reproduction as opposed to asexual reproduction. Richard Michod reviewed evidence that love, and consequently sexual reproduction, provides two major adaptive advantages.{{r|Michod1989}} First, sexual reproduction facilitates [[DNA repair|repair of damages in the DNA]] that is passed from parent to progeny (during [[origin and function of meiosis|meiosis]], a key stage of the sexual process). Second, a gene in either parent may contain a harmful [[mutation]], but in the progeny produced by sexual reproduction, expression of a harmful mutation introduced by one parent is likely to be masked by expression of the unaffected homologous gene from the other parent.{{r|Michod1989}}

===Comparison of scientific models===
Biological models tend to view romantic love as a [[mammal]]ian drive or motivation system, much like hunger or thirst.<ref name="Lewis"/><ref name="refuting" /><ref name=":20" /> Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Love is influenced by [[hormone]]s (such as [[oxytocin]]), [[neurotrophins]] (such as [[nerve growth factor|NGF]]), and [[pheromone]]s, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in [[biology]] is that there are two major drives in love: [[sexual attraction]] and [[attachment theory|attachment]]. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of [[companionate love]] and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by [[physiological arousal]] (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.

===Health===
Love plays a role in human well-being and health.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |title=Love as the Original Source of Strength for Life and Health |last1=Hemberg |first1=Jessica |last2=Eriksson | first2=Katie |last3=Nystrom |first3=Lisbet |date=2017 |journal=International Journal of Caring Sciences |volume=10 |issue=2 |s2cid=45264075 }}</ref> Engaging in activities associated with love, such as nurturing relationships, has been shown to activate key brain regions responsible for emotion, attention, motivation, and memory. These activities also contribute to the regulation of the [[autonomic nervous system]], leading to stress reduction over time, although the initial stages of love may induce stress.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last1=Esch |first1=Tobias |last2=Stefano |first2=George B. |date=June 2005 |title=Love promotes health |journal=Neuro Endocrinology Letters |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=264–267 |issn=0172-780X |pmid=15990734}}</ref> Love's social bonds enhance both physical and mental health, fostering resilience, compassion, and closeness. It boosts immune function and promotes healing, while also encouraging positive motivations and behaviors for individual flourishing and survival.<ref name=":6" /> Breakups can evoke a range of emotional states, including distrust, rejection, and anger, leading to trauma and various psychological challenges such as anxiety, social withdrawal, and even love addiction. Individuals may become fixated on past relationships, perpetuating emotional distress akin to addiction.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Timmreck |first=Thomas C. |date=April 1990 |title=Overcoming the Loss of a Love: Preventing Love Addiction and Promoting Positive Emotional Health |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1990.66.2.515 |journal=Psychological Reports |language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=515–528 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1990.66.2.515 |pmid=2190254 |issn=0033-2941|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Health benefits grow bigger when married couples are older, this is because the partners play a crucial role in promoting each other's well-being.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rauer |first1=Amy J. |last2=Sabey |first2=Allen |last3=Jensen |first3=Jakob F. |date=August 2014 |title=Growing old together: Compassionate love and health in older adulthood |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407513503596 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=677–696 |doi=10.1177/0265407513503596 |issn=0265-4075|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Feeling unloved stunts human health in aspects such as growth and happiness.<ref name="Geher"/>

==Cultural views==
===Ancient Greek===
{{See also|Greek words for love}}
[[File:Eros bow Musei Capitolini MC410.jpg|thumb|Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by [[Lysippus]] depicting [[Eros]], the Greek personification of romantic love]]
[[Greek language|Greek]] distinguishes [[Greek words for love|several different senses]] in which the word "love" is used. Ancient Greeks identified three main forms of love: [[friendship]] or [[platonic love|platonic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[philia]]}}), sexual or [[romance (love)|romantic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[eros (concept)|eros]]}}), and [[Kenosis|self-emptying]] or divine love ({{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}).<ref name=":0" /> Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.<ref>[[Stendhal]], in his book ''On Love'' ("De l'amour"; Paris, 1822), distinguished carnal love, passionate love, a kind of uncommitted love that he called "taste-love", and love of vanity. [[Denis de Rougemont]] in his book ''Love in the Western World'' traced the story of passionate love ({{lang|fr|l'amour-passion}}) from its courtly to its romantic forms. [[Benjamin Péret]], in the introduction to his ''Anthology of Sublime Love'' (Paris, 1956), further identified "sublime love", a state of realized idealisation perhaps equatable with the romantic form of passionate love.</ref>

;''[[Agapē|Agape]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἀγάπη}} {{transliteration|grc|agápē}})
: ''Agape'', often a Christian term, denotes a form of love that stands apart from the conventional understanding of affection. Rooted in theological discourse, ''agape'' represents a love that is characterized by its spontaneous nature and its independence from the inherent value of its object. Originating from the Greek term for "love", ''agape'' has been examined within theological scholarship, particularly in contrast to ''eros.'' In the Christian tradition, agape is often attributed to the love of God for humanity, as well as humanity's reciprocal love for God and for one another, often termed as brotherly love. ''Agape'' is considered to be unmerited and unmotivated by any inherent worthiness in its recipient. Instead, it is portrayed as an expression of the nature of God, exemplifying divine love that transcends human comprehension.<ref name=":0" />

