View source for MS St. Louis

{{Short description|German ocean liner; "Voyage of the damned"}}
{{Redirect|SS St. Louis||List of ships named SS St. Louis{{!}}List of ships named SS ''St. Louis''}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2012}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = MS St. Louis of Hamburg America Line.jpg
| Ship caption = ''St. Louis'' at sea
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header = 
| Ship name = ''St. Louis''
| Ship country = Germany
| Ship owner = [[Hamburg America Line]]
| Ship registry = [[Port of Hamburg|Hamburg]]
| Ship identification = *[[code letters]] RHDV (until 1933)
*{{ICS|Romeo}}{{ICS|Hotel}}{{ICS|Delta}}{{ICS|Victor}}
* [[Maritime call sign|call sign]] DIFG (by 1934)
*{{ICS|Delta}}{{ICS|India}}{{ICS|Foxtrot}}{{ICS|Golf}}
| Ship builder = [[Bremer Vulkan]], [[Bremen]], Germany
| Ship laid down = June 16, 1925
| Ship launched = August 2, 1928
| Ship maiden voyage = March 28, 1929
| Ship fate = Scrapped in 1952
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = 
| Ship type = [[ocean liner]]
| Ship tonnage = {{GRT|16732}}; {{NRT|9637}}
| Ship length = *{{cvt|574|ft|abbr=on}} [[Length overall|overall]]
*{{cvt|543.8|ft|abbr=on}} registered
| Ship beam = {{cvt|72|ft|abbr=on}}
| Ship height = 
| Ship draft = 
| Ship depth = {{cvt|42.1|ft|abbr=on}}
| Ship decks = 5
| Ship power = *2 × [[two-stroke diesel engine]]s;
*total 3,060 [[Horsepower#Nominal horsepower|NHP]]
| Ship propulsion = 2 × [[Propeller|screws]]
| Ship speed = {{convert|16|kn|lk=in}}
| Ship range = 
| Ship boats = 
| Ship sensors = *by 1930: wireless [[direction finding]]
*by 1934: [[gyrocompass]]
| Ship capacity = 973 passengers: 270 cabin class, 287 tourist class, 416 third class
}}
|}

'''MS ''St. Louis''''' was a [[diesel engine|diesel]]-powered [[ocean liner]] built by the [[Bremer Vulkan]] shipyards in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] for [[Hamburg America Line]] (HAPAG). She was named after the city of [[St. Louis]], Missouri. She was the [[sister ship]] of {{MS|Milwaukee|1929|2}}. ''St. Louis'' regularly sailed the [[Transatlantic crossing|trans-Atlantic route]] from [[Hamburg]] to [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]], and New York City, and made cruises to the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]], Spain, and [[Morocco]]. ''St. Louis'' was built for both transatlantic liner service and for [[Cruise ship|leisure cruises]].<ref name="MS St">{{cite encyclopedia |title=MS St. Louis German ocean liner |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/MS-St-Louis-German-ship |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

In 1939, the ''St. Louis'' carried more than 900 [[Jews|Jewish]] refugees from [[Nazi Germany]] intending to escape antisemitic persecution. The refugees first tried to disembark in [[Republic of Cuba (1902–1959)|Cuba]] but were denied permission to land. After Cuba, the captain, [[Gustav Schröder]], went to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], trying to find a nation to take the Jews in, but both nations refused. He finally returned the ship to [[Europe]], where various countries, including the [[United Kingdom]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[France]], accepted some refugees. Following the [[German-occupied Europe|German occupation]] of France, Belgium and the Netherlands during [[World War II]], many refugees were persecuted during the [[Holocaust]], and some historians have estimated that approximately a quarter of them were killed in [[Extermination camp|death camps]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://activehistory.ca/?s=Netherlands+&submit=Search|title=Remembering the Voyage of the St. Louis|last=Madokoro|first=Laura|website=Active History |date=August 9, 2021 }}</ref> These events, also known as the "Voyage of the Damned", have inspired [[Voyage of the Damned|film]], opera, and fiction.

