View source for Madras Presidency

{{Short description|Administrative subdivision of India from 1652 to 1950}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = Presidency of Fort St. George<br>{{small|{{nobold|1684–1937}}}}<hr>Province of Madras<br>{{small|{{nobold|1937–1950}}}}
| common_name            = Madras Presidency
| era                    = [[New Imperialism]]
| year_start             = 1652
| event_start            = Fort St. George elevated to a Presidency
| event1                 = [[Government of India Act 1833|Madras becomes a province of India]] but retains title of "Presidency"
| date_event1            = 1833
| event_end              = [[Constitution of India|Madras becomes a state of India]] and remained as [[State of Madras]]
| date_event2            = 1937
| event2                 = Renamed as Province of Madras
| year_end               = 1950
| p1                     = Fort St. George{{!}}Madras Agency
| p2                     = Ramnad Estate
| s1                     = Madras State
| flag_p1                = British East India Company flag.svg
| flag_s1                = Flag of India.svg
| s2                     = 
| flag_p2                = 
| flag_s2                = 
| image_flag             = British Raj Red Ensign.svg
| flag_type              = [[Star of India (flag)|Flag]]
| image_coat             = Badge of British Madras (Presidency of Fort St. George).png
| image_map              = Madras map 1913.jpg
| image_map_caption      = The Madras Presidency in 1913
| stat_area1             = 
| stat_year1             = 
| stat_pop1              = 
| footnotes              = 
| official_languages     = [[English language|English]], [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (by 1937)
| demonym                = 
| capital                = [[Chennai|Madras]]<br>[[Ooty]] <small>([[summer capital]])</small>
| today                  = [[India]]
| title_deputy           = [[List of chief ministers of Tamil Nadu|Premier]]
| deputy2                = [[P. S. Kumaraswamy Raja]]
| year_deputy2           = 1949–1950 (last)
| year_deputy1           = 1920–1921 (first)
| deputy1                = [[A. Subbarayalu Reddiar]]
| title_leader           = [[List of colonial governors and presidents of Madras Presidency#Governors (of British Raj)|Governor]]
| legislature            = Madras Provincial Legislature
| population_estimate    = 49,341,810
| population_estimate_year = 1941
| house1                 = [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Council|Madras Legislative Council]] (1861–1950)
| house2                 = [[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly|Madras Legislative Assembly]] (1937–1950)
| leader1                = [[George McCartney, 1st Earl McCartney|George McCartney]]
| year_leader1           = 1785–1786 (first)
| leader2                = [[Krishna Kumarsinhji Bhavsinhji|Krishna Bhavsinhji]]
| year_leader2           = 1948–1950 (last)
}}
{{Colonial India}}

The '''Madras Presidency''', officially called the '''Presidency of Fort St. George''' until 1937, later the '''Madras Province''', was an [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|presidency]] of [[British Raj]] and later its successor, [[Dominion of India]]. At its greatest extent, the presidency included most of [[South India]], including all of present-day [[Andhra Pradesh]], almost all of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Malabar District|northern parts of Kerala]], parts of [[Karnataka]], [[Odisha]] and [[Telangana]] in the modern day. The city of [[Madras]] (present-day Chennai) was the official and winter capital of the presidency and [[Ooty|Udagamangalam]] (present-day Ooty) was the summer capital.<ref name=":0" />

In 1639, the [[East India Company]] purchased the village of Madraspatnam and one year later it established the Agency of [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St. George]], precursor of the Madras Presidency, although there had been Company factories at [[Machilipatnam]] and [[Armagon]] since the very early 1600s. The agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655. In 1684, it was re-elevated to a Presidency and [[Elihu Yale]] was appointed as president. In 1785, under the provisions of [[Pitt's India Act]], Madras became one of three presidencies established by the Company. Thereafter, the head of the area was styled "Governor" rather than "President" and became subordinate to the [[Governor-General of India|viceroy]] in [[Calcutta]], with Madras' titulature that would persist until 1950. Judicial, legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861, 1909, 1919 and 1935. Regular elections were conducted in Madras up to the outbreak of the [[Second World War]] in 1938. By 1908, the province comprised twenty-two districts, each under a [[District Collector]], and it was further sub-divided into ''taluks'' and ''firqas'' with villages making up the smallest unit of administration.

Following the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]] of 1917, Madras was the first [[provinces of India|presidency of India]] to implement a system of [[dyarchy]], and thereafter its Governor ruled alongside a prime minister. In the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the [[Indian independence movement]] came from Madras. Madras was later admitted as [[Madras State]], a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950.

== History ==

=== Before the arrival of the English ===
The discovery of [[dolmen]]s from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the [[Stone Age]]. The first prominent rulers of the northern part of the future Presidency were the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] [[Pandya dynasty]] (230 BC{{snd}}AD 102). Following the decline of the Pandyas and the Cholas, the country was conquered by a little known race of people called the [[Kalabhras]].<ref name = "ptsrinivasaiyengar_p535">[[#History of the Tamils|Iyengar 1929]], p. 535</ref> The country recovered under the subsequent [[Pallava dynasty]] and its civilisation attained a peak when the chola kings started acquiring vast places in Tamil Nadu during the 10th century. Following the conquest of Madurai by [[Malik Kafur]] in 1311, there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate. The Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the [[Vijayanagar Empire]], founded in 1336. Following the empire's demise, the country was split amongst numerous sultans, [[Palaiyakkarar|polygars]] and European trading companies.<ref name=":0">{{cite news |title = They administered our region HERITAGE |url = http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/06/04/stories/2007060451940400.htm |date=4 June 2007|access-date=6 April 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140407102228/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/06/04/stories/2007060451940400.htm |newspaper = [[The Hindu]] |archive-date=7 April 2014}}</ref> Between 1685 and 1947, a number of kings ruled the areas that became part of the Madras Presidency.<ref name="dolmens">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], pp.&nbsp;138–142.</ref>

The southwestern portions of the presidency, which together constitute [[Tulu Nadu]] and [[Kerala]], has a distinct history, language, and culture from its eastern counterparts.