;''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἔρως}} {{transliteration|grc|érōs}})
: ''Eros'' originally referred to a passionate desire, often synonymous with sexual passion, reflecting an egocentric nature. However, its modern interpretation portrays it as both selfish and responsive to the merits of the beloved, thus contingent on reasons. Plato, in his ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', argued that sexual desire, fixated on physical beauty, is inadequate and should evolve into an appreciation of the beauty of the soul, culminating in an appreciation of the form of beauty itself.<ref name=":0" /> In Greek mythology, [[Eros]] symbolizes the state of being in love, extending beyond mere physical sexuality (referred to as "Venus"). Unrestrained Venus can reduce individuals to mere appetite, but when Eros is present, the focus shifts to the beloved, elevating intimacy beyond physical gratification. Eros is depicted as divine yet potentially dangerous, capable of inspiring both altruism and selfishness.{{r|Nygren}}

;''[[Philia]]'' ({{lang|grc|φιλία}} {{transliteration|grc|philía}})
: ''Philia'' originally describing an affectionate regard or friendly feeling, extended to relationships like friendship, family members, business partners, and one's nation. Similar to ''eros'', ''philia'' is often seen as responsive to positive attributes in the beloved. This similarity has led scholars to think whether the primary difference between romantic ''eros'' and ''philia'' lies solely in the sexual dimension of the former. The distinction between the two becomes more complex with attempts from scholars to diminish the importance of the sexual aspect in eros, contributing to a nuanced understanding of these forms of love.<ref name=":0" /> ''Philia'' was articulated by Aristotle in his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]].'' Aristotle suggests that ''philia'' can be motivated by considerations for either one's own benefit or the benefit of the other. ''Philia'' often arises from the utility found in the relationship or from admiration for the character or virtues of the other individual. Aristotle further elucidates that the foundation of philia rests on objective grounds; individuals must share similar dispositions, refrain from holding grudges, and embody qualities such as justice, among others.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philosophy of Love {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/love/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Ancient Roman===
In Latin, friendship was distinctly termed ''amicitia,'' while ''amor'' encompassed erotic passion, familial attachment, and, albeit less commonly, the affection between friends. [[Cicero]], in his essay ''[[On Friendship]]'' reflects on the innate human tendency to both love oneself and seek out another with whom to intertwine minds, nearly blending them into a singular entity. This suggests that while friends remain distinct individuals, they also, in some sense, become intertwined, embodying a shared essence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Konstan |first=David |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12383 |title=In the Orbit of Love |date=2018-07-19 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-088787-2 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190887872.001.0001}}</ref>

[[Lucretius]] perceives love as a disruptive and irrational force, leading to madness and despair. To him, it is an affliction distorting reality, a primal urge rooted in the biological need for species to propagate. He emphasizes love's futility and self-destructive nature. In contrast, [[Ovid]] acknowledges the pleasure of love alongside its risks and complexities. He views love as a game of manipulation and deception, marked by a blend of [[hedonism]] and [[Cynicism (contemporary)|cynicism]]. Ovid recognizes the transient nature of passion and the inevitable disappointment in romantic relationships.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Singer |first=Irving |date=1965 |title=Love in Ovid and Lucretius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3849704 |journal=The Hudson Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=537–559 |doi=10.2307/3849704 |jstor=3849704 |issn=0018-702X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Chinese<span class="anchor" id="China"></span>===
[[File:Love-zh.svg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|{{zhi|c=愛|p=ài}}, the traditional [[Chinese character]] for love, contains a [[heart]] ({{lang|zh|心}}) in the middle.]]

''[[Ren (philosophy)|Ren]]'' ({{lang-zh|c=仁}}), a concept in [[Confucianism]] philosophy, embodies the essence of humanity and virtue. It is regarded as the sum of all virtues within a person, encompassing traits such as selflessness and self-cultivation. Ren emphasizes the cultivation of harmonious relationships within society, starting from the family unit and extending outward. Within Confucianism, these relationships are delineated by five main categories: father-son, older brother-younger brother, husband-wife, older friend-younger friend, and lord-servant.  In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as [[filial piety]] from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Havens |first=Timothy |date=2013 |title=Confucianism as Humanism |url=https://uca.edu/cahss/files/2020/07/Confucianism-as-Humanism.pdf |journal=CLA Journal}}</ref>

Central to the concept of ''ren'' is the notion of reciprocity and empathetic understanding. It is often interpreted as akin to love ({{zhi|c=愛|p=ài}}), but sometimes it also considered a stage between ''ai'' and ''[[Ling (Chinese religion)|ling]]'', characterized by the sincere and open-hearted expression of human feelings. Through genuine love for others, individuals cultivate ''ren'' and foster deeper connections that bridge the gap between the human and the divine. ''Ren''{{'}}s significance lies in its ability to foster genuine human connection and empathy, laying the foundation for harmonious relationships within society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Huaiyu |last2=王懷聿 |date=2012 |title="Ren" and "Gantong": Openness of Heart and the Root of Confucianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41684476 |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=463–504 |doi=10.1353/pew.2012.0067 |jstor=41684476 |issn=0031-8221|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, articulated a philosophy centered on the principle of universal love. At the core of his teachings lay the belief that genuine harmony and societal well-being could only be achieved through love for others, transcending narrow self-interest. Mozi contended that universal love was not merely an abstract concept but a practical imperative, requiring individuals to actively promote the welfare of all members of society through their actions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yuxi (Candice) |date=2016-04-28 |title=Mozi: Universal Love and Human Agency |url=https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cclura_2016/1 |journal=2016 Claremont Colleges Library Undergraduate Research Award}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Cotesta |first=Vittorio |title=The Heavens and the Earth: Graeco-Roman, Ancient Chinese, and Mediaeval Islamic Images of the World |date=2021 |url=https://brill.com/display/title/33819 |access-date=2024-04-25 |publisher=Brill  |isbn=978-90-04-46472-8}}</ref>

