View source for Low-power broadcasting

{{short description|Radio or TV service, 100W or less}}
{{Redirect|Low-power radio|other low-power radio-wave communications|Near-field communication|and|Low-power wide-area network}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2023}}
[[File:LPAM Device.png|thumb|An LPAM [[radio antenna|antenna]] in a beer tent]]
'''Low-power broadcasting''' is [[broadcasting]] by a [[Radio broadcasting#Station|broadcast station]] at a low [[transmitter power output]] to a smaller service area than "full power" stations within the same region. It is often distinguished from "micropower broadcasting" (more commonly "[[microbroadcasting]]") and [[Broadcast relay station|broadcast translators]]. '''<abbr title="Low-power amplitude modulation">LPAM</abbr>''', '''<abbr title="Low-power frequency modulation">LPFM</abbr>''' and '''<abbr title="Low-power television">LPTV</abbr>''' are in various levels of use across the world, varying widely based on the [[law]]s and their [[enforcement]].
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==Canada==
Radio communications in Canada are regulated by the Radio Communications and Broadcasting Regulatory Branch, a branch of [[Industry Canada]], in conjunction with the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC). Interested parties must apply for both a certificate from Industry Canada and a license from CRTC in order to operate a radio station. Industry Canada manages the technicalities of spectrum space and technological requirements whereas content regulation is conducted more so by CRTC.

LPAM stations are authorized to operate with less than 100 watts of power.<ref>[https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/spectrum-management-telecommunications/en/official-publications/procedures/broadcasting-procedures-and-rules-bpr/bpr-2-application-procedures-and-rules-am-broadcasting-undertakings#s2.10 ISED Canada, Circular BPR-2, section 2.10; retrieved June 8, 2023.]</ref>

LPFM is broken up into two classes in Canada, Low (50 watts) and Very Low (10 watts). The transmitters therefore range from 1 to 50 watts, as opposed to 1 to 100 watts in the U.S. {{as of|2000}}, 500 licenses (very low and low-power FM) have been issued. These transmitters are generally only allowed in remote areas.

Stations in the low-power class are subject to the same CRTC licensing requirements, and will generally follow the same [[call signs in Canada|call sign]] format, as full-power stations. Stations in the very low-power class formerly had to have CRTC licenses as well, although a series of CRTC regulation changes in the early 2000s exempted most such stations from licensing; a station in this class will usually not have a conventional call sign, but will instead be identified in a naming format consisting of a four-digit number preceded by the letters '''CH''' for a television station or '''VF''' for a radio station.

The regulation of spectrum space is strict in Canada, as well having restrictions on second and third adjacent channels, along with other protections for AM and FM commercial radio. In addition, because there have been a few cases that found that FM frequencies have caused interference to the aeronautical navigation and communications (NAV/COM) spectrum (though evidence is not very concrete presently), [[pirate radio]] regulation has remained very strict as well. However, the two regulating bodies do have certain exemptions. For example, low-power announcement transmitters that meet the requirement of Broadcasting Equipment Technical Standards 1, Limited Duration Special Events Distribution Undertakings, Temporary Resource Development Distribution Undertakings, and Public Emergency Radio Undertakings are a few instances, which according to certain criteria, may be exempt from certificate/license requirements.<ref>{{citation|author = Industry Canada. Radiocommunications and Broadcasting Regulatory Branch, Spectrum and Telecommunications Management.|date = 2000|title = Frequently asked questions on low power FM broadcasting (RIC-40) |location = Ottawa, Canada|publisher =  Spectrum Publications}}</ref>

A television station is considered very low power if its power does not exceed 2 watts for a VHF station, or 10 watts for a UHF station.<ref>[https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/spectrum-management-telecommunications/en/licences-and-certificates/broadcasting/broadcasting-procedures-and-rules-bpr/bpr-4-application-procedures-and-rules-television-broadcasting-undertakings#s6 BPR-4, section 7.1.1.1; retrieved June 8, 2023.]</ref> Low-power analog & digital television stations are authorized to operate with up to 50 watts in VHF, or 500 watts for a UHF station.<ref>[https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/spectrum-management-telecommunications/en/licences-and-certificates/broadcasting/broadcasting-procedures-and-rules-bpr/bpr-4-application-procedures-and-rules-television-broadcasting-undertakings#s5 ISED circular BPR-4, section 5.1.1.3; retrieved June 8, 2023.]</ref><ref>[https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/spectrum-management-telecommunications/en/official-publications/procedures/broadcasting-procedures-and-rules-bpr/bpr-10-application-procedures-and-rules-digital-television-dtv-undertakings#s4 ISED circular BPR-10, section 4.3.5; retrieved June 8, 2023.]</ref>

==New Zealand==
In [[New Zealand]], residents are allowed a broadcast license (free-of-charge) at a maximum of 1 watt [[EIRP]] in the FM guardbands from 87.6 to 88.3 and from 106.7 to 107.7&nbsp;MHz under a General User Radio License (GURL), which is issued by Radio [[Spectrum management|Spectrum Management]], managed by the [[Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment]]. Prior to June 2010, the lower band was located between 88.1 and 88.8 and a maximum of 500&nbsp;mW EIRP allowed. Broadcasters on these frequencies are required to cease operations if they interfere with other, licensed broadcasters and have no protection from interference from other licensed or unlicensed broadcasters. Contact details must also be broadcast every hour.<ref name=NZRSM/>