=== Early English trading posts (1600–1639) ===
On 31 December 1600, [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I of England]] (1533–1603) granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a [[joint-stock company]] which became known as the [[East India Company]].<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v2p6">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter, 1908]], p. 6</ref><ref name="oldentimeIp5">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 5</ref><ref name="oldentimeIp6">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 6</ref><ref name="oldentimeIp7">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 7</ref> Subsequently, during the reign of [[James I of England|King James I]] (1567–1625), [[Sir William Hawkins]] and [[Thomas Roe|Sir Thomas Roe]] were sent to negotiate with the [[Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] (1569–1627) to permit the establishment of [[Factory (trading post)|trading factories]] in India on behalf of the company. The first of these were built at [[Surat]] on the west coast<ref name="oldentimeIp11">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 19</ref> and at [[Masulipatnam|Masulipatinam]] on the country's eastern seaboard.<ref name="oldentimeIp26">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 26</ref> Masulipatinam is thus the oldest English trading post on India's east coast, dating back to 1611. In 1625, another factory was established at Armagon, a few miles to the south, whereupon both the factories came under the supervision of an [[agencies of British India|agency]] based at Machilipatnam.<ref name="oldentimeIp26"/> The English authorities decided to relocate these factories further south, due to a shortage of cotton cloth, the main trade item of the east coast at the time. The problem was compounded when the Sultan of [[Golconda]] started harassing the local officers.<ref name="oldentimeIp26"/> The East India Company's administrator [[Francis Day of Madras|Francis Day]] (1605–73) was sent south, and after negotiations with the Raja of Chandragiri, he obtained a land grant in 1639 to set up a factory in the village of Madraspatinam <ref name="oldentimeIp26"/> where the new [[Fort St. George, India|Fort St George]] was built. An agency was created to govern the new settlement, and the factor [[Andrew Cogan]] of Masulipatinam was appointed as its first Agent.<ref>[[#Roy|Roy 2012]], p. 74</ref> All the agencies along India's east coast were subordinated to the East India Company [[Bantam Presidency|presidency of Bantam]] in [[Java]].<ref>[[#Chaudhuri|Chaudhuri 2006]], p. 206</ref> By 1641, Fort St George became the company's headquarters on the [[Coromandel Coast]].<ref>[[#Thorpe|Thorpe 2011]], p. 94</ref>

=== Agency of Fort St George (1640–1684) ===
Andrew Cogan was succeeded by Francis Day (1643–1644), [[Thomas Ivie]] (1644–1648) and [[Thomas Greenhill (colonial administrator)|Thomas Greenhill]] (1648–52 and 1655–58). At the end of Greenhill's term in 1652, Fort St George was elevated to a Presidency, independent of Bantam<ref name="oldentimeIp26"/> and under the leadership of the first president, [[Aaron Baker]] (1652–1655).<ref name="oldentimeIp26" /> However, in 1655 the status of the fort was downgraded to an Agency and made subject to the factory at Surat,<ref name="newellp18">[[#Newell|Newell 1919]], p. 18</ref> until 1684. In 1658, control of all the factories in Bengal was given to Madras, when the English occupied the nearby village of [[Triplicane]].<ref name="oldentimeIp281">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 281</ref><ref name="oldentimeIp282">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 282</ref>{{main|History of Madras Presidency}}

=== Expansion (1684–1801) ===
In 1684, Fort St George Black Town where the 'natives' lived. The White Town was confined inside the walls of Fort St. George and the Black Town outside of it. The Black Town later came to be known as [[George Town, Chennai|George Town]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://madrascourier.com/insight/the-etymology-of-madras/|title=The Etymology of Madras|last=Sohail|first=Sara|date=10 May 2019|website=Madras Courier}}</ref> During this period, the presidency was significantly expanded and reached an extent which continued into the early 19th century. During the early years of the Madras Presidency, the English were repeatedly attacked by the Mughals, the [[Maratha]]s and the [[Nawab]]s of [[Golkonda]] and the [[Carnatic region]].<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p251">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 251</ref> In September 1784, by Pitt's India Act, passed by the [[Parliament of Great Britain]] to unify and regulate the administration of the territories of the East India Company, the President of Madras was made subordinate to the [[Governor-General of India]] based in Calcutta.<ref name="regulatingact">[[#A History of India|Kulke 2004]], p. 245</ref> In September 1746, Fort St George was captured by the French, who ruled Madras as a part of [[French India]] until 1749, when Madras was handed back to the British under the terms of the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle]] of the previous year.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p252">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 252</ref>

In 1801, the [[Carnatic Sultanate|Nawab of Arcot]], [[Azim-ud-Daula]] signed the [[Carnatic Treaty]] bringing the [[Carnatic region]] under British rule. In return, Azim-ud-Daula was entitled to one-fifth of the total revenue of the state and the honour of a 21-gun salute.

=== During the Company rule (1801–1858) ===
{{See also|Company rule in India}}
[[File:Silver One Rupee Coin of Arkat Mint of the Madras Presidency, struck in the name of Mughal emperor Alamgir II, photographed from a personal collection in West Bengal, India, October 2, 2024.jpg|thumb|Silver Rupee of the Madras Presidency, minted in Arkat, struck in the name of Mughal emperor [[Alamgir II]].]]
From 1801 until 1858, Madras was a part of British India and was ruled by the British East India Company. The last quarter of the 18th century was a period of rapid expansion. [[Anglo-Mysore wars|Successful wars against Tipu Sultan]] (1782–99), Maruthu Pandyar, Velu Thampi, and [[Polygar Wars|Polygars]] added vast areas of land and contributed to the exponential growth of the presidency. The system of [[subsidiary alliances]] originated by [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Lord Wellesley]] as [[Governor-General of India]] (1798–1805) also brought many [[princely states]] into the area militarily subordinate to the Governor of Fort St George.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p254">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 254</ref> The largest kingdom of the hill-tract region of Visakhapatanam was Jeypore and in 1777 it was conquered by Captain Matthews.{{sfn|Tara Dutt|2015|p=45}} The hill tracts of [[Ganjam]] and [[Visakhapatnam]] were the last places to be annexed by the British.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p255">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 255</ref>