In Mozi's philosophical framework, universal love was not only a moral obligation but also a divine principle originating from Heaven itself. He argued that this principle was exemplified through the actions of sage-kings from ancient times, who demonstrated how love could manifest in tangible ways within human interactions. Mozi's advocacy for universal love extended beyond interpersonal relationships; he believed it should guide the selection of rulers and the structuring of society, emphasizing reciprocity and egalitarianism as foundational principles for a harmonious social order.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

In [[Taoism]], the concept of ''ci'' ({{lang|zh|慈}}) embodies compassion or love, with connotations of tender nurturing akin to a mother's care. It emphasizes the idea that creatures can only thrive through raising and nurturing. ''Ci'' serves as the wellspring of compassion or love that transcends preconceived notions of individuals, instead fostering compassion for people as they are. As depicted in the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', love is as open and responsive to each person's unique circumstances. Taoism juxtaposes human beings with the vastness of nature, likening the creation of people to the formation of waves in the ocean. Unlike Confucianism, Taoist responses to the loss of a loved one as portrayed in the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' may involve either mourning their death or embracing the loss and finding joy in new creations. Taoist love seeks connections that surpass distinctions and superficial reflections.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315645209/routledge-handbook-love-philosophy-adrienne-martin |title=The Routledge Handbook of Love in Philosophy |date=2018-12-21 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-64520-9 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Adrienne M. |location=New York |doi=10.4324/9781315645209}}</ref>

===Japanese===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Ohatsu and Tokube statue at Tsuyunoten Shrine.jpg|right|thumb|Ohatsu and Tokubei, characters of ''[[Sonezaki Shinjū]]'']] -->
The [[Japanese language]] uses three words to convey the English equivalent of love — {{Nihongo|''ai''|愛}}, {{Nihongo|''koi''|恋 or 孤悲}} and {{Nihongo|''ren'ai''|恋愛}}. The term ''ai'' carries a multiple meanings, encompassing feelings of feelings from superior to inferiors, compassion and empathy towards others and selfless love, originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious context. Initially synonymous with ''koi'', representing romantic love between a man and a woman, emphasizing its physical expression, ''ai'' underwent a transformation during the early [[Meiji era]]. It evolved into a euphemistic term for {{Nihongo|renbo|恋慕}} or love attachment, signifying a shift towards a more egalitarian treatment and consideration of others as equals. Prior to Western influence, the term ''koi'' generally represented romantic love. {{transliteration|ja|Koi}} describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting. The term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire. The fusion of ''ai'' and ''koi'' gave rise to the modern term ''ren'ai''; its usage more closely resembles that of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} in the form of romantic love.<ref name="Ryang2006">{{cite book |last1=Ryang |first1=Sonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ |title=Love in Modern Japan: Its Estrangement from Self, Sex and Society |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-135-98863-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]–14 |access-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |archive-date=11 July 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Gary B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfPIZCIfGIAC&dq=japan+love+ai+koi+ren'ai+&pg=PA131 |title=Languages of Sentiment: Cultural constructions of emotional substrates |last2=Occhi |first2=Debra J. |date=1999-12-15 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-9995-6 |language=en}}</ref>

The concept {{Nihongo|''amae''|甘え}}, the dependency and emotional bonds between an infant and its mother—a bond that lays the foundation for the archetypal concept of love. Japanese culture traditionally distinguishes between marriage and love, valuing practical considerations and complementarity within family units.<ref name=":3" />

===Indian===
[[File:Radha Madhavam.jpg|thumb|left|The love stories of the Hindu deities [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]] have influenced the Indian culture and arts. Above: Radha Madhavam by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]]
In [[ancient India]], there was an understanding of erotics and the art of love. References in the [[Rigveda]] suggest the presence of romantic narratives in ancient Indo-Aryan society, evident in dialogues between deities like [[Yama]] and [[Yami]], and [[Pururavas]] and [[Urvashi]]. The [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]], offered various terms to convey the concept of love, such as ''kama,'' ''sneha, priya, vatsalya,'' ''bhakti'', ''priti'' and ''prema''.<ref name=":4" />

In Indian literature, there are seven stages of love. The first is ''preska'', characterized by the desire to see something pleasant. Next is ''abhilasa,'' involving constant thoughts about the beloved. Then comes ''raga,'' signifying the mental inclination to be united with the beloved. Following that is ''shena'', which involves favorable activities directed towards the beloved. ''Prema'' is the stage where one cannot live without the beloved. Then there is ''rati'', which involves living together with the beloved. Finally, ''srngara'' represents the playful interaction with the beloved.<ref name=":4" />

''Kama'' initially representing desire and longing. Later, [[Vātsyāyana]], the author of the [[Kama Sutra]], explored the concept of ''kama'', defining it as the enjoyment of sensory pleasures with conscious awareness. However, there were also teachings cautioning against becoming overly attached to desire, advocating for the pursuit of genuine happiness through transcending desires. The [[Atharvaveda]],  presents ''kama'' as the tender affection between partners.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Hara |first=Minoru |date=2007 |title=Words for love in Sanskrit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41913379 |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali|volume=80 |issue=1/4 |pages=81–106 |jstor=41913379 }}</ref>

Nevertheless, ''kama'' is also often associated with insatiable sexual desire intertwined with intense emotions like anger and greed, portraying it as potentially harmful. Over time, ''kama'' took on [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] qualities, evolving into the figure of the Indian Cupid.<ref name=":4" />

''Sneha'', considered the emotional facet of love, stands in contrast to the intense passion of ''kama'' with its calm demeanor. Characterized by moisture and viscosity, the term originally denoted oiliness. It is often compounded with words for family members, reflecting attachment to individuals like mothers, fathers, and sons. Those experiencing ''sneha'' tend to exhibit great concern for one another. While traditionally attributed to sensing, the [[Harshacharita]] presents a spontaneous perspective, suggesting it lacks a definitive cause. Due to its emotional nature, ''sneha'' is transient, emerging without reason and disappearing likewise.<ref name=":4" />