Further restrictions are in place for the protection of aeronautical services.  Use of the following frequencies is not permitted within certain boundaries approaching Auckland and Wellington airports:<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rsm.govt.nz/about-rsm/pdf-and-documents-library/spectrum-policy/official-information-notices-gazette/gurl-notices/low-power-fm-broadcasting/radiocommunications-regulations-general-user-radio-licence-for-low-power-fm-broadcasting-notice-2010.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=February 18, 2018 |archive-date=January 30, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130094343/https://www.rsm.govt.nz/about-rsm/pdf-and-documents-library/spectrum-policy/official-information-notices-gazette/gurl-notices/low-power-fm-broadcasting/radiocommunications-regulations-general-user-radio-licence-for-low-power-fm-broadcasting-notice-2010.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> 107.5 to 107.7, and 107.0 to 107.3&nbsp;MHz, respectively.

There exists a 25&nbsp;km [[broadcast translator]] rule: one licensee may operate two transmitters anywhere (close together), but a third transmitter must be at least 25&nbsp;km away from at least one of the first two transmitters.<ref name=NZRSM>{{cite web|url = http://www.rsm.govt.nz/cms/licensees/types-of-licence/general-user-licences/low-power-fm-broadcasting|title = Radiocommunications Regulations (General User Licence for Low Power FM Broadcasting) Notice 2010}}</ref>

There are efforts on self-regulation of the broadcasters themselves. The NZRSM Radio Inspectors do, however, regularly monitor and make random unannounced visits to broadcasters, and will impose fines for violations of the regulations. New broadcasters are also subject to an initial compulsory inspection.

==United Kingdom==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
Temporary low-power stations are allowed at times via a [[Restricted Service Licence]]. Since 2001, long-term LPFM licenses have been available in remote areas of the country. These are currently used for many establishments, including [[military base]]s, universities and hospitals with fixed boundaries.{{citation needed|date=May 2015}} On the 18th of June 2021, [[Ofcom]] (Office of Communications) began a trial of expanding the number of LPFM stations in the United Kingdom by issuing licenses to broadcast to many more hospitals and military bases. This was done in order to see if such broadcasts could be feasibly achieved in events where they would be needed without interfering with other broadcasts.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-18 |title=Limited coverage FM restricted service radio trial licensing |url=https://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv-radio-and-on-demand/restricted-radio-services/limited-coverage-trial/ |access-date=2024-07-28 |website=www.ofcom.org.uk |language=en}}</ref>

==United States==
===FM radio===
Low Power FM (LPFM) is a [[non-commercial educational]] broadcast radio service created by the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in the [[United States]] in 2000.  LPFM licenses, which are limited to a maximum [[effective radiated power]] (ERP) of 100 watts, may be issued to non-commercial educational entities, as well as public safety and transportation organizations. Individuals and holders of other types of broadcast licenses are not eligible. In addition, LPFM stations are not protected from interference from other classes of FM stations.<ref name=FCC_LPFM>{{cite web|url=https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/lpfm|title=Low Power FM (LPFM) Broadcast Radio Stations|website=fcc.gov|publisher=[[Federal Communications Commission]]|access-date=January 31, 2019}}</ref>

====LPFM classes====
* Class L1 (LP100) is to 100 [[watt]]s [[effective radiated power]] (ERP). ({{CodeFedReg|47|73|811}})
* Class L2 (L10) is at least 1 and up to 10 watts ERP. ({{CodeFedReg|47|73|811}})

In addition, Class D educational licenses exist for stations of 10 watts [[transmitter power output]] (TPO) or less, regardless of ERP. These stations are all grandfathered operations, as no new licenses of this type have been issued since 1978, except in Alaska. They are not considered to be LPFM stations, although they operate noncommercially and have similar coverage areas to Class L2 stations.

====Legislation====

=====Origins of LPFM=====
In January 2000, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] established Low Power FM (LPFM) as a new designated class of radio station. These stations were allowed to operate at 1–10 or 50–100 watts of power, compared to the minimum requirement for commercial stations at 100 watts. ({{CodeFedReg|47|73|211}}). Originally, it was supported by activists and groups associated with [[Progressivism in the United States|American progressivism]]; music artists (such as [[Bonnie Raitt]]); religious leaders/churches (such as the [[United Church of Christ]]); and educators (for example, [[American Library Association]], the [[Communication Workers of America]] [[trade union|labor union]], the [[National League of Cities]]).

The original purpose of LPFM was to serve as an alternative to "[[radio homogenization]]", described in 2001 in the ''[[Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly|J & MC Quarterly]]'', as "... Necessary to offset the growing consolidation of station ownership in the wake of the [[Telecommunications Act of 1996]], which removed caps on radio ownership, as well as the decline of locally produced radio programming."<ref name="Class D to LPFM">{{cite journal|author1 = Alan G. Stavisky|author2 = Robert K. Avery|author3 =  Helena Vanhala|title = From Class D to LPFM: The High-Powered Politics of Low-Power Radio|journal =  Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly|volume = 78|issue = 2|date = 2001|pages = 340–54|doi = 10.1177/107769900107800209|s2cid = 144058577}}</ref> The main opposition to LPFMs came from the [[National Association of Broadcasters]] (NAB), which opposed the act on grounds to "maintain spectrum integrity" for commercial broadcasting, according to NAB President Edward O. Fritts.<ref name="Class D to LPFM"/>