==Background and early years==
Under construction number 670, ''St. Louis'' was launched on August 2, 1928, at the Bremer Vulkan in [[Bremen-Vegesack]]. She was 174.90 m long and 22.10 m wide and was measured with 16,732 GRT. Four double-acting six-cylinder two-stroke diesel engines (MAN type, built under license from Bremer Vulkan) each with an output of 3150 hp gave her a speed of {{convert|16.5|kn|km/h}}. Her sister ship, ''Milwaukee'', was launched on February 20, 1929.

''St. Louis'' left Hamburg on March 28, 1929, for her maiden voyage to New York City, and was then mainly used in the North Atlantic service from Hamburg to Halifax, and then to New York. She also made cruises of 16–17 days each to the [[Canary Islands]], [[Madeira]] and [[Morocco]], especially in autumn and spring. From 1934 she was also chartered in the summer by the Office for Travel, Hiking and Holidays (RWU) of [[Kraft durch Freude|Strength Through Joy]] (KDF) to travel to [[Norway]] with 900 holidaymakers at a time.

==The "Voyage of the Damned"==
Under the command of Captain [[Gustav Schröder]], ''St. Louis'' set sail from Hamburg to [[Havana]], [[Cuba]] on May 13, 1939, carrying 937 passengers, most of them Jewish refugees<ref name="ushmm">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Holocaust Encyclopedia |title=Voyage of the St. Louis|url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/voyage-of-the-st-louis |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum}}</ref><ref name=Rosen-563>Rosen, p. 563.</ref> seeking asylum from Nazi [[Nazi Germany#Persecution of Jews|persecution in Germany]].

Captain Schröder was a German<ref name="yadvashem">{{cite web |url=http://db.yadvashem.org/righteous/family.html?language=en&itemId=4017400 |title=The Righteous Among The Nations: Gustav Schroeder |website=Yad Vashem |access-date=January 29, 2017 }}</ref> who went to great lengths to ensure dignified treatment for his passengers.<ref>Levine, p. 105.</ref> Food served included items subject to rationing in Germany, and childcare was available while parents dined. Dances and concerts were put on, and on Friday evenings, religious services were held in the dining room. A bust of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] was covered by a tablecloth. Swimming lessons took place in the pool. Lothar Molton, a boy traveling with his parents, said that the passengers thought of it as "a vacation cruise to freedom".<ref>Levine, pp. 110–11.</ref>

On reaching Cuba, she anchored at 04:00 on May 27 at the far end of the [[Havana Harbor]], but was denied entry to the usual docking areas. The Cuban government, headed by President [[Federico Laredo Brú]], refused to accept the foreign refugees, although they held legal tourist [[travel visa|visa]]s to Cuba, as laws related to these had been recently changed. On May 5, 1939, four months before World War II began, Havana had abandoned its pragmatic immigration policy, by virtue of decree 937, which "restricted entry of all foreigners except U.S. citizens, unless authorized by Cuban secretaries of state [and] subject [to] a bond of US $500."<ref>Levine, p. 103</ref> None of the passengers knew that their landing permits had been invalidated a few weeks earlier.<ref name=yadvashem/>

After the ship had been in the harbor for five days, only 28 passengers were allowed to disembark in Cuba.<ref>Levine, p. 114.</ref><ref name="Rosen-speech"/> Twenty-two were Jews who had valid United States visas; four were Spanish citizens and two were Cuban nationals, all with valid entry documents. The last admitted was a medical evacuee, a desperate passenger who attempted suicide, and was allowed hospitalization in Havana.<ref name="ushmm"/>

[[File:StLouisHamburg.jpg|thumb|right|Boarding in the [[Port of Hamburg]]]]