''Preman'' represents a heightened stage in the development of love, characterized by the unbearable feeling of separation from the beloved. Etymologically, it denotes the sense of endearment akin to one's own. ''Priti'', similar to ''preman'', denotes fondness for anything delightful and familiar. It encompasses a general liking for arts, sports, and objects, while also encompassing a human instinct. ''Priti'' is built on foundations of trust and fidelity. Friendly relations (''priti'') may persist between individuals but are not necessarily bound by affection (''sneha'').<ref name=":4" />

''Vatsalya'' originally signifies the tender affection exhibited by a cow towards her calf, extending to denote the love nurtured by elders or superiors towards the younger or inferior. This love is exemplified in the affection of parents towards their children, a husband's care for his wife, or a ruler's concern for their subjects. Conversely, ''bhakti'' denotes the love expressed by the younger towards the seniors, exemplified in a child's devotion to their parents.<ref name=":4" />{{clear}}

===Persian===
Interpretations of [[Rumi|Rumi's]] poetry and [[Sufi cosmology]] by scholars emphasize a divine-centric perspective, focusing on the transcendent nature of love. These interpretations emphasize Rumi's rejection of mortal attachments in favor of a love for the ultimate beloved, seen as embodying absolute beauty and grandeur. Scholars like [[William Chittick]] assert that all love stems from the divine, with God being both lover and beloved. [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]] characterizes Rumi's poetry as part of a mystical tradition that celebrates love as pathways to union with the divine, highlighting a transcendent experience.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Vali-Zadeh |first=Mahdieh |date=2022-06-02 |title=Agency of the Self and the Uncertain Nature of the Beloved in Persian Love Mysticism: Earthly, Ethereal, Masculine, or Feminine? |url=https://jurnalfuf.uinsa.ac.id/index.php/teosofi/article/view/1868 |journal=Teosofi: Jurnal Tasawuf Dan Pemikiran Islam |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–42 |doi=10.15642/teosofi.2022.12.1.22-42 |issn=2442-871X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
{{quote box
| author = [[Saadi (poet)|Sa'di]]
| salign = right
| source = ''[[Gulistan (book)|Gulistan]]''{{space|3}}
| quote = <poem>The children of Adam are limbs of one body
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man".</poem>
}}
In [[Persian mysticism]], the concept of creation stems from love, viewed as the fundamental essence from which all beings originate and to which they ultimately return. This notion, influenced by [[neoplatonism]], portrays love as both earthly and transcendent, embodying a universal striving for reunion with the divine. Scholars such as [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob]] trace this philosophical stance, highlighting its fusion with ancient Persian religious beliefs in figures like [[Ibn Arabi]]. According to Islamicists like [[William Chittick]] and [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]], all forms of love find their origin in divine love, with creation serving as a reflection of God's beauty and love. This perspective is evident in the poetry of [[Hafez]] and others, where the concept of [[tajalli]], or divine self-manifestation, underscores the profound spiritual significance of love as it pertains to both human relationships and devotion to God.<ref name=":5" />

==Religious views==
{{main|Religious views on love}}

Until the 18th century, the concept of love in relationships had been largely based on the former principles of God. Authors of the high Middle Ages emphasized using God to help guide those of authority in relationships. As a result, consequences were seen as in accordance to divine order, "for the ruler's right to punish was directly derived from the obligation of love towards the subject."<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last=Jarzebowski |first=C. |date=2015 |title=Love. In F. Jaeger (ed.) |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_023397 |doi=10.1163/2352-0272_emho_COM_023397 |url-access=subscription |website=Encyclopedia of Early Modern History Online. Brill.}}</ref>

===Abrahamic===
[[File:Ahava.jpg|thumb|[[Robert Indiana]]'s 1977 [[Love (sculpture)|''Love'' sculpture]] spelling {{transliteration|he|ahava}}]]

====Judaism====
{{see also|Jewish views on love}}
In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], {{lang|he|אהבה}} (''ahavah'') signifies the love of Israelites for God and each other. However, the concept ''hesed'' offers a deeper understanding of love within Jewish thought and life. It goes beyond mere passion, embodying a character trait that is actively expressed through generosity and grace. ''Hesed'' has a dual nature: when attributed to God, it denotes grace or favor, while when practiced by humans, it reflects piety and devotion.<ref name=":8" />{{Page needed|date=August 2024}}

''Hasidim'', demonstrate their commitment and love for God through acts of ''hesed''. The [[Torah]] serves as a guide, outlining how Israelites should express their love for God, show reverence for nature, and demonstrate compassion toward fellow human beings.<ref name=":8" /> The commandment "Love thy neighbor as thyself" from the Torah's, gives emphasis on ethical obligations and impartiality in judgment. It highlights the importance of treating all individuals equally before the law, rejecting favoritism and bribery; [[deuteronomy]] further emphasizes impartiality in judgment.<ref>Goodman, Lenn Evan. ''Love Thy Neighbor as Thyself''. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008, 13.</ref>

As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" ([[Ecclesiastes]] {{Bibleverse|Ecclesiastes|9:9|nobook=yes}}). Rabbi [[David Wolpe]] writes that "love is not only about the feelings of the lover... It is when one person believes in another person and shows it." He further states that "love... is a feeling that expresses itself in action. What we really feel is reflected in what we do."<ref>{{cite web |last=Wolpe |first=David |url=https://time.com/4225777/meaning-of-love/ |title=We Are Defining Love the Wrong Way |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=February 16, 2016 |access-date=February 14, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226085614/http://time.com/4225777/meaning-of-love/ |archive-date=26 February 2019 }}</ref> The biblical book [[Song of Solomon]] is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between [[God]] and his people, but in its plain reading it reads like a love song. The 20th-century [[rabbi]] [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]] is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take".<ref>{{cite book | last=Dessler | first=Eliyahu | chapter=Kuntres ha-Chesed | title=Michtav me-Eliyahu | language=he | volume=1}}</ref>