=====Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000=====<!-- linked from "National Association of Broadcasters" -->
Pressure from the National Association of Broadcasters urged [[United States Congress|Congress]] to slip the Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000 into a general spending bill then moving through Congress. President [[Bill Clinton]] signed the bill in December 2000. The bill passed by Congress ([http://www.thomas.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&dbname=cp106&sid=cp106nfZjS&refer=&r_n=hr567.106&item=&sel=TOC_12219& H.R.567]) was meant to tighten standards for LPFM stations, making it harder for them to be approved, to protect full-power FM stations through certain provisions:
# The FCC has the ability and jurisdiction to license LPFM stations.<ref>{{cite web|date = 1999|title = H.R. 3439 [106th]: Radio Broadcasting Preservation Act of 2000|access-date = February 12, 2008|url = http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h106-3439&tab=summary}}</ref>
# Third adjacent channel interference protections require LPFM stations to be separated by at least 0.6&nbsp;MHz from all other stations, to prevent signal interference.
# Applicants who have engaged in the unlicensed operation of any station cannot receive LPFM licenses.
# The FCC agreed to commission studies on the interference by, and economic impact of, LPFM on full-power stations (the findings, later published in the ''[[MITRE Corporation]] Report'', suggest that third adjacent channel interference protections may not be necessary).<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Radio Magazine|date = March 1, 2004|title = FCC Reports LPFM Interference Findings to Congress|access-date = March 3, 2008|url = http://www.mediaaccess.org/programs/lpfm/RADIOmagazine.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409100247/http://www.mediaaccess.org/programs/lpfm/RADIOmagazine.pdf|archive-date = April 9, 2008}}</ref>

This act shifted policy making from the FCC to Congress, which was considered an insult against the FCC.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Stavisky, Alan G. |author2=Avery, Robert K. |author3=Vanhala, Helena |year=2001 |title=From class&nbsp;D to LPFM: The high-powered politics of low-power radio |journal=[[Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly]] |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=340–354|doi=10.1177/107769900107800209 |s2cid=144058577 }}</ref>

=====Local Community Radio Act of 2005=====
The Local Community Radio Act of 2005 was introduced by Senators [[John McCain]], [[Maria Cantwell]] and [[Patrick Leahy]]. After the FCC complied with the provisions of the Radio Broadcasting Act of 2000 by commissioning [http://www.recnet.net/mitre/2.pdf the MITRE Report] to test if there was significant interference from LPFM stations on the full-power stations, the study showed that the interference of LPFM is minimal and would not have a significant effect on other stations.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mike |last=Janssen |date=August 4, 2003 |title=Interference study finds room for more low-power FMs |newspaper=[[Current (newspaper)|Current]] |place=Washington, DC |publisher=American University |department=School of Communication |url=http://www.current.org/tech/tech0314lpfm.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525090155/http://www.current.org/tech/tech0314lpfm.html |archive-date=May 25, 2011}}</ref> According to Sen. Leahy, "This bill will open up the airwaves to truly local broadcasting while protecting full-power broadcasters from unreasonable interference and preserving important services such as reading services for the blind."<ref>{{cite press release |title=United States Senator John McCain<!-- Bot generated title --> |department=Press Office |url=http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressOffice.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=8904246a-cd92-489c-81b1-48d8eddc4298&Region_id=&Issue_id= |url-status=dead |access-date=March 7, 2009 |archive-date=May 26, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526152301/http://mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=PressOffice.PressReleases&ContentRecord_id=8904246a-cd92-489c-81b1-48d8eddc4298&Region_id=&Issue_id= }}{{full citation needed|date=August 2021|reason=Needs real title, author(s), date, archive URL}}</ref>

=====Local Community Radio Act of 2007=====
Sponsored in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] by Congressmen [[Mike Doyle (Pennsylvania politician)|Mike Doyle]] and [[Lee Terry]] and in the [[United States Senate]] by Senators Maria Cantwell and John McCain, the Local Community Radio Act of 2007 never came to a vote. The House bill, H.R. 2802, was referred to the Subcommittee on Telecommunications and the Internet on June 21, 2007.<ref name="govtrack.us">{{cite web|date = 2007|title = H.R. 2802: Local Community Radio Act of 2007|access-date = February 12, 2008|url = http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h110-2802}}</ref> Since the bill was not passed in FY 2007, the bill was removed from the docket as ''Never Passed''.