The period also witnessed a number of rebellions starting with the 1806 [[Vellore Mutiny]].<ref name="velloremutiny2">[[#Read|Read 1997]], pp. 34–37</ref> The rebellion of Velu Thambi and [[Paliath Achan]] and the [[Poligar War]]s were other notable insurrections against the British rule, but the Madras Presidency remained relatively undisturbed by the [[Sepoy Mutiny]] of 1857.<ref name="indianrevoltp288">[[#Dodd|Dodd 1859]], p. 288</ref>

The Madras Presidency annexed the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] in 1831 on allegations of maladministration<ref name="mal">[[#Kamath|Kamath 1980]], p. 250</ref> and restored it to [[Chamarajendra Wadiyar X|Chamaraja Wodeyar]] (1881–94), the grandson and heir of the deposed [[Krishnaraja Wodeyar III]] (1799–1868) in 1881. [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Thanjavur]] was annexed in 1855, following the death of [[Shivaji II of Thanjavur|Shivaji II]] (1832–1855) who left no male heir.<ref name="comm">[[#Kamath|Kamath 1980]], pp. 250–253</ref>

=== British Rule (1858–1947) ===
{{See also|British Raj}}

In 1858, under the terms of Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Madras Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British crown.<ref name="victoriap221">[[#Hibbert|Hibbert 2000]], p. 221</ref> During the period of governor [[George Harris, 3rd Baron Harris|Lord Harris]] (1854–1859), measures were taken to improve education and increase representation of Indians in the administration. Legislative powers were given to the Governor's council under the [[Indian Councils Act 1861]].<ref name="sadasivanp22">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 22</ref> The council was reformed and expanded under the [[Indian Councils Act 1892]],<ref name="sadasivanp40">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 40</ref> the [[Indian Councils Act 1909]],<ref name="sadasivanp54">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 54</ref><ref name="sadasivanp55">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 55</ref> the [[Government of India Act 1919]], and the [[Government of India Act 1935]]. [[V. Sadagopacharlu]] (1861–63) was the first Indian to be appointed to the council.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp418">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 418</ref> The legal profession was specially prized by the newly emerging corpus of educated Indians.<ref name="eliteformation">{{Cite book| title=Elite Formation in Nineteenth Century South India, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Tamil Culture and History|publisher=Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaysia Press|year=1968|first=Robert Eric|last= Frykenberg}}</ref> The first Indian judge to be appointed was [[C. V. Runganada Sastri]]; in 1877, [[T. Muthuswamy Iyer]] became the first Indian judge of the [[Madras High Court]] despite strong opposition from the [[Anglo-Indian]] media.<ref name="subramania_iyer_bio">[[#S.A.|S.A. 1969]], p. 14</ref><ref name="tercentenaryp223">[[#Tercentenary|Tercentenary Madras Staff 1939]], p. 223</ref><ref name="high_court_report">{{cite web|url=http://www.hcmadras.tn.nic.in/lawday.pdf|page=17|title=Report of the High Court of Madras|publisher=High Court, Madras|year=2007|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208160615/http://www.hcmadras.tn.nic.in/lawday.pdf|archive-date=8 February 2012}}</ref> He also acted as the [[Chief Justice]] of the Madras High Court for a few months in 1893, thereby becoming the first Indian to hold the post.<ref name="Malaviya_bio">[[#Paramanand|Pramanand 1985]]</ref> In 1899, [[V. Bhashyam Aiyangar]] became the first Indian to be appointed [[Advocate-General]] of the Madras Presidency. A number of roads, railways, dams and canals were constructed during this period.<ref name="tercentenaryp223" />

Two large famines occurred in Madras during this period, the [[Great Famine of 1876–78]] and the [[Indian famine of 1896–97]].<ref name="famine">[[#Romesh Chunder Dutt|Dutt 1999]], p. 10</ref> As a result of the first, the population of the presidency fell for the first time from 31.2 million in 1871 to 30.8 million in 1881. These famines and alleged partiality shown by the government in handling the [[Chingleput Ryots' Case]] and the [[Salem Riots of 1882|Salem riots trial]] caused discontent among the population.<ref name="thehindu_willingtostrike">{{cite news|title=Willing to strike and not reluctant to wound |url=http://www.hindu.com/th125/stories/2003091300770200.htm |date=13 September 2003 |last=S. |first=Muthiah |newspaper=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |access-date=17 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107181430/http://www.hindu.com/th125/stories/2003091300770200.htm |archive-date=7 November 2012 }}</ref>

=== Indian Independence movement ===
{{See also|Indian independence movement in Tamil Nadu}}
[[File:Annie Besant.001.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Annie Besant]] in 1922|alt=an elderly woman seated in a chair]]

A strong sense of national awakening emerged in the Madras Presidency in the later half of the 19th century. The first political organisation in the province, the Madras Native Association, was established by [[Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty]] on 26 February 1852.<ref name="sadasivanp18">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 18</ref> However, the organisation did not last long.<ref name="sadasivanp28">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 28</ref> The Madras Native Association was followed by the [[Madras Mahajana Sabha]] which was started on 16 May 1884. Of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the [[Indian National Congress]] at Bombay in December 1885, 22 hailed from the Madras Presidency.<ref name="indiannationalevolutionp58">[[#Mazumdar|Mazumdar 1917]], p. 58</ref><ref name="indiannationalevolutionp59">[[#Mazumdar|Mazumdar 1917]], p. 59</ref> Most of the delegates were members of the Madras Mahajana Sabha. The third session of the Indian National Congress was held in Madras in December 1887<ref name="howindiawroughtforfreedomp35">[[#Annie Besant|Besant 1915]], p. 35</ref> and was a huge success attended by 362 delegates from the province.<ref name="howindiawroughtforfreedomp36">[[#Annie Besant|Besant 1915]], p. 36</ref> Subsequent sessions of the Indian National Congress took place in Madras in 1894, 1898, 1903 1908, 1914 and 1927.<ref name="congress_sessions">{{cite web|url=http://www.aicc.org.in/congress-sessions.htm|title=Congress Sessions|publisher=Indian National Congress |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080625043516/http://www.aicc.org.in/congress-sessions.htm  |archive-date = 25 June 2008 |access-date = 17 November 2012}}</ref>