====Christianity====
{{multiple image
 | width = 150
 | image1 = Universal Love Bible Wagon.jpg
 | image2 = Las Vegas Gay Pride Parade 2010 - God loves everyone (cropped).jpg
 | footer = Images highlighting the universality of God's love
}}
[[File:Liebe und die Einbahnstraße - Lange Straße in Sebnitz - Bildimpression aus Sebnitz von einem Fotografen.jpg|thumb|Love and the One-way Street]]
The Christian understanding is that love comes from [[God]], who is himself love ({{Bibleverse|1 John|4:8}}). The love of man and woman—{{transliteration|grc|eros}} in Greek—and the unselfish love of others ({{transliteration|grc|agape}}), are often contrasted as "descending" and "ascending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.<ref name="vatican1">{{cite web
|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est.html
|author=Pope Benedict XVI
|title=papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est
|access-date=11 June 2008
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008152102/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html
|archive-date=8 October 2011
|url-status=live
}}</ref> In ancient Christianity, the concept of ''caritas'' became a prominent topic, advocating love for one’s neighbor as the likeness of God (Augustine, ''De civitate Dei'').<ref name=":11" />

There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
; {{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}: In the [[New Testament]], {{transliteration|grc|agapē}} is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.{{r|Nygren}}
; {{transliteration|grc|[[phileo]]}}: Also used in the New Testament, {{transliteration|grc|phileo}} is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
Two other [[#Ancient Greek|words for love in the Greek language]], {{transliteration|grc|[[Eros (love)|eros]]}} (sexual love) and {{transliteration|grc|[[storge]]}} (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.{{r|Nygren}}

[[Christianity|Christians]] believe that to ''love God with all your heart, mind, and strength'' and ''love your [[neighbourhood|neighbor]] as yourself'' are the two most important things in life (the [[Great Commandment|greatest commandment]] of the Jewish [[Torah]], according to [[Jesus]]; cf. [[Gospel of Mark]] {{Bibleverse|Mark|12:28–34|nobook=yes}}). [[Saint Augustine]] summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."<ref>{{citation|author=[[Augustine of Hippo]]|chapter=Homily 7 on the First Epistle of John|title=Homilies on First John|chapter-url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/170207.htm|publisher=New Advent|at=8|translator-first=H.|translator-last=Browne}}</ref>

The Old Testament is said to place greater emphasis on "the active character of love" than the New, which shifts its focus to the love of God "as a principle pervading the world". Out of the three divine virtues (faith, hope, and love) in Christianity, it is said that love has the highest status (1 Cor 13,13).<ref name=":11" /> [[Paul the Apostle]] similarly glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]], he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." ({{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|13:4–7|NIV}})

[[John the Apostle]] wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him." ([[Gospel of John|John]] {{bibleverse|John|3:16–17|niv|nobook=yes}}) John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." ({{bibleverse|1 John|4:7–8|NIV}})

Augustine wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, "I was in love with love."{{citation needed|date=August 2023}} Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God because love with a human only allows for flaws such as "jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention."<ref name=Confessions>{{cite book|author=[[Augustine of Hippo]]|title=[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]}}</ref>{{rp|at=III.1}} According to Augustine, to love God is "to attain the peace which is yours."{{r|Confessions|at=X.27}}

Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}} as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of ''[[De Doctrina Christiana]]'' (1.22.21–1.40.44).<ref>{{cite journal | last=Woo | first=B. Hoon | title=Augustine's Hermeneutics and Homiletics in ''De doctrina christiana'' | journal=Journal of Christian Philosophy | year=2013 | volume=17 | url=https://www.academia.edu/5228314 | pages=97–117 | access-date=24 March 2014 | archive-date=26 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032901/https://www.academia.edu/5228314 | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Christian theologians]] see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian [[C. S. Lewis]] wrote a book called ''[[The Four Loves]]''. [[Benedict XVI]] named his first [[encyclical]] ''[[Deus caritas est|God is love]]''. He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others ({{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation ({{transliteration|grc|eros}}). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as [[Mother Teresa]] and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.<ref name="vatican1"/> Teresa described feeling unloved as "the most terrible poverty".<ref>{{cite web |date= 5 September 2017 |title= 'Give until it hurts': The Christian wisdom of Mother Teresa in 9 quotes |url= https://www.christiantoday.com/news/give-until-it-hurts-the-christian-wisdom-of-mother-teresa-in-9-quotes |website= Christian Today |access-date= 2 July 2025}}</ref>