=====Local Community Radio Act of 2009=====
This bill was an update of the Local Community Radio Act of 2007. It would have required the FCC to alter current rules by removing the minimum frequency separation between low-power FM stations and third-adjacent channel stations.<ref name="ww-111hr1147">{{cite web|date = 2009|title = H.R. 1147, The Local Community Radio Act of 2009|access-date =  May 23, 2009|url = http://www.washingtonwatch.com/bills/show/111_HR_1147.html#toc2|publisher = Washington Watch}}</ref> Previously, there was a minimum frequency separation; however the FCC found that LPFM stations did not cause any interference on third-adjacent channel stations, thus eliminating the need for such a requirement.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = RADIO Magazine - the Radio Technology Leader|date = 2004|title = FCC Reports LPFM Interference Findings to Congress|access-date = May 24, 2009|url = http://www.mediaaccess.org/programs/lpfm/RADIOmagazine.pdf|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081012040159/http://www.mediaaccess.org/programs/lpfm/RADIOmagazine.pdf|archive-date = October 12, 2008}}</ref>

The Local Community Radio Act of 2009 also would have required that the FCC keep the rules that offer interference protection to third-adjacent channels that offer a [[radio reading service]] (the reading of newspapers, books or magazines for those who are blind or hearing impaired).<ref>{{cite web|website = KPBS Radio Reading Service|title = About|access-date = May 23, 2009|url = http://kpbsreadingservice.org}}</ref> This protection will ensure that such channels are not subject to possible interference by LPFM stations.<ref name="govtrack.us"/>

The final part of the bill required that when giving out licenses to FM stations, the FCC must make sure that these licenses are also available to LPFM stations and that licensing decisions are made with regard to local community needs.<ref name="ww-111hr1147"/> The bill had unanimous bipartisan support from FCC leadership. It was passed by the House and referred to the Senate.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CQ4TC9Aqjfc| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211113/CQ4TC9Aqjfc| archive-date=November 13, 2021 | url-status=live|title=FCC: Unanimous, bipartisan support for LPFM|date=September 18, 2009|author=United States Congress|publisher=[[Free Press (advocacy group)|Free Press (organization)]]|author-link=United States Congress}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=====Local Community Radio Act of 2010=====
The Local Community Radio Act of 2010 (based upon the legislation originally introduced in 2005) was signed into law by President [[Barack Obama]] on January 4, 2011, as {{USPL|111|371}}, after passage in the House on December 17, 2010, and the U.S. Senate on December 18, 2010. In a statement after the bill became law, Federal Communications Commission chairman [[Julius Genachowski]] said, "Low power FM stations are small, but they make a giant contribution to local community programming. This important law eliminates the unnecessary restrictions that kept these local stations off the air in cities and towns across the country." The Act states that the Federal Communications Commission, when licensing new FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations, should ensure that licenses are available to FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations; such decisions are made based on the needs of the local community; and FM translator stations, FM booster stations, and low-power FM stations remain equal in status and secondary to existing and modified full-service FM stations.

In general, the FCC was to modify its rules to eliminate third-adjacent minimum frequency separation requirements between low-power FM stations; and full-service FM stations, FM translator stations, and FM booster stations.

====Arguments for LPFM====
*[[Free Press (advocacy group)|Free Press]], a non-partisan advocacy organization pushing for media reform, promoting "diversity and independent media ownership, strong public media, and universal access to communications,"<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = Free Press|date = 2008|title = Local Radio Now|access-date = February 12, 2008|url = http://www.freepress.net/lpfm/|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080509170551/http://www.freepress.net/lpfm/|archive-date = May 9, 2008|url-status = dead}}</ref> voiced its support of LPFM for a variety of reasons:
** It strengthens community identity.
** It creates an outlet for amateur musicians to have their music heard.
** It promotes diversity on the air because more women and racial minorities are represented.
** It creates an opportunity for young people, especially college students, who are interested in radio to learn about the business.
** It provides farmers with up to date agricultural information.
*[[Prometheus Radio Project]], a non-profit organization that "builds, supports, and advocates for community radio stations which empower participatory community voices and movements for social change,"<ref>{{cite web|website = Prometheus Radio Project|date = 2009|title = About Prometheus Radio Project|access-date = February 10, 2011|url = http://www.prometheusradio.org/about_us}}</ref> also supported LPFM, citing these reasons:
** The media should not limit democratic participation but should provide a way for communities and movements to express themselves
** Public airwaves shouldn't be concentrated in private/corporate hands
** Low Power FM gives a voice to communities
** Low Power FM needs to be protected from big broadcasters

A ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article<ref>{{cite news|author = B. Stelter|date = January 11, 2011|title = Low-Power FM Radio to Gain Space on the Dial|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/25/arts/25radio.html?_r=1}}</ref> focusing on a LPFM station, [[KOCZ-LP]], highlights a number of key arguments favoring low-powered broadcasting:
* "In Louisiana, a large African-American community appreciates how LPFM plays a genre of music called [[zydeco]], a potent blend of [[Cajun music|Cajun]], [[rhythm and blues]] and, among a younger generation, [[hip-hop]], often features accordion and washboard.“
* LPFM influences commercial radio to offer listeners a wider range of music. "Commercial stations had started playing more zydeco since KOCZ started broadcasting in 2002. 'They know that we make them better,' an advocate said."
* Because LPFM is non-commercial, schools and organizations are able to promote many projects that help serve the local community. "KOCZ is licensed to the Southern Development Foundation, a civil rights group that grants scholarships and runs a business incubator but has fallen on hard times. The foundation treats the station as a 24-hour form of community outreach. "
* LPFM promotes a very close community. "A woman walked into the station ... asked for an announcement to be broadcast about her lost dog... 'She was able to get her dog back the next day’”
* LPFM is crucial for small communities in times of emergencies. “A low power FM radio station can stay on the air even if the power goes out. Low power FM saved lives during Katrina.”