[[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky|Madam Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott|Colonel H. S. Olcott]] moved the headquarters of the [[Theosophical Society]] to [[Adyar (Tamil Nadu)|Adyar]] in 1882.<ref name="theosophicalsocietyadyar">{{cite web|url=http://www.ts-adyar.org/founders.html|title=Biography of the founders of the Theosophical Society|publisher=Theosophical Society, Adyar |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080603025259/http://www.ts-adyar.org/founders.html  |archive-date = 3 June 2008 |access-date = 17 November 2012}}</ref> The society's most prominent figure was [[Annie Besant]], who founded the [[Home Rule League]] in 1916.<ref name="anniebesantbio">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/besant_annie.shtml|title=BBC Historic Figures – Annie Besant|work=BBC|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108030034/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/besant_annie.shtml|archive-date=8 November 2012}}</ref> The Home Rule Movement was organised from Madras and found extensive support in the Province. Nationalistic newspapers such as ''[[The Hindu]]'', the ''[[Swadesamitran]]'' and the ''[[Mathrubhumi]]'' actively endorsed the campaign for independence.<ref name="thehindu1">{{cite news | url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2003091300810200.htm&date=2003/09/13/&prd=th125& | title=A clarion call against the Raj | date=13 September 2003 | newspaper=The Hindu | access-date=17 November 2012 | url-status=usurped | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112002540/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2003091300810200.htm&date=2003%2F09%2F13%2F&prd=th125& | archive-date=12 January 2009 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> India's first trade union was established in Madras in 1918 by [[V. Kalyanasundaram]] and [[Bahman Pestonji Wadia|B. P. Wadia]].<ref name="slaterp168">[[#Slater|Slater 1918]], p. 168</ref>

=== Dyarchy (1920–37) ===
{{main|Diarchy in Madras Presidency}}

{{multiple image
| image1 = Cnatesamudaliar.JPG
| width1 = 130
| image2 = Periyar during Self respect movement.JPG
| width2 = 130
| footer = The non-Brahmin movement was started by [[C. Natesa Mudaliar]] ''(left)'' who founded the Justice Party in 1916 and [[Periyar E. V. Ramasamy]] ''(right)'', who founded the [[Self-Respect Movement]] and took over the Justice party in 1944
}}
A [[dyarchy]] was created in Madras Presidency in 1920 as per the [[Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms]] with provisions made for elections in the presidency.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp179">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 179</ref> Democratically elected governments would henceforth share power with the Governor's autocratic establishment. Following the first elections held in November 1920, the [[Justice Party (India)|Justice Party]], an organisation established in 1916 to campaign for increased representation of non-Brahmins in the administration, against the [[Mylapore clique]], came to power.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp180">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 180</ref> [[A. Subbarayalu Reddiar]] became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency but resigned soon after due to declining health and was replaced by [[Raja of Panagal|P. Ramarayaningar]], Minister of Local Self-Government and Public Health, popularly known as the Raja of Panagal.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp182">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 182</ref> The party split in late 1923 when C. R. Reddy resigned from primary membership and formed a splinter group allied with the opposition [[Swaraj Party|Swarajists]]. A [[motion of no-confidence]] was proposed against Ramarayaningar's government on 27 November 1923, but was defeated 65–44. Ramarayaningar remained in power until November 1926. The enactment in August 1921 of the first communal Government Order (G.O. No. 613), which introduced caste-based communal reservations in government jobs, remains one of the high points of his rule. In the following elections of 1926 the Justice Party lost. However, as no party was able to obtain a clear majority, the Governor, [[George Goschen, 2nd Viscount Goschen|Lord Goschen]], set up a cross-party government under the leadership of [[P. Subbarayan]] and nominated its supporting members.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp190">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 190</ref> In the election of 1930, the Justice Party was victorious, and [[P. Munuswamy Naidu]] became Chief Minister.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp196">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 196</ref> The exclusion of ''[[Zamindars]]'' from the Ministry split the Justice Party once again. Fearing a no-confidence motion against him, Munuswamy Naidu resigned in November 1932 and the [[Ramakrishna Ranga Rao of Bobbili|Raja of Bobbili]] was appointed Chief Minister in his place.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp197">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 197</ref> The Justice Party eventually lost the [[1937 Madras Presidency legislative assembly election|1937 elections]] to the Indian National Congress, and [[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] became Chief Minister of Madras Presidency.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp199">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 199</ref>

During the 1920s and 1930s, an [[Anti-Brahmin]] movement emerged in the Madras Presidency. It was launched by [[E. V. Ramaswamy]] who, unhappy with the principles and policies of the Brahmin leadership of the provincial Congress, left the party to form the [[Self-Respect Movement]]. Periyar, as he was alternatively known, criticised [[Brahmins]], [[Hinduism]], and Hindu superstitions in periodicals and newspapers such as ''Viduthalai'' and ''Justice''. He also participated in the [[Vaikom Satyagraha]], which campaigned for the right of untouchables in [[Travancore]] to enter temples.<ref name="Periyar Speeches and Writings">[[#W.B.|W.B. 2005]], pp. 3–8</ref>

=== Last days of British rule ===
[[File:Rajaji1939.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The [[Indian National Congress]] came to power for the first time in 1937 with [[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] ''(pictured at a rally)'' as its Chief Minister|alt=a person addressing a seated crowd]]