[[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|upright|Pope Francis: the "Cross ([[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus crucified]]) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love".<ref name=McLellan>{{cite web|last=McLellan|first=Justin|url=https://www.usccb.org/news/2023/do-you-cry-pope-asks-800000-young-people-wyd-so-does-jesus-he-says|title='Do you cry?' pope asks 800,000 young people at WYD; so does Jesus, he says|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref>]]
[[Pope Francis]] asserts that the "Cross ([[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus crucified]]) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love,"{{r|McLellan}} and in the crucifixion is found everything, all knowledge and the entirety of God's love.<ref>{{cite web|first=Hannah|last=Brockhaus|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/44277/pope-francis-the-entirety-of-gods-love-is-found-in-the-crucifix|date=22 April 2020|title=Pope Francis: The entirety of God's love is found in the crucifix|access-date=9 August 2023}}</ref> Pope Francis taught that "True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved... what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God."<ref>{{cite web|author=[[Pope Francis]]|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/january/documents/papa-francesco_20150118_srilanka-filippine-incontro-giovani.html|location=Manila|title=Meeting with the young people in the sports field of Santo Tomas University|date=18 January 2015|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223111444/http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/january/documents/papa-francesco_20150118_srilanka-filippine-incontro-giovani.html|archive-date=23 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, "the key to love... is not our activity. It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God's."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/82535/the-key-to-love-according-to-pope-francis|title=The key to love according to Pope Francis|first=Raul|last=Nidoy|date=13 February 2015|access-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224115656/http://opinion.inquirer.net/82535/the-key-to-love-according-to-pope-francis|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarized by [[Thomas Aquinas]], who defined love as "to will the good of another," or to desire for another to succeed.{{r|newadvent.org}} This is an explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. Thomas Aquinas explains that Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people.

Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew:

{{blockquote|You have heard that it was said, "Love your neighbor and hate your enemy." But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.|{{bibleverse|Matthew|5:43–48}} }}

[[Tertullian]] wrote regarding love for enemies: "Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among Christians."<ref>{{citation|author=Tertulliam|title=Ad Scapulam|url=https://www.tertullian.org/works/ad_scapulam.htm|volume=I}}</ref>

====Islam====
[[File:الودود.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Al-Wadūd or The Loving is a name of God in Islam.|In Islam, one of the 99 names of God is {{Nowrap|''Al-Wadūd''}}, which means "The Loving".]]
Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. Among the 99 names of God ([[Allah]]) is the name ''Al-Wadud'', or "the Loving One," which is found in [[Surah]] {{qref|11|90|pl=y}} and {{qref|85|14|pl=y}}. God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur'an as ''Ar-Rahman'' and ''Ar-Rahim'', or the "Most Compassionate" and the "Most Merciful", indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate, and benevolent than God. The [[Qur'an]] refers to God as being "full of loving kindness."

The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat {{clarify|text=all people, those who have not persecuted them|reason=which is it?|date=August 2023}}, with {{transliteration|ar|birr}} or "deep kindness" as stated in Surah {{qref|6|8-9|pl=y}}. {{transliteration|ar|Birr}} is also used by the Qur'an to describe the love and kindness that children must show to their parents.

{{transliteration|ar|[[Ishq]]}}, or divine love, is emphasized by [[Sufism]] in the Islamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God into the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewisohn|first=Leonard|title=Cambridge Companions to Religion|year=2014|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=150–180}}</ref> God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms—Lover, Loved, and Beloved—with the last of these terms often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can return to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their [[love of God]]; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.

====Bahá'í Faith====
The Bahá'í concept of the human soul emphasizes its expression through capacities such as knowledge, love, and will. According to Bahá'í teachings, conscious recognition of one's Creator and a reciprocal love relationship with that Creator form the basis of obedience to religious law. This perspective grounds adherence to law within the spiritual dynamics of each individual's journey, portraying obedience as a conscious choice driven by love rather than as mere compliance with external dictates.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Danesh |first=Roshan |date=2014-06-01 |title=Some Reflections on the Concept of Law in the Bahá'í Faith |url=https://journal.bahaistudies.ca/online/article/view/161 |journal=The Journal of Bahá'í Studies |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1–2 |pages=27–46 |doi=10.31581/jbs-24.1-2.3(2014) |issn=2563-755X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Baháʼu'lláh]], the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, emphasizes the importance of observing God's commandments out of love, describing them as "the lamps of My loving providence" and urging followers to adhere to them for "the love of My beauty." This framing positions love as the motive force for individuals striving to follow divine laws.<ref name=":9" /> In Bahá'í understanding, love is considered the fundamental universal law. [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]], Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor, describes love as the "most great law" and the force that binds together the diverse elements of the material world. He further asserts that love is the establisher of true civilization and the source of glory for every race and nation.<ref name=":9" />

From the Bahá'í perspective, God's revelation of laws to humanity is an act of love, and the legitimate reason for their application and adherence lies in their expression of love. This understanding underscores the intimate connection between spiritual principles, individual growth, and the practice of religious law within the Bahá'í Faith.<ref name=":9" />

===Dharmic===
====Buddhism====
In [[Buddhism]], love is understood as a selfless, universal quality that serves as the foundation for compassion, joy in others' happiness, and [[equanimity]]. Together, these four qualities—loving-kindness (''[[maitrī]]''), compassion (''[[karuṇā]]''), sympathetic joy (''[[mudita]]''), and equanimity (''[[upekṣā]]'')—are known as the [[brahmavihara]]. Loving-kindness, the first of the four, fosters goodwill toward all beings and leads naturally to compassion for those who suffer, joy in others' achievements, and, ultimately, to equanimity, a balanced state free from attachment and aversion. This progression helps practitioners to reduce negative tendencies like ill-will, jealousy, and possessiveness, with the ultimate aim of cultivating inner peace and a compassionate view toward all beings, supporting both personal growth and societal harmony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Piyapanyawong |first=Anchalee |date=2018-03-29 |title=An Analysis of Love Development in Buddhism |url=https://journal.oas.psu.ac.th/index.php/asj/article/view/1145/1065 |journal=วารสารวิทยบริการ มหาวิทยาลัยสงขลานครินทร์ {{!}} Academic Services Journal, Prince of Songkla University |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=174–187 |issn=2351-0420}}</ref>