Former President Bill Clinton has also become an advocate of LPFM for "giving voice to the voiceless", including schools, community-based organizations, churches, and ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite news|author = Mike Janssen|date = January 15, 2001|title = Intervention by Congress slashes LPFM licensing 80%|newspaper = Current|access-date = February 11, 2008|url = http://www.current.org/tech/tech0101lpfm.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080216012926/http://www.current.org/tech/tech0101lpfm.html|archive-date = February 16, 2008|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Brown Paper Tickets CEO Steve Butcher supports LPFM, stating in a letter to the FCC, "We hear from event producers frequently who can't afford radio ad buys on commercial stations. These local entrepreneurs can afford underwriting on smaller stations that can help build awareness about their events."<ref>{{cite web|website = Brown Paper Tickets|date = September 13, 2011|title = Brown Paper Tickets CEO Makes Voice Heard for Low Power FM|access-date = September 13, 2011|url = http://www.brownpapertickets.com/pressrelease/100008}}</ref>

LPFM stations are considered to be affordable compared to an average FM station, whose operating costs can run up to a million dollars, and could only afforded by businesses and the very wealthy. An antenna and transmitter can cost between $2,000 and $5,000.<ref>{{cite web|website = HowStuffWorks|date = 2000|title = What is low-power FM LPFM?|access-date = February 12, 2008|url = http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/question330.htm}}</ref>

====Arguments against LPFM====
* Signal interference on FM station – High-power FM stations express concern that LPFM stations may cause interference with their signals if third adjacent-channel interference protections are not observed. While the Mitre Report suggests that the likelihood for interference is not as threatening as previously thought, high-power FM stations question the methodology, scope and validity of the study and its results.<ref>{{cite web|title=LPFM Report Fatally Flawed |work=Radio TechCheck |publisher=[[National Association of Broadcasters]] |date=October 20, 2003 |url=http://www.nab.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=4666 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114101516/http://www.nab.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search&template=%2FCM%2FHTMLDisplay.cfm&ContentID=4666 |archive-date=January 14, 2009 |access-date=October 14, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* FM translators – These devices allow a radio station to rebroadcast its signal to reach a greater area. FM translators could benefit religious broadcasters wishing to reach a larger audience, as well as many AM radio stations who, due to [[Ionospheric reflection|ionospheric refraction]], are required to emit weaker signals during the night.<ref>{{cite web|author = Ron Whittaker|date = June 14, 2007|title = Elements of Mass Communication: AM FM Waves and Sound|access-date = February 12, 2008|url = http://www.cybercollege.com/frtv/frtv017.htm}}</ref> FM translators are low-power, so compete with LPFM for limited space on the airwaves.
* In some states, the local [[Department of Transportation]] operates large networks of LPFM stations that act as [[highway advisory radio]] stations – a service traditionally operated at the fringes of the [[amplitude modulation|AM]] band – restricting the number of available channels{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}} (these systems can be licensed to the entire AM band, but the LPFM service provides considerably greater coverage at 100 watts than the 10-watt limit on AM – hence the considerable appeal for government agencies).
* Some investors in radio believe LPFM services prevent the development of [[digital radio]].<ref>{{cite web|title = Factsheets|access-date = May 29, 2008|url = http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Mass_Media/Factsheets?lpfmfact032900.html|archive-url = https://archive.today/20120801051821/http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Mass_Media/Factsheets?lpfmfact032900.html|url-status = dead|archive-date = August 1, 2012}}</ref>
* [[NPR]] is a major opponent to low-power FM. Their stance is that allowing more flexible rules for LPFM would burden other stations by forcing them to deal with interference problems and because full-power broadcasters reach a broader audience and provide a greater service, they should be favored regarding spectrum availability.<ref>{{cite news |last=Everhart |first=Karen |title=Pubradio rejects higher status for low-power |newspaper=[[Current (newspaper)|Current]] |date=May 12, 2008 |url=http://www.current.org/fcc/fcc0808lpfm.shtml |access-date=October 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111210223222/http://www.current.org/fcc/fcc0808lpfm.shtml |archive-date=December 10, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Everhart |first=Karen |author2=jonathan  |title=Once again NPR opposes expansion of low-power FM |publisher=reclaimthemedia.org |date=May 21, 2008 |url=http://www.reclaimthemedia.org/grassroots_media/once_again_npr_opposes_expansi%3D5996 |access-date=October 14, 2011}}</ref>
* The National Association of Broadcasters is the other major source of opposition. Its stance is that full-power FM broadcasters “enhance localism” by providing community-responsive information such as emergency information. Allowing low-power FM stations to have equal spectrum rights could be detrimental to these necessary programs.<ref>{{Citation |last1=MacBride |first1=Marsha J. |last2=Timmerman |first2=Jerianne |last3=Bobeck |first3=Ann W. |title=Comments of the National Association of Broadcasters |work=Before the FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION |format=PDF |publisher=National Association of Broadcasters |date=August 22, 2005 |url=http://www.nab.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search§ion=20055&template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=367 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114112638/http://www.nab.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Search%C2%A7ion%3D20055&template=%2FCM%2FContentDisplay.cfm&ContentFileID=367 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 14, 2009 |access-date=October 14, 2011 }}</ref>

====LPFM vs. broadcast translators====
{{See also|Broadcast relay station#Great Translator Invasion of 2003}}
Unlike the former [[list of broadcast station classes#FM|FM class D]] license, an LPFM station has no priority over broadcast translators in the allocation of available spectrum. This is problematic insofar as the regulations for [[broadcast translator]]s exempts non-commercial stations from the requirement that translators be within the coverage area of the original station that they rebroadcast. However, this provision only affects translators in the non-commercial portion of the band.  Stations in the commercial part of the spectrum must be fed over the air unless they are within the actual service area of the primary station.  Since the translator window of 2003 was only open for commercial channels, the use of directly-fed via satellite FM translators, commonly called "Satellators", was never a factor in the 2003 window.