Records show American officials Secretary of State [[Cordell Hull]] and [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] [[Henry Morgenthau Jr.|Henry Morgenthau]] had made efforts to persuade Cuba to accept the refugees, quite like the failed attempts by the [[American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee|American Jewish "Joint" Distribution Committee]], which pleaded with the government.<ref name="Rosen-speech"/> After most passengers were refused landing in Cuba, Captain Schröder directed ''St. Louis'' and the remaining 907 refugees towards the United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archives.jdc.org/assets/documents/thevoyageofthest-louis.pdf |title=The Voyage of the ''St. Louis'' |date=June 15, 1939 |access-date=January 29, 2017 |website=American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee }}</ref> He circled off the coast of [[Florida]], hoping for permission from authorities to enter the United States. Neither Hull nor U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] chose to intervene to admit the refugees. Captain Schröder considered running ''St. Louis'' aground along the coast to allow the refugees to escape but, acting on Hull's instructions, [[United States Coast Guard]] vessels shadowed the ship and prevented this.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Holocaust Memorial Day Trust {{!}} The SS St Louis |url=https://www.hmd.org.uk/resource/ss-st-louis/ |access-date=2024-05-02 |language=en}}</ref>

After ''St. Louis'' was turned away from the United States, a group of academics and clergy in Canada tried to persuade Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] to provide sanctuary to the passengers.<ref name="USCG">{{cite web |url=https://www.history.uscg.mil/Frequently-Asked-Questions/ |title=What was the Coast Guard's role in the SS St. Louis affair, often referred to as "The Voyage of the Damned"? |website=United States Coast Guard History |date=December 21, 2016 |access-date=December 22, 2022 }}</ref> The ship could have reached [[Halifax, Nova Scotia]] in two days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.ns.ca/news/details.asp?id=20091105005 |title=Maritime Museum Exhibit on Tragic Voyage of MS St. Louis |date=November 5, 2010 |publisher=Government of Nova Scotia |access-date=September 12, 2014}}</ref> The director of Canada's Immigration Branch, [[Frederick Blair]], was hostile to Jewish immigration and persuaded the head of government on June 9 not to intervene.

As Captain Schröder negotiated and schemed to find passengers a haven, conditions on the ship declined. At one point he made plans to wreck the ship on the British coast to force the government to take in the passengers as refugees. He refused to return the ship to Germany until all the passengers had been given entry to some other country. US officials worked with Britain and European nations to find refuge for the Jews in Europe.<ref name="Rosen-speech"/> The ship returned to Europe, docking at the [[Port of Antwerp]] (Belgium) on June 17, 1939, with the 908 passengers.<ref>George Axelsson, "907 Refugees End Voyage in Antwerp", ''New York Times,'' 18 June 1939</ref><ref>Levine, p. 118.</ref>

The British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] agreed to take 288 (32 percent) of the passengers, who disembarked and travelled to the UK via other steamers. After much negotiation by Schröder, the remaining 619 passengers were also allowed to disembark at Antwerp. 224 (25 percent) were accepted by France, 214 (23.59 percent) by [[Belgium]], and 181 (20 percent) by the [[Netherlands]]. The ship returned to Hamburg without any passengers. The following year, after the [[Battle of France]], and the Nazi occupations of Belgium, France, and the Netherlands in May 1940, all the Jews in those countries were subject to high risk, including the recent refugees.<ref>Rosen, pp. 103, 567.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/stlouis.html|title=The Tragedy of the S.S. St. Louis|access-date=July 17, 2007}}</ref>