In [[Theravada Buddhism|Theravada]], love and sympathy play key roles in shaping ethical behavior and social actions. Sympathy motivates altruistic acts like teaching and helping others, while loving-kindness is cultivated primarily through meditation, acting as a form of mental liberation. Together, these qualities encourage impartial love and empathy, fostering personal peace and societal harmony, and supporting both individual growth and a more compassionate world.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hallisey |first=Charles |date=August 1982 |title=Love and Sympathy in Theravāda Buddhism. By Harvey B. Aronson. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980. viii, 127 pp. Notes, Bibliography, Glossary, Indexes. Rs 45. |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/abs/love-and-sympathy-in-theravada-buddhism-by-harvey-b-aronson-delhi-motilal-banarsidass-1980-viii-127-pp-notes-bibliography-glossary-indexes-rs-45/67C0FAD2DE8CDA7B682BB6E0ECCA4DE4 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=859–860 |doi=10.2307/2055485 |jstor=2055485 |issn=1752-0401|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In [[Mahayana Buddhism|Mahayana]], love is understood as profound compassion and a commitment to mutual support. This concept is central to the [[Bodhisattva]] ideal, where practitioners vow to help all beings reach enlightenment, often delaying their own liberation to support others. Mahayana teachings emphasize selfless love, blurring the boundary between self and others, and seeing all beings as interconnected. This love, framed within the Mahayana understanding of reality as ultimately illusory, transcends ego and guides both the practitioner and others toward collective liberation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Noss |first=John B. |date=1952 |title=Mutual Love in Mahayana Buddhism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1458923 |journal=Journal of Bible and Religion |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=84–89 |jstor=1458923 |issn=0885-2758}}</ref>

In [[Vajrayana Buddhism|Vajrayana]], love is a transformative force that, when disciplined, leads to spiritual enlightenment. Rather than rejecting desire, Vajrayana encourages the refinement of love and other potent energies as pathways to higher consciousness. By controlling and sublimating these energies, often represented through sexual energy as a life force ([[Kundalini|k''Kundalini'']]), practitioners unite the principles of wisdom and skill. Here, love becomes a symbol and method for ultimate unity, guiding practitioners to enlightenment by transforming personal desire into a universal connection.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yogi |first=P. G. (著) |date=November 1998 |title=An Analysis of Tantrayana (Vajrayana) |url=https://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/DLMBS/en/search/search_detail.jsp?seq=682368 |journal=Bulletin of Tibetology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=16–38}}</ref>

====Hinduism====
{{Main|Kama|Kama Sutra}}
<!-- Prem (Hinduism) redirects here -->
[[File:Kama Rati sculpture at the group of monuments at Belur, Hassan, Karnataka, India (2009).jpg|thumb|upright|Kama (left) with Rati on a temple wall of [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]], [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]]]]
In [[Hinduism]], {{transliteration|sa|[[kāma]]}} is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god [[Kamadeva]]. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end ({{transliteration|sa|Kama}}) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of [[sugar cane]] and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot.{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} He is usually accompanied by his consort [[Rati]] and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season.{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} Stone images of [[Kamadeva]] and Rati can be seen on the door of the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur]], in [[Karnataka]], [[India]].{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} ''Maara'' is another name for {{transliteration|sa|kāma}}.{{citation needed|date=August 2023}}

In contrast to {{transliteration|sa|kāma}}, {{transliteration|sa|prema}}—or {{transliteration|sa|prem}} refers to "elevated" love. {{transliteration|sa|[[Karuṇā]]}} is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. {{transliteration|sa|[[Bhakti]]}} is a [[Sanskrit]] term meaning "loving devotion to the divine." A person who practices {{transliteration|sa|bhakti}} is called a {{transliteration|sa|bhakta}}. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of {{transliteration|sa|bhakti}}, which can be found in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and works by [[Tulsidas]]. The philosophical work ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]'', written by an unknown author (presumed to be [[Narada]]), distinguishes eleven forms of love.

In certain [[Vaishnava]] sects within [[Hinduism]], attaining unadulterated, unconditional, and incessant love for the Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnavas]], who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes, consider Love for Godhead, ({{transliteration|sa|Prema}}), to act in two ways: {{transliteration|sa|sambhoga}} and {{transliteration|sa|vipralambha}} (union and separation)—two opposites.<ref name="Krishna Prema">{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=10150168632408280|author=Gour Govinda Swami|title=The Wonderful Characteristic of Krishna Prema|website=[[Facebook]]|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129064142/https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=10150168632408280|archive-date=29 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (love for Godhead) burns away one's material desires, pierces the heart, and washes away everything—one's pride, one's religious rules, and one's shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. [[Radha]] is considered to be the internal potency of [[Krishna]], and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of the material realm, as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between [[Radha]] (the supreme lover) and [[Krishna]] (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in [[India]], such as the ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' of [[Jayadeva]] and ''Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.''