The FCC licensing window for new translator applications in 2003 resulted in over 13,000 applications being filed,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.radioworld.com/article/translator-39flood39-causes-concern/16974 |title=Translator 'Flood' Causes Concern |date=September 10, 2003 |author=Naina Narayana Chernoff |access-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> most of them coming from a few religious broadcasters.  However even though all translators on commercial frequencies must be fed by a direct, over-the-air source, regardless of who owns the translator per FCC rule 74.1231(b),<ref>{{CodeFedReg|47|74|1231|(b)}}</ref> the actual over-the-air source (the primary station) can be satellite fed, just as commercial stations can be fed by satellite. This leads to programming from a single station (retransmitted by many others) ending up on several hundred different translators. One station cannot apply for hundreds or thousands of translators nationwide, using automated means to generate license applications for all available channels, unless all of their applications are exclusively on the non-commercial part of the broadcast band (88–91.9&nbsp;MHz). ({{CodeFedReg|47|74|1231(b)}}) As with any new service that shares the FM spectrum, when translators are added to an area, they can reduce or eliminate the availability of channels both for new LPFM applicants and for relocation of any existing LPFM stations displaced by full-service broadcasters. Unlike an LPFM station, a translator is not required to (and legally not authorized to) originate any local content except as permitted by {{CodeFedReg|47|74|1231|(g)}}.  Thus there is competition for spectrum in some locations between the LPFM service and the FM translator service.

In May 2018, several groups supporting community-based low-power FM stations filed objections with the FCC, citing the [[Local Community Radio Act]], accusing it of favoring existing station coverage expansion with translator licenses - "a spectrum grab" - over new LPFM spectrum licenses.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ashworth|first1=Susan|title=LPFM Advocates File Objections to Nearly 1,000 Applications|url=https://www.radioworld.com/news-and-business/lpfm-advocates-file-objections-to-nearly-1000-applications|website=Radio World|date=May 17, 2018 |access-date=May 28, 2018|language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Jacobson|first1=Adam|title=Are Hundreds Of Pending FM Translators In Jeopardy? {{!}} Radio & Television Business Report|url=https://www.rbr.com/local-comm-radio-act/|website=www.rbr.com|date=May 18, 2018 |access-date=May 28, 2018}}</ref><ref name="Prometheus May 2018 translator objections">{{cite web|title=Low-power FM radio advocates file 1,000 Objections with FCC {{!}} Prometheus Radio Project|url=https://www.prometheusradio.org/InformalObjections20180516|website=www.prometheusradio.org|access-date=May 28, 2018|language=en}}</ref>

===AM radio===
{{see also|AM broadcasting#Microbroadcasting}}
The acronym 'LPAM' is not a legal term in the United States and is only used as an acronym. Unlike LPFM stations, which have legal and regulatory status, FCC rules do not define "LPAM" nor issue licenses for low-power AM transmission. LPAM is only an acronym applied to licensed low-power AM operations and to [[Title 47 CFR Part 15|Part 15]] transmissions as well.

Any use of the term "low power AM" in FCC licensing for United States stations is the requirement for higher-power licensed AM stations to reduce their transmit power at nighttime – post-sunset / pre-sunrise – as a condition of their high-power broadcast authorization. There is a category ''class&nbsp;D'' for AM broadcast licenses, which limited stations to daytime-only transmission before regulations changed in the 1980s. Many, but not all, class&nbsp;D stations have been granted authority to broadcast at night with enough power to be heard within a few miles of their transmitters.

Other LPAM operations are known as [[Travelers' Information Stations]] (TIS), sometimes also called highway advisory radio (HAR). Authorized under FCC Part 90.242, these are stations licensed to local transportation departments or other governmental or quasi-governmental agencies to provide bulletins to motorists regarding traffic conditions. These are often near highways and airports, and occasionally other tourism attractions such as [[national park]]s. Some are used by chemical and nuclear facilities for emergency evacuation information systems, others by public safety entities for mobile operations.