[[File:GSchroederAntwerp.jpg|thumb|right|''St. Louis'' Captain Gustav Schröder negotiates landing permits for the passengers with [[Belgium|Belgian]] officials in the [[Port of Antwerp]].]]
Based on the survival rates for Jews in various countries during the war and deportations, historians have estimated that 180 of the ''St. Louis'' refugees in France, 152 of those in Belgium and 60 of those in the Netherlands survived the [[Holocaust]].<ref>{{cite book| title= Voyage of the Damned | url= https://archive.org/details/voyageofdamned00thom | url-access= registration | author = Thomas and Morgan-Witts| year= 1974 | publisher= New York, Stein and Day | isbn= 9780812816945 }}</ref> Including the passengers who landed in England, of the original 936 refugees (one man died during the voyage), roughly 709 survived the war and 227 died.<ref>Rosen, pp. 447, 567 citing Morgan-Witts and Thomas (1994) pp. 8, 238</ref><ref name="Rosen-speech">{{cite speech|title=Saving the Jews|first=Robert|last=Rosen|date=July 17, 2006|location=[[Carter Center]] (Atlanta, Georgia)|url=http://www.savingthejews.com/html/carterlibraryspeech.htm|access-date=July 17, 2007}}</ref> Later research tracing each passenger has determined that 254 (41.0%) of those who returned to continental Europe were murdered during the Holocaust.
 
{{blockquote|Of the 620 ''St. Louis'' passengers who returned to continental Europe, we determined that eighty-seven were able to emigrate before Germany invaded western Europe on May 10, 1940. Two hundred fifty-four passengers in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands after that date died during the Holocaust. Most of these people were murdered in the killing centers of [[Auschwitz]] and [[Sobibor extermination camp|Sobibór]]; the rest died in internment camps, in hiding or attempting to evade the Nazis. Three hundred sixty-five of the 620 passengers who returned to continental Europe survived the war. Of the 288 passengers sent to Britain, the vast majority were alive at war's end.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=szsEtvPJ--cC&pg=PA174 | author = Scott Miller and Sarah Ogilvie |pages= 174–75 |date= 2010 | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | title = Refuge Denied: The St. Louis Passengers and the Holocaust| isbn = 9780299219833 }}</ref>}}

[[File:The Dutch applied a special marking inside passports of those they accepted.jpg|thumb|The Dutch applied a special marking inside passports of those they accepted.]]

==Legacy==
After the war, the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] awarded Captain Gustav Schröder the [[Bundesverdienstkreuz|Order of Merit]]. In 1993, Schröder was posthumously named as one of the [[Righteous Among the Nations]] at the [[Yad Vashem Holocaust Memorial]] in [[Israel]].<ref name="yadvashem"/>

A display at the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] in Washington, D.C., tells the story of the voyage of the MS ''St. Louis''. The [[Hamburg Museum]] features a display and a video about ''St. Louis ship'' in its exhibits about the history of shipping in the city. In 2009, a special exhibit at the [[Maritime Museum of the Atlantic]] in [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], entitled ''Ship of Fate'', explored the Canadian connection to the tragic voyage. The display is now a traveling exhibit in Canada.<ref>[https://maritimemuseum.novascotia.ca/what-see-do/travelling-exhibit-ms-st-louis-ship-fate "Traveling Exhibit: MS ''St. Louis'' Ship of Fate"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630052832/https://maritimemuseum.novascotia.ca/what-see-do/travelling-exhibit-ms-st-louis-ship-fate |date=June 30, 2018 }}, Maritime Museum of the Atlantic</ref>