In 1937, the Indian National Congress was elected to power in the Presidency of Madras for the first time.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp199"/> [[Chakravarti Rajagopalachari]] was the first chief minister of the presidency to come from the Congress party. He successfully enacted the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act<ref name="casteinindianpoliticsp116">[[#Caste in Indian Politics|Thurston 1909]], p. 116</ref> and introduced both prohibition<ref name="rajajiroleinfreedommovementp149">[[#Rajagopalachari|Bhakshi 1991]], p. 149</ref> and sales taxes in the Madras Presidency. His rule is largely remembered for the use of Hindi being made compulsory in educational institutions, a measure which made him highly unpopular as a politician<ref name="hindi_imposition">{{cite news | last=Kumar | first=P. C. Vinoj | title= Anti-Hindi sentiments still alive in TN | date=10 September 2003 | work =Sify News }}</ref><ref name="anti-hindi_agitations">{{cite web | title=Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970, Chapter 4| url=http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft5199n9v7&chunk.id=s1.4.21&toc.depth=1&toc.id=ch4&brand=ucpress| last=Ramaswamy| first=Sumathi| year=1997| publisher=University of California}}</ref> and sparked widespread [[Anti-Hindi agitations]], which led to violence in some places. Over 1,200 men, women, and children were jailed for their participation in such Anti-Hindi agitations<ref name="anti-hindi_agitations_2">[[#Ramaswamy|Ramaswamy 1997]], Chapter 4</ref> while Thalamuthu and Natarasan died during the protests.<ref name="anti-hindi_agitations" /> In 1940, ministers of the Congress party resigned in protest over the Government of India's declaration of war on Germany without their consent. The Governor of Madras, [[Arthur Hope, 2nd Baron Rankeillour|Sir Arthur Hope]], took over the administration and the unpopular law was eventually repealed by him on 21 February 1940.<ref name="anti-hindi_agitations" />

Most of the Congress leadership and erstwhile ministers were arrested in 1942, as a result of their participation in the [[Quit India movement]].<ref>[[#P.|P. 2001]], pp. 42–44</ref> In 1944, Periyar renamed the Justice Party as [[Dravidar Kazhagam]] and withdrew it from electoral politics.<ref>[[#W.B.|W.B. 2005]], p. 109</ref> After the end of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress re-entered politics, and in the absence of any serious opposition it easily won the [[1946 Madras Presidency legislative assembly election|1946 election]].<ref name="commons">{{Cite web|url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/commons/1946/apr/16/india-failure-of-constitutional-machinery|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209050140/http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1946/apr/16/india-failure-of-constitutional-machinery|url-status=dead|title=INDIA (FAILURE OF CONSTITUTIONAL MACHINERY)  |archive-date=9 February 2013|website=[[Hansard|Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)]]|date=16 April 1946|access-date=25 December 2019}}</ref> [[Tanguturi Prakasam]] was then elected as Chief Minister with the support of [[Kamaraj]] and served for eleven months.

=== Post Independence ===
Prakasam was succeeded by [[O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar]], who was the chief Minister of the province when India gained independence on 15 August 1947.<ref name="James Walch">[[#Walch|Walch 1976]], pp. 157–160</ref> The Madras Presidency became the [[Madras State]] in after the enactment of [[Constitution of India]] on 26 January 1950.<ref name="tnassembly">{{cite web|url=https://assembly.tn.gov.in/history/statelegislature.php|title=The State Legislature – Origin and Evolution |publisher=[[Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly]]|access-date=17 November 2023}}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:Madras Prov North 1909.jpg|thumb|200px|Madras province (North), 1909]]
[[File:Madras Prov South 1909.jpg|thumb|200px|Madras province (South), 1909]]
At its greatest extent, the Madras Presidency included much of [[southern India]]. 
Present-day territories that were once part of the presidency are the whole Indian [[States of India|State]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] excluding the region of [[Banaganapalle]] Princely State, the [[Tondai Nadu]], [[Kongu Nadu]], [[Chola Nadu]] and part of [[Pandya Nadu]] regions of [[Tamil Nadu]], the [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar region of North Kerala]], the [[Lakshadweep Islands]], the [[Ganjam district|Ganjam]], [[Gajapati District|Gajapati]], [[Rayagada District|Rayagada]], [[Koraput District|Koraput]], [[Nabarangapur District|Nabarangapur]] and [[Malkangiri District|Malkangiri]] districts of southern [[Odisha]] and the [[Bellary]], [[Dakshina Kannada]], and [[Udupi]] districts of [[Karnataka]] and the parts of [[Jayashankar Bhupalpally district|Jayashankar Bhupalapalli]], [[Bhadradri Kothagudem district|Bhadradri Kothagudem]] districts of [[Telangana]].
The presidency had its winter capital at [[Madras]] and summer capital at [[Ootacamund]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Illustrated Weekly of India|date=1975|publisher=Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at the Times of India Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sWY6AQAAIAAJ&q=Ooty+capital+Madras+Presidency|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919005519/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=sWY6AQAAIAAJ&dq=Ooty+capital+Madras+Presidency&hl=en|archive-date=19 September 2017}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{See also|Demographics of Madras Presidency}}
{{Historical populations
|align = left
|state=collapsed
|1871|31597872
|1881|31170631
|1891|35630440
|1901|38199162
|footnote=Sources:
*<ref name="Kumar">[[#Kumar|Kumar 1965]], p. 120-121</ref>
}}

In 1822, the Madras Presidency underwent its first census, which returned a population of 13,476,923. A second census conducted between 1836 and 1837 recorded a population of 13,967,395, an increase of only 490,472 over 15 years. The first quinquennial population enumeration took place from 1851 until 1852. It returned a population of 22,031,697. Subsequent enumerations were made in 1851–52, 1856–57, 1861–62, and 1866–67. The population of Madras Presidency was tallied at 22,857,855, 24,656,509 in 1861–62 and 26,539,052 in 1866–67.<ref name="officialadministrationp327">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 327</ref> The first organised census of India was conducted in 1871 and returned a population of 31,220,973 for the Madras Presidency.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiav16p256">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter]], Volume 16, p. 256</ref> Since then, a census has been conducted once every ten years. The last census of British India held in 1941 counted a population of 49,341,810 for the Madras Presidency.<ref name="statesmanp137">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 137</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{See also|Dravidian languages}}
[[File:Language map MadrasPresidency.jpg|thumb|200px|Linguistic map of the Madras Presidency|alt=map of a region]]

The [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], [[Kannada]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and English languages were all spoken in the Madras Presidency. Tamil was spoken in the southern districts of the presidency from a few miles north of Madras city as far west as the Nilgiri hills and Western Ghats.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap120">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 120</ref> Telugu was spoken in the districts to the north of Madras city and to the east of Bellary and Anantapur districts.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap120" /> In the district of South Kanara, the western part of Bellary and Anantapur districts and parts of Malabar, Kannada was spoken.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap121">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 121</ref> Malayalam was spoken in the districts of Malabar and South Kanara and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin, while Tulu was spoken in South Canara.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap121" /> Oriya was spoken in the districts of then Ganjam and Vizagapatam.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap121" /> English was spoken by Anglo-Indians and Eurasians. It was also the link language for the presidency and the official language of British India in which all government proceedings and court hearings were conducted.<ref>[[#Mollin|Mollin 2006]], p. 17</ref>