Music is not allowed on TIS/HAR stations, and they are restricted to only 3&nbsp;kHz wide, "[[High fidelity|low-fidelity audio]]", compared to the 10&nbsp;kHz audio for standard AM broadcasters and 15&nbsp;kHz audio permitted on FM stations. (Modern AM stations in the US actually restrict their audio from 5&nbsp;kHz down to 2.5&nbsp;kHz - roughly the same as to TIS stations.<ref>{{cite web |title=5 kHz audio bandwidth on AM |website=Radio World (radioworld.com) |date=October 20, 2004 |url=https://www.radioworld.com/tech-and-gear/5-khz-audio-bandwidth-on-am}}</ref> [[Travelers' Information Stations|TIS]] transmissions are normally authorized for 10&nbsp;watts or less, although some higher authorizations exist, primarily in locations where emergency evacuation may become necessary. The 60&ndash;watt TIS stations on 1640 and 1680&nbsp;kHz at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Dallas / Fort Worth International Airport radio station WPLR660 authorization |date=May 27, 2015 |orig-year=2012-12-20 (grant date) |id=file nr.&nbsp;6816465, [[call sign]] WPLR660, 1.680&nbsp;MHz |website=fcc.gov |place=Washington, DC |series=Public Safety and Homeland Security Bureau |publisher=U.S. [[Federal Communications Commission]] |format=PDF |url=http://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/letterPdf/LetterPdfController?licId=1236825&letterVersionId=52&autoLetterId=0&letterCode=AZ&radioServiceCode=PW&op=LetterPdf&licSide=Y&letterTo=L%20%20%20%20&archive=nul |quote=60&nbsp;Watts [[Effective Radiated Power|ERP]]}}</ref> have the highest licensed power among full-time TIS stations.

===Television===
[[File:Figure 4 Low Power Television (LPTV) Stations' Communities of License as of May 2016 (30977386063).jpg|thumb|Low Power Television stations in the US by community of license]]
There are more than 2,450 licensed low-power television (LPTV) stations in the U.S., which are located in markets of all sizes, from [[New York City]] (five stations, though more exist in the market from other [[city of license|cities of license]]) down to [[Junction City, Kansas]] (two stations).{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}}

LPTV (-LP) and LPTV Digital (-LD) are common in the U.S., Canada and most of the [[Americas]], where most stations originate their own programming. Stations that do not originate their own programming are designated as [[broadcast relay station#Broadcast translators|translator]]s (-TX). The Community Broadcasters Act of 1998 directed the FCC to create a classification of LPTV licenses called [[Class A television service|Class A]] (-CA) and Class A Digital (-CD). Digital low-power and Class-A television stations have an ERP limit of 3,000 watts (3&nbsp;kW) for VHF, and 15 kilowatts for UHF.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fcc.gov/mb/video/files/afcce.ppt|title = FCC Slideshow, slide 56}}</ref>

The LPTV service is considered a secondary service by the FCC, which means the licensee is not guaranteed protection from interference or displacement. An LPTV station must accept harmful interference from full-service television stations and may not cause harmful interference to any full-service television station (the FCC defines interference levels deemed to be "harmful"). The problem with potential displacement was made evident during the [[Digital television transition in the United States|transition of broadcasting in the United States from analog to digital]]. All television stations operating on UHF channels 38 and above were required to move to channel 36 or below. Full-service stations were guaranteed a place to land in the new compressed band while LPTV stations operating on channels 38 and above were required to either enter a channel-sharing agreement with another station or lose their license.

====Class A LPTV stations====
The FCC provided a one-time filing opportunity for existing LPTV stations to become Class A stations. The designation was only available to LPTV stations that were producing two hours per week of local programming. Class A stations had to maintain a production studio within their Grade B contour, and comply with many of the requirements placed on full-service television stations. This allowed them to obtain protected channel status.

====Must-carry====
One of the key distinctions between full-service television stations and low-power stations is [[cable television]] and [[direct broadcast satellite]] (DBS) carriage. Full-service stations are guaranteed carriage in their local [[media market|television market]] through "[[must-carry]]" whereas LPTV stations are not. In 2008, there was an effort put forward by FCC chairman Kevin Martin to grant must-carry rights to Class A LPTV stations. The effort failed due to a lack of support from the other FCC commissioners.

====Network affiliates====
Though many low-power television stations are either unaffiliated, or broadcast programming from small networks meant for their use, some LPTV stations are affiliated with minor broadcast networks like [[The CW Plus]] or [[MyNetworkTV]]. Examples include in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with [[NBC]] on [[WBTS-CD]]; [[Youngstown, Ohio]], where a pair of LPTV stations based at [[WYFX-LD]] broadcast [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] programming, along with the [[digital subchannel]] of the co-owned [[CBS]] affiliate, [[WKBN-TV]]; or in the [[Lima, Ohio]] area, whose low-power stations are affiliates of major networks, such as [[CBS]] and [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]].

====Digital transition====
{{See also|Digital television transition in the United States}}
On July 15, 2011, the FCC issued an order to low-power broadcasters that effectively required all remaining television transmitters to vacate channels 52 to 69 by December 31, 2011. Originally, all low power analog TV stations were required to shut off by September 1, 2015, however, the deadline for low-power television stations and translators was postponed due to a spectrum auction that took place. While Class-A television stations were required to sign off on September 1, 2015, the last remaining low-powered analog television stations had signed off by July 13, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2011/db0720/FCC-11-110A1.pdf |title=FCC 11–110 Second Report and Order |access-date=July 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314024932/http://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2011/db0720/FCC-11-110A1.pdf |archive-date=March 14, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://transition.fcc.gov/Daily_Releases/Daily_Business/2015/db0424/DA-15-486A1.pdf FCC Public Notice: "SUSPENSION OF SEPTEMBER 1, 2015 DIGITAL TRANSITION DATE FOR LOW POWER TELEVISION AND TV TRANSLATOR STATIONS", April 24, 2015.]</ref><ref>[https://apps.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/DA-17-442A1.pdf FCC Public Notice: "The incentive auction task force and media bureau announce procedures for low power television, television translator and replacement translator stations during the post-incentive auction transition", May 17, 2017]</ref>

Unlike AM and FM, unlicensed use of television bands is prohibited for broadcasting. The [[amateur television]] channels do allow for some very limited non-entertainment transmissions however, with some [[repeater]]s airing [[NASA TV]] during [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space exploration|mission]]s when they are not in local use.