In 2011, a memorial monument called the ''Wheel of Conscience'' was produced by the [[Canadian Jewish Congress]], designed by [[Daniel Libeskind]] with graphic design by [[David Berman (graphic designer)|David Berman]] and Trevor Johnston.<ref>[http://www.daniel-libeskind.com/news/news-single-view/article/353/cjc-and-pier ''Studio Daniel Libeskind''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708232708/http://www.daniel-libeskind.com/news/news-single-view/article/353/cjc-and-pier/ |date=July 8, 2011 }}, daniel-libeskind.com, 19 January 2011; retrieved 21 January 2011.</ref> The memorial is a polished [[stainless steel]] wheel. Symbolizing the policies that turned away more than 900 Jewish refugees, the wheel incorporates four inter-meshing [[gears]], each showing a word to represent factors of exclusion: [[antisemitism]], [[xenophobia]], [[racism]], and [[hatred]]. The back of the memorial is inscribed with the passenger list.<ref>{{cite web |last=Taplin |first=Jennifer |title=Perpetual Memorial of Regret |publisher=Metro News Halifax |date=21 January 2011 |url=http://www.metronews.ca/news/halifax/2011/01/21/perpetual-memorial-of-regret.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160310142419/http://www.metronews.ca/news/halifax/2011/01/21/perpetual-memorial-of-regret.html |archive-date=10 March 2016 |access-date=22 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was first exhibited in 2011 at the [[Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21]], Canada's national immigration museum in [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]]. After a display period, the sculpture was shipped to its fabricators, Soheil Mosun Limited, in Toronto for repair and refurbishment.<ref>[http://www.pier21.ca/exhibitions "Exhibitions", Canadian Museum of Immigration at Pier 21], pier21.ca; accessed 12 September 2014.</ref>

In 2012, the [[United States Department of State]] formally apologized in a ceremony attended by Deputy Secretary [[William J. Burns (diplomat)|William J. Burns]] and 14 survivors of the incident.<ref name="State Department">{{cite web|last1=Eppinger|first1=Kamerel|title=State Department apologizes to Jewish refugees|url=http://www.shfwire.com/state-department-apologizes-jewish-refugees/|website=shfwire.com|date=September 26, 2012|access-date=26 September 2017|archive-date=September 26, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926190941/http://www.shfwire.com/state-department-apologizes-jewish-refugees/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The survivors presented a proclamation of gratitude to various European countries for accepting some of the ship's passengers. A signed copy of Senate Resolution 111, recognizing June 6, 2009, as the 70th anniversary of the incident, was delivered to the Department of State Archives.<ref name="State Department"/>

In May 2017, [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Justin Trudeau]] announced the Government of Canada would offer a formal apology in the country's [[House of Commons of Canada|House of Commons]] for its role in the fate of the ship's passengers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/trudeau-apology-st-louis-1.4654516 |title=Trudeau to offer formal apology in Commons for fate of Jewish refugee ship MS St. Louis |access-date=11 May 2018}}</ref> The apology was issued on November 7, 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/trudeau-apologizes-canadas-1939-refusal-jewish-refugee-ship-214025605.html|title=Trudeau apologizes for Canada's 1939 refusal of Jewish refugee ship|date=November 7, 2018 |access-date=7 November 2018}}</ref>

==Later career==
MS ''St. Louis'' was adapted as a German naval [[accommodation ship]] from 1940 to 1944. She was heavily damaged by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] bombings at [[Kiel]] on August 30, 1944. The ship was repaired and used as a [[hotel ship]] in Hamburg in 1946. She was sold and [[Ship breaking|scrapped]] at [[Bremerhaven]] in 1952.<ref>{{cite web|title=M/S St. Louis, Hamburg America Line|url=http://www.norwayheritage.com/p_ship.asp?sh=stlot |website=www.norwayheritage.com |date= |access-date=27 January 2021}}</ref>{{citation needed|reason=better-ultimate sources not stated at url|date=January 2021}}

==Notable passengers==
* [[Arno Motulsky]] (1923–2018), medical geneticist<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Motulsky |first1=Arno G. |title=A German‐Jewish refugee in Vichy France 1939–1941. Arno Motulsky's memoir of life in the internment camps at St. Cyprien and Gurs |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part A |date=June 2018 |volume=176 |issue=6 |pages=1289–1295 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.38701 |pmid=29697901 |pmc=6001526 }}</ref>
* [[Frederick Reif]] (1927–2019), physicist at [[University of California, Berkeley]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Obituary: Frederick Reif / Educator, author and researcher at Carnegie Mellon University |url=https://www.post-gazette.com/news/obituaries/2019/08/17/Obituary-Frederick-Reif-Educator-author-researcher-Carnegie-Mellon-University/stories/201908170036 |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=Pittsburgh Post-Gazette |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Erich Dublon]] (1890-1942), whose writing regarding his experience of the ship was published.<ref>{{cite web |date=1939-05-22 |title=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |url=https://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn699813?rsc=205601&cv=0&x=1276&y=839&z=1.9e-4 |access-date=2024-11-17 |website=Collections Search}}</ref>