In the {{transliteration|sa|Bhakti}} tradition within [[Hinduism]], it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God ({{transliteration|bn|taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya}}), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination ({{transliteration|bn|krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya}}). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination, and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life.<ref name="Perfect Love">{{cite web|url=https://www.prabhupadanugas.eu/news/?p=23368|author=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|title=Perfectly in Krishna Love|date=29 November 1966|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141123025652/http%3A//www.prabhupadanugas.eu/?p%3D23368|archive-date=23 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Political views==
For some critical approaches such as strands of [[feminism]] and [[Marxism]], love is seen as a way for [[Power (social and political)|social dominance]], particularly in [[Patriarchy|patriarchies]]. That is, it is a [[Constructivism (philosophy of education)|constructivist]] concept that serves to empower men, operating as "the [[opiate]] of women". These approaches thus resist the language and ideals of love that could serve as a means of resisting systemic oppression.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Philosophy of Love {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/love/ |access-date=2025-09-01 |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] perspectives relate love with power, inequality, and [[governance]], that is shaped by [[kinship]], religion, [[Social class|class]], race, and nationalism. Love can then be a form of resistance and solidarity, as in [[queer]] relationships. Love is also shaped by governments and markets through regulation and [[commodification]]. For example, colonial restrictions on intimacy or conspiracy theories such as [[Love jihad conspiracy theory|love jihad]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mody |first=Perveez |date=2022-10-24 |title=Intimacy and the Politics of Love |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011401 |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |language=en |volume=51 |issue= |pages=271–288 |doi=10.1146/annurev-anthro-102218-011401 |issn=0084-6570|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Philosophical views==
{{Main|Philosophy of love}}
Philosophically, love is often categorized into four types: love as a union, robust concern, valuing, and emotion. Love as a union suggests love forms a "we" by merging individual identities, as proposed by thinkers like [[Roger Scruton]] and [[Robert Nozick]], who argue this fusion enhances shared care. Critics, however, contend that union threatens individual autonomy, though Nozick and others believe this merging enriches love. [[Michael Friedman (philosopher)|Michael Friedman]] offers a compromise with his federation model, where love unifies yet preserves individual identities.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Farghaly |first=Nadine |title=Love on Trial: Adjusting and Assigning Relationships |date=2020-04-28 |work=Love on Trial: Adjusting and Assigning Relationships |url=https://brill.com/display/title/54935 |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-1-84888-076-4 |last2=Toralba |first2=Corazón T.}}</ref>

[[File:Edvard Munch - The Kiss - Google Art Project.jpg|200px|right|thumbnail|[[The Kiss (Munch)|The Kiss]], a painting by [[Edvard Munch]], shows a couple kissing, their faces fusing as one in a symbolic representation of their unity]]

Love as robust concern defines love as a deep care for the beloved's well-being without creating a union. This view prioritizes concern for the beloved's welfare, but critics argue it misses the interactive and emotional aspects of love. Supporters maintain that love's essence lies in respecting the beloved's autonomy. [[Monique Wonderly]] adds that attachment complements this view, making the beloved important for both themselves and the lover.<ref name=":0" />

Love as valuing includes two approaches: appraisal and bestowal of value. [[J. David Velleman]] argues that appraisal responds to the inherent dignity in others, making love a unique emotional vulnerability. However, this view struggles to explain love's selectivity and constancy. [[Peter Singer|Peter Singer's]] bestowal view posits that love creates intrinsic value in the beloved, yet critics question how this explains love's discernment.<ref name=":0" />

Love as an emotion is seen either as an emotion proper or as an emotion complex. Emotion properly treats love as a specific motivational response, but some find this too simplistic. The emotion complex perspective suggests that love is a dynamic, interconnected emotional history shaped by the relationship. Figures like [[Annette Baier]] and [[Neera K. Badhwar]] highlight emotional interdependence, though critics wonder how this distinguishes love from other relationships and defines its unique narrative.<ref name=":0" />

== Literature depictions ==
[[File:Romeo_and_Juliet_(watercolour)_by_Ford_Maddox_Brown.jpg|thumb|292x292px|''Romeo and Juliet'', depicted as they part on the balcony in Act III, 1867 by [[Ford Madox Brown]]]]
{{Empty section|date=May 2023}}

==See also==
* {{annotated link|[[Color wheel theory of love]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Finger heart]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Hand heart]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Heart in hand]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[ILY sign]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Love at first sight]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Polyamory]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Relationship science]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Romance]]}}
* {{annotated link|[[Self-love]]}}

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{notelist-lr}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Chadwick|first=Henry|title=Saint Augustine Confessions|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-283372-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Helen|title=Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love|isbn=978-0-8050-6913-6|year=2004|url=https://archive.org/details/whywelove00hele|publisher=New York: H. Holt}}
* {{cite journal |author=Giles, James|title=A theory of love and sexual desire|year=1994|journal=Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour|volume=24|pages=339–357|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5914.1994.tb00259.x|issue=4}}
* {{cite book |last=Kierkegaard|first=Søren|title=Works of Love|location=New York|publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics|year=2009|isbn=978-0-06-171327-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Oord|first=Thomas Jay|title=Defining Love: A Philosophical, Scientific, and Theological Engagement|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=Brazos|year=2010|isbn=978-1-58743-257-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Singer|first=Irving|title=The Nature of Love|volume=(in three volumes)|publisher=Random House|year=1966|edition=v.1 reprinted and later volumes from The University of Chicago Press, 1984|isbn=978-0-226-76094-0|url=https://archive.org/details/natureoflove0000sing}}
* {{cite journal |author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=A triangular theory of love|year=1986|journal=Psychological Review|volume=93|pages=119–135|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119|issue=2}}
* {{cite journal |author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories|year=1987|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=102|pages=331–345|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.331|issue=3}}
* {{cite book|last=Tennov|first=Dorothy|title=Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love|location=New York|publisher=Stein and Day|year=1979|isbn=978-0-8128-6134-1|url=https://archive.org/details/lovelimerenceexp00tenn}}
* {{cite book|author=Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd|title=The World of Psychology|edition=5th|year=2005|publisher=Pearson Education|pages=[https://archive.org/details/masteringworldof00wood/page/402 402–403]|isbn=978-0-205-35868-7|url=https://archive.org/details/masteringworldof00wood/page/402}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |oclc=1365877988|author-last1=Bayer|author-first1=Andrea|display-authors=etal|editor-last1=Bayer|editor-first1=Andrea|title= Art and love in Renaissance Italy | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=2008 | url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/53033}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|d=Q316|v=Have a Happy Relationship|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|n=no|b=no|c=Category:Love}}
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/love-his/ History of Love], ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''

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