The low-power television industry was represented by the [[Community Broadcasters Association]] (CBA), which held its annual convention each year in October and an annual meeting each year in April at the National Association of Broadcasters Convention in [[Las Vegas]]. The meeting was open to anyone interested in the low-power television industry.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} On August 13, 2009, the CBA announced in a statement that it would shut down after 20 years of representing LPTV stations. One reason given was the "restrictive regulations that kept the Class A and LPTV industry from realizing its potential". Another was the inability to reach most viewers, partly due to [[multichannel video programming distributor]]s refusing to carry these channels. In addition, Amy Brown, former CBA executive director, said, "some 40% of Class A and LPTV station operators believe they will have to shut down in the next year if they are not helped through the digital transition."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.broadcastingcable.com/article/327560-Community_Broadcasters_Association_to_Shutter.php?rssid=20068&q=digital+tv|title=Community Broadcasters Association to Shutter|work=[[Broadcasting & Cable]]|date=August 13, 2009|access-date=August 14, 2009}}</ref>

In February 2006, the FCC released its Notices of Proposed Rules for Digital Radio. The Commission reaffirms its commitment to provide broadcasters with the opportunity to take advantage of [[digital audio broadcasting]] (DAB) technology, proposed criteria for evaluating models and systems, such as the [[In-band on-channel]] (IBOC) system, and inquired on the needs for a mandatory DAB transmission standard.

In section 39 of the Notice, the FCC inquires as how to balance incentives for broadcasters to switch to digital systems with incumbents of new entrance opportunities, stating that they “seek analyses of the minimum power levels that would preserve service within protected service areas in an all-digital environment, and alternatively, the levels that would not result in significant disruptions to current listening patterns.”<ref>{{cite web|website = Prometheus Radio Project, Initials|date = February 12, 2006|title =  Review of fcc proposed rules for digital radio and impact for lpfm|url = http://prometheusradio.org/node/139}}</ref>

The DAB system that was identified as the best fit for LPFM was IBOC. This hybrid system uses existing frequencies and can operate carrying digital information along with analog broadcast signal on the sidebands. However, the digital carriers require the bandwidth to be widened, which would cause interference to stations on the first adjacent channel. If LPFM adopts IBOC, then LPFM would also need to accept a second adjacent channel restriction between two LPFM stations, as there is a potential that the sidebands of two LPFM stations would overlap causing interference. {{as of|2008}}, imposing a second adjacent channel restriction would impact less than 10 LPFM stations.<ref>{{cite web|author = Michelle Eyre|date = September 21, 2008|title =  A {{sic|Compa|rative|nolink=y}} overview of digital audio broadcasting (dab) systems|url = http://home.recnet.com/dab}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Carrier current#Low-power broadcasting stations]]
* [[List of broadcast station classes]] – Explanation on broadcasting classes
* [[North American call sign]] – How [[call sign]]s and classes are used in North America
* [[ITU prefix]] – How callsigns and classes are used worldwide
* [[List of LPFM stations in New Zealand]]
* [[Cognitive radio]]
* [[Wireless mesh network]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite news |last1=Lehrman |first1=Paul |title=LPTV: The people's video? - The struggle to establish low-power television |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_boston-phoenix_1981-11-17_10_46/page/n163/mode/1up |access-date=15 June 2024 |work=The Boston Phoenix |date=17 November 1981}}

==External links==
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [http://lpfmdatabase.com Unofficial database of LPFM stations] 
* [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h111-6533 Status of LCRA of 2010]
* [https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/04/statement-press-secretary President Obama Signs LCRA of 2010 into law]
* [http://beta.fcc.gov/document/fcc-chairman-julius-genachowski-commends-passage-local-community-radio-act Genachowski Statement]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060715120701/http://www.digitalsyndicate.net/part15.html Part-15 Low Power AM Radio in U.S.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060422100300/http://home.att.net/~weatheradio/part15.htm Part 15 Radio Stations of North America (from archive.org April 2006)]
* [http://www.futureofmusic.org/research/radiostudyexecsum.cfm Radio Deregulation: Has It Served Citizens and Musicians?]
* [http://www.lpfm.ws REC Networks LPFM site]
* [http://www.lpfmnz.com Society of LPFM Broadcasters Inc. (based in Auckland, New Zealand)]
* [http://www.stern.nyu.edu/networks/telco96.html The Telecommunications Act of 1996 and its Impact by Nicholas Economides (September 1998)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070403054557/http://www.rsm.govt.nz/licensing/gurls/gurl-lpfmbc-2.html New Zealand GURL]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091231040330/http://zinelibrary.info/complete-manual-pirate-radio Complete Manual of Pirate Radio]
* [http://www.fcc.gov/cgb/consumerfacts/DTVandLPTV.html US FCC Consumer Advisory]
{{div col end}}

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[[Category:Low-power broadcasting| ]]
[[Category:Low-power FM radio stations in the United States| ]]
[[Category:Radio technology]]
[[Category:Television technology]]
[[Category:Broadcast engineering]]