==Representations==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2018}}
* [[Jan de Hartog]]'s play ''Schipper naast God'' (1942), translated in English as "Skipper next to God" (1945)
* ''Voyage of the Damned'' (1974), a nonfiction account by [[Gordon Thomas (author)|Gordon Thomas]] and [[Max Morgan-Witts]]
* ''[[Voyage of the Damned]]'' (1976), a film directed by [[Stuart Rosenberg]] adapted from the Thomas/Morgan-Witts book
* [[Julian Barnes]]'s novel ''[[A History of the World in 10½ Chapters]]'' (1989) recounts the trials of the MS ''St. Louis'' Jews in the chapter "Three Simple Stories"
* [[Bodie and Brock Thoene]]'s 1991 novel ''Munich Signature''
* [[Chiel Meijering]] composed an opera, ''St. Louis Blues'' (1994) 
* ''Denied Entry: A Survivor's Story of Fate, Faith, and Freedom'' (2011), an autobiography and commentary by [[Philip S. Freund]]. {{ISBN|1-45-635148-6}}
* ''To Hope and Back'' by Kathy Kacer (2011) is a young adult nonfiction account of two children's experience on the voyage. {{ISBN|1-92-692040-6}}
* [[Leonardo Padura]]'s novel ''[[Herejes]]'' (2013) centers on the ''St. Louis'' incident. {{ISBN|8-48-383755-2}}
* [[Nilo Cruz]]'s play ''Sotto Voce'' (2014), explores the tragedy of the ship's passengers in the present 
* ''[[The German Girl]]'' (2016), a novel by [[Armando Lucas Correa]]. {{ISBN|1-50-1121146}}
* ''[[Refugee (Gratz novel)|Refugee]]'' (2017), a young adult novel by [[Alan Gratz]]. {{ISBN|0-54-588087-4}}
* ''Die Reise der Verlorenen'', 2018 play by [[Daniel Kehlmann]]
* ''The Good Ship St. Louis'', 2022 play by [[Philip Boehm]]
* [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/opinions/outlook/st-louis-refugee-ship-blues/static.html The St. Louis Refugee Ship Blues, Art Spiegelman recounts a sad story 70 years later.] by [[Art Spiegelman]]

==See also==
* {{SS|Navemar}}, designed for 28 passengers, which carried 1,120 Jewish refugees to New York in 1941
* [[Struma disaster|MV ''Struma'']], a schooner chartered to carry Jewish refugees that was torpedoed and sunk by a Soviet submarine on 5 February 1942
* {{MV|Mefküre}}, a schooner carrying Jewish refugees that was torpedoed and sunk by a Soviet submarine on 5 August 1944
* ''[[Komagata Maru incident|Komagata Maru]]'', a merchant ship carrying Asian migrants that was denied entry to Canada in 1914
* {{SS|Quanza}}, which carried over 300 refugees including at least 100 Jews to America and Mexico in 1940

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book |first=Robert M. |last=Levine |title=Tropical Diaspora: The Jewish Experience in Cuba |place=Gainesville |publisher=University Press of Florida |date=1993 |page=103 |isbn=9781558765214 }}
*{{cite book | last = Miller | first = Scott | author2 = Sarah A. Ogilvie | title = Refuge Denied: The St. Louis Passengers and the Holocaust | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-299-21980-2 | oclc = 64592065 | url = https://archive.org/details/refugedeniedstlo00ogil_0 }}
*{{cite book | last = Rosen | first = Robert | title = Saving the Jews: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Holocaust | publisher = Thunder's Mouth Press | location = New York | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-1-56025-778-3 | oclc = 64664326 }}
*{{cite book | last = Whitaker | first = Reginald | title = Canadian Immigration Policy | publisher = Canadian Historical Association | location = Ottawa | year = 1991 | isbn = 0-88798-120-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/lapolitiquecanad00whit }}