According to the 1871 census, there were 14,715,000 people who spoke Tamil, 11,610,000 people who spoke Telugu, 2,324,000 people who spoke Malayalam, 1,699,000 spoke Canarese or Kannada, 640,000 people spoke Oriya and 29,400 people spoke Tulu.<ref name="officialadministrationp6">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 6</ref> The 1901 census returned 15,182,957 speakers of Tamil, 14,276,509 Telugu-speakers, 2,861,297 speakers of Malayalam, 1,518,579 were speakers of Kannada, 1,809,314 spoke Oriya, 880,145 spoke Hindusthani/Urdu and 1,680,635 spoke other languages.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p260">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 260</ref> At the time of Indian independence, Tamil and Telugu speakers made up over 78% of the total population of the presidency, with Kannada, Malayalam and Tulu speakers making up the rest.<ref name="statesmanp174">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 174</ref>

=== Religion ===
[[File:Iyengar Vedic students 1909.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Iyengar|Vaishnavite Brahmin]] students at a [[Gurukulam]] in [[Tanjore]], c. 1909|alt=a set of individuals, some in seated position]]
[[File:Mohammadan boy 1914.jpg|thumb|200px|Muslim (called in English at the time as [[Muhammadan]]) boy, c. 1914|alt=image of a standing boy in a religious costume]]

In 1901, the population breakdown was: [[Hindu]]s (37,026,471), Muslims (2,732,931), and Christians (1,934,480). By the time of India's independence in 1947, Madras had an estimated population of 49,799,822 Hindus, 3,896,452 Muslims and 2,047,478 Christians<ref name="statesmanp141">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 141</ref>

Hinduism was the predominant religion in the presidency and practised by around 88% of the population. The main Hindu denominations were [[Saivite]], [[Vaishnavite]] and [[Lingayat]].<ref name="officialadministrationp337">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 337</ref> Among the Brahmins, the [[Smartha]] doctrine was quite popular.<ref name="universalhistory_1781_110">[[#universalhistory|T. 1765]], p. 110</ref> Worship of village gods was strong in the southern districts of the presidency while the [[matha]]s at [[Kanchi]], [[Sringeri]] and [[Ahobilam]] were regarded as the centres of the Hindu faith. Of the Hindu temples, the largest and most important were the [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Venkateswara temple at Thirupathi]], the [[Brihadeeswarar temple]] at [[Tanjore]], the [[Meenakshi Amman temple]] at [[Madurai]], the [[Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam|Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam]], the [[Udupi Sri Krishna Matha|Krishna temple at Udupi]] and the [[Padmanabhaswamy temple]] in the princely state of Travancore. Islam was brought to the southern part of India by Arab traders although most converts were made from the 14th century onwards, when [[Malik Kafur]] conquered [[Madurai]]. [[Nagore]] was the holiest city for the Muslims of the Madras Presidency. The presidency also had one of the oldest Christian populations in India. Branches of the Syrian church, contrary to historical evidence, are popularly believed to have been instituted by [[Thomas the Apostle|St. Thomas]], an apostle of [[Jesus Christ]] who visited the Malabar coast in 52&nbsp;AD<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap137">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 137</ref> Christians were mainly concentrated in the [[Tinnevely]] and [[Malabar district|Malabar]] districts of Madras Presidency with native Christians forming over one–quarter of the total population of the princely state of Travancore.<ref name="geop110">[[#Pirie|Pirie 1883]], p. 110</ref>
Hill tribes of the Nilgiris, Palani and Ganjam regions such as the [[Todas]], [[Badagas]], [[Kota people (India)|Kotas]], [[Yerukala people|Yerukalas]] and the [[Khonds]], worshiped tribal gods and were often classified as Hindus. In 1921, the [[Raja of Panagal]]'s government passed the Hindu Religious Endowments Bill that established government-controlled trusts in the Madras Presidency to manage [[Hindu temple]]s and prevent potential misuse of their funds.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp73">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 73</ref> Until the early years of the 20th century, certain [[Dalits|Hindu communities]] were not allowed inside Hindu temples. However, along with the emancipation of Indian women and removal of social evils, untouchability was slowly eradicated through legislation and social reform. The [[Ramakrishna Ranga Rao|Raja of Bobbili]] who served the Premier from 1932 to 1936, appointed untouchables to temple administration boards all over the presidency and reformed the administration of the [[Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams]], the trust which manages the Hindu temple at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupathi]]. In 1939, the Congress government of [[C. Rajagopalachari]] introduced the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act which removed all restrictions on untouchables entering Hindu temples.<ref name="casteinindianpoliticsp116" /> [[Chithira Thirunal]] of Travancore had issued a similar had earlier introduced similar legislation, the [[Temple Entry Proclamation]] at the advice of his Diwan, [[C. P. Ramaswami Iyer|Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar]], in 1937.<ref name="socialconflictp42">[[#Smith|Smith 1976]], p. 42</ref> The provincial government under Ramasamy Reddy passed the Madras Temple Entry Authorization Act on 11 May 1947, which was intended to give Dalits and other prohibited Hindus full and complete rights to enter Hindu temples.<ref name="rightopray">{{cite journal|title=Right to pray|url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl2615/stories/20090731261504200.htm|volume=26|issue=15|year=2009|journal=Frontline}}</ref><ref name="untouchabilityp317">{{cite book|title=Untouchability in India: implementation of the law and abolition|author=Rāmacandra Kshīrasāgara|publisher=Deep & Deep Publications|year=1986}}</ref> The [[Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act]] which gave [[Devadasi]]'s the legal right to Marry and also making it illegal to dedicate girls to Hindu temples was passed on 9 October 1947.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]]|author=Parvathi Menon|title=Ideals, Images and Real Lives: Women in Literature and History|editor=Alice Thorner |editor2=Maithreyi Krishnaraj|year=2000|volume=18|issue=16|url=http://www.hindu.com/fline/fl1816/18160740.htm|access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|page=264|title=Woman, Her History and Her Struggle for Emancipation|author=B. S. Chandrababu|author2=L. Thilagavathi|publisher=Bharathi Puthakalayam|year=2009|isbn=978-8189909970}}</ref>