==Further reading==
* [[Irving Abella|Abella, Irving]]; [[Harold Troper]], ''[[None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948]],'' Toronto, ON: [[Lester & Orpen Dennys]], 1983.
* Afoumado, Diane. ''Exil impossible'': L'errance des Juifs du paquebot St-Louis (L’Harmattan, 2005).
* [[Pierre Anctil|Anctil, Pierre]]; Alexandre Comeau. "[[doi:10.25071/1916-0925.40206|The St. Louis Crisis in the Canadian Press: New Data on the June 1939 Incident]]." ''[https://cjs.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/cjs/index Canadian Jewish Studies / Études Juives Canadiennes]'', ''31'', 13–40.
* Levinson, Jay. ''Jewish Community of Cuba: Golden Years, 1906–1958'', Nashville, TN: Westview Publishing, 2005. (See Chapter 10)
*{{cite book | last = Morgan-Witts | first = Max | author-link = Max Morgan-Witts |author2=Gordon Thomas |author-link2=Gordon Thomas (author) | title = Voyage of the Damned | publisher = Motorbooks International | location = Stillwater, Minnesota | year = 1994 | edition = 2nd, revised (first in 1974)| isbn = 978-0-87938-909-3 | oclc = 31373409 }}
* Ogilvie, Sarah; Scott Miller. ''Refuge Denied: The St. Louis Passengers and the Holocaust'', Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006.
* Sampson, Pamela. ''No Reply: A Jewish Child Aboard the MS St. Louis and the Ordeal That Followed'', Atlanta, GA, 2017
* Lawlor, Allison. ''The Saddest Ship Afloat: The Tragedy of the MS St. Louis,'' Nimbus Publishing, ''2016.'' {{ISBN|978-1771083997}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|St. Louis (ship, 1929)}}
{{Library resources box}}
* [http://www.savingthejews.com/html/carterlibraryspeech.htm Robert Rosen, "Carter Center Library Speech" on "The S.S. St. Louis"], July 17, 2006, ''Saving the Jews: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Holocaust''
* [https://www.history.uscg.mil/Frequently-Asked-Questions/ "St. Louis affair"], US Coast Guard's official FAQ
* [http://www.ushmm.org/information/exhibitions/online-exhibitions/special-focus/american-responses-to-the-holocaust/st-louis "American Responses to the Holocaust - St. Louis"], U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
* [http://archives.jdc.org/educators/topic-guides/the-story-of-the-ss-st.html "The Story of the S.S. St. Louis (1939)"] American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee Archives
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-27373131 "SS St Louis: The ship of Jewish refugees nobody wanted"] BBC News
* Matthias Loeber, “Swept back into the unseen vastness of the sea” - Fritz Buff's account of his voyage aboard the ST. LOUIS, May and June 1939, in: Key Documents of German-Jewish History, March 15, 2021, https://dx.doi.org/10.23691/jgo:article-266.en.v1

{{Latin America during World War II}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:St. Louis}}
[[Category:1928 ships]]
[[Category:1939 in Canada]]
[[Category:1939 in Cuba]]
[[Category:1939 in Judaism]]
[[Category:1939 in the United States]]
[[Category:International maritime incidents]]
[[Category:International response to the Holocaust]]
[[Category:Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Ocean liners]]
[[Category:Refugees in Canada]]
[[Category:Ships of the Hamburg America Line]]
[[Category:The Holocaust and the United States]]
[[Category:Aid for Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany]]