== Administration ==
{{See also|Administrative divisions of Madras Presidency}}
The [[East India Company Act 1784]] ([[24 Geo. 3. Sess. 2]]. c. 25) created an executive council with legislative powers to assist the Governor. The council initially consisted of four members, two of whom were from the Indian civil service or covenanted civil service and the third, an Indian of distinction.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap181">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 181</ref> The fourth was the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Madras Army]].<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap182">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 182</ref> The council was reduced to three members when the Madras Army was abolished in 1895.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap182" /> The legislative powers of this council were withdrawn as per the Government of India Act 1833 and it was reduced to the status of a mere advisory body.<ref name="sadasivanp17">[[#Sadasivan|Sadasivan 1974]], p. 17</ref> However, these powers were restored as per Indian Councils Act 1861.<ref name="sadasivanp17" /> The council was expanded from time to time through the inclusion of official and non-official members and served as the main legislative body till 1935, when a legislative assembly of a more representative nature was created and legislative powers were transferred to the assembly. On India's independence on 15 August 1947, the three-member Governor's executive council was abolished.

The origins of Madras Presidency lay in the village of Madraspatnam which was obtained in 1640.<ref name="officialadministrationp21">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 21</ref> This was followed by [[Fort St David]] which was acquired in 1690. [[Chingleput District (Madras Presidency)|Chingleput district]], known as the "jaghire" of Chingleput, obtained in 1763, was the first district in the Madras Presidency.<ref name="officialadministrationp21" /> Salem and [[Malabar district|Malabar]] districts were obtained from Tipu Sultan in 1792 as per the [[Treaty of Seringapatam]] and [[Coimbatore District (Madras Presidency)|Coimbatore]] and [[Kanara]] districts after the [[Fourth Mysore War]] in 1799.<ref name="officialadministrationp22">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 22</ref> The territories of the [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom]] were constituted as a separate district in 1799. In 1800, the districts of Bellary and Cuddapah were created out of the territory ceded by the [[Nizam]] of Hyderabad.<ref name="officialadministrationp21" />{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=291}} In 1801, the districts of North Arcot, South Arcot, Nellore, [[Trichy|Trichinopoly]], Madura and Tinnevely were created out of the territories of the erstwhile Carnatic kingdom.<ref name="officialadministrationp21" /> [[Tiruchirappalli District|Trichinopoly district]] was made a sub-division of Tanjore district in June 1805 and remained so till August 1808 when its status as a separate district was restored. The districts of Rajahmundry (Rajamahendravaram), Masulipatnam and Guntur were created in 1823.<ref name="officialadministrationp20">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 20</ref> These three districts were reorganised in 1859 into two – the Godavari and Krishna districts.<ref name="officialadministrationp20" /> Godavari district was further bifurcated into East and West Godavari districts in 1925. The Kurnool kingdom was annexed in 1839 and was constituted as a separate district of the Madras Presidency.<ref name="officialadministrationp21" /> For administrative convenience, the district of Kanara was split into North and South Kanara in 1859. North Kanara was transferred to [[Bombay Presidency]] in 1862. Between 1859–60 and 1870, the districts of Madras and Chingleput were put together into a single district.<ref name="officialadministrationp21" /> A separate Nilgiris district was carved out of Coimbatore district in 1868.<ref name="officialadministrationp22" /> As of 1908, Madras Presidency was made up of 24 districts<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap182" /> each administered by a District Collector who was from the Indian Civil Service. The districts were sometimes sub-divided into divisions each under a Deputy Collector. The divisions were further sub-divided into taluks and union panchayats or village committees. Agencies were sometimes created in British India out of volatile, rebellion-prone areas of the presidency. The two important agencies in the Madras Presidency were the [[Vizagapatam Hill Tracts Agency]] which was subject to the District Collector of Vizagapatam and the [[Ganjam Hill Tracts Agency]] subject to the District Collector of Ganjam. In 1936, the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam (including the Vizagapatam and the Ganjam agencies) were partitioned between Madras and the newly created province of Orissa.

There were five princely states subordinate to the Madras government. They were [[Banganapalle State|Banganapalle]], [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]], [[Pudukkottai State|Pudukkottai]], [[Sandur State|Sandur]], and [[Travancore]].<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap1">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 1</ref> All these states had a considerable degree of internal autonomy. However, their foreign policy was completely controlled by a Resident who represented the Governor of Fort St George.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap183">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 183</ref> In case of Banganapalle, the Resident was the District Collector of Kurnool, while the District Collector of Bellary<ref name="macleanp63">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 63</ref> was the Resident of Sandur.<ref name="macleanp65">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 65</ref> The Resident of Pudukkottai from 1800 to 1840 and 1865 to 1873, was the District Collector of Tanjore, from 1840 to 1865, the District Collector of Madura and from 1873 to 1947, the District Collector of Trichinopoly.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v20p232">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 232</ref>

== Armed forces ==
[[File:Madras Light Cavalry 1845.JPG|thumb|100px|A British officer in the Madras Light Cavalry|alt=painting of a soldier]]
{{main|Madras Army}}

The English East India Company was first permitted to set up its own garrison in 1665 to guard its settlements. Notable amongst the early operations of the company's forces were the defence of the city from Mughal and Maratha invaders and from the incursions of the Nawab of Carnatic. In 1713, the Madras forces under Lieutenant John de Morgan distinguished themselves in the siege of Fort St David and in putting down [[Edward Harrison (British administrator)#Richard Raworth's Rebellion|Richard Raworth's Rebellion]].<ref name="oldentimeIIp198">[[#Madras in the Olden Time|Wheeler 1996]], p. 198</ref>

When [[Joseph François Dupleix]], the Governor of French India, began to raise native battalions in 1748, the British of Madras followed suit and established the Madras Regiment.<ref name="armiesofindiap4">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 4</ref> Though native regiments were subsequently established by the British in other parts of India, the distances that separated the three presidencies resulted in each force developing divergent principles and organisations. The first reorganisation of the army took place in 1795 when the Madras army was reconstituted into the following units:
* European Infantry – Two battalions of ten companies
* Artillery – Two European battalions of five companies each, with fifteen companies of [[lascar]]s
* Native Cavalry – Four regiments
* Native Infantry – Eleven regiments of two battalions<ref name="armiesofindiap7">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 7</ref>

[[File:Jamadar 20thDeccanHorse Madras.JPG|thumb|150px|left|A Jamadar of the 20th Deccan Horse|alt=painting of a soldier]]

In 1824, a second reorganisation took place, whereupon the double battalions were abolished and the existing battalions were renumbered. The [[Madras Army]] at the time consisted of one European and one native brigade of horse artillery, three battalions of foot artillery of four companies each, with four companies of lascars attached, three regiments of light cavalry, two corps of pioneers, two battalions of European infantry, 52 battalions of native infantry and three local battalions.<ref name="armiesofindiap20">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 20</ref><ref name="armiesofindiap21">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 21</ref>

Between 1748 and 1895, as with the Bengal and Bombay armies, the Madras Army had its own Commander-in-Chief who was subordinate to the president, and later to the [[List of colonial Governors and Presidents of Madras|Governor of Madras]]. By custom, the Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army was a member of the Governor's Executive Council. The army's troops participated in the [[Battle of Manila (1762)|conquest of Manila]] in 1762,<ref name="armiesofindiap14">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 14</ref> the 1795 expeditions against Ceylon and the Dutch as well as the conquest of the Spice Islands in the same year. They also took part in expeditions against [[Mauritius]] (1810), [[Java Expedition|Java]] (1811),<ref name="armiesofindiap15">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 15</ref> the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|wars against Tipu Sultan]] and the [[Carnatic Wars]] of the 18th century, the British attack on [[Cuttack]] during the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]],<ref name="armiesofindiap57">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 57</ref> the [[Siege of Lucknow]] during the [[Indian Mutiny]], and the invasion of Upper Burma during the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]].<ref name="armiesofindiap123">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 123</ref>

The 1857 Mutiny, which quickly led to drastic changes in the Bengal and Bombay armies, had no effect on the Madras Army. In 1895, the presidency armies were finally merged and the Madras regiments came under the direct control of the Commander-in-chief of British India.<ref name="armiesofindiap126">[[#Armies of India|Major MacMunn 1911]], p. 126</ref>

in 1890 three madras infantry battalions were accordingly reconstituted, at least for 
a time, by tapping two south Indian communities which had not yet
provided many recruits to the Indian army-the Mappilas and the coorgs, the government of madras was sceptical, and agreed to the formation of
two Mappila battalions only on condition they were deployed outside Malabar. Raised in 1900, the new regiments 
were complete failure, they soon dwindled to 600 men 'quite useless for service'.
ref:The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860–1940
<ref>The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940, Page:16</ref>

== Land tenure ==
[[File:Thomas Munro front.jpg|thumb|150px|Statue of [[Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Munro]] who introduced the "[[Ryotwari|Ryotwari System]]" in the Madras Presidency|alt=statue of an individual seated in a horse]]

{{See also|List of zamindari estates in Madras Presidency}}

Revenue from land rental as well as an income tax based on the tenant's net profits from their land was the presidency's main source of income.

In ancient times, land appears to have been held in common with an individual unable to sell it without the consent of the other owners, who in most cases were members of the same community.<ref name="officialadministrationp82">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 82</ref> Prior to the arrival of the British, the concept of individual proprietorship of land had already emerged along India's west coast<ref name="officialadministrationp85">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 85</ref> such that the new administration's land revenue system was not markedly different from that of its predecessor.<ref name="officialadministrationp83">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 83</ref> Nevertheless, landlords never sold land without the consent of other members of the community.<ref name="officialadministrationp85" /> This communistic property rights system was known as ''{{transliteration|ta|kaniachi}}'' among the [[Vellalars]], ''{{transliteration|sa|swastium}}'' among the [[Brahmins]] and ''mirasi'' among Muslims and Christians.<ref name="officialadministrationp85" /> In the [[Tanjore district]], all ''mirasi'' in the village were vested in a single individual who was called the ''Ekabhogam''.<ref name="officialadministrationp85" /> The ''mirasidar''s were required to donate a certain amount of money known as ''mirei'' to the village administration.<ref name="officialadministrationp85" /> They also paid a specified sum to the Government. In return, the ''mirasidar''s demanded non-interference by the government in the internal affairs of the villages.<ref name="officialadministrationp86">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 86</ref>

The proprietary system was entirely different in the district of Malabar and the states of [[Kingdom of Cochin|Cochin]] and [[Travancore]] where communal ownership of land did not exist.<ref name="officialadministrationp88">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 88</ref> Instead, land was individual property mostly owned by the landowning gentry, to wit the [[Namboodiri]] and [[Nair]] people, who did not have to pay land-tax and held extensive freeholds of land rented to tenants for agricultural purposes. In return, the Nairs supplied the king with fighting men in times of war while the Namboodhiris managed the upkeep of Hindu temples. These landlords were somewhat self-sufficient and had their own police and judicial systems such that the personal expenses of the Raja were minimal.<ref name="officialadministrationp88" /> However, landlords lost their exemption from the taxes on land if they disposed of it<ref name="officialadministrationp89">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 89</ref> meaning that mortgage of land was more common than sale. Individual proprietorship of land was also common in the Telugu-speaking areas of the presidency.<ref name="officialadministrationp90">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 90</ref> The chieftains of the Telugu-speaking districts had more or less maintained an independent existence for a long time,<ref name="officialadministrationp90" /> furnishing the sovereign with armies and equipment in times of war. In return, their right to revenues from land remained unmolested.<ref name="officialadministrationp90" /> During the time of the British, most of land in the northern districts of the presidency were parcelled out among these petty "Rajahs".<ref name="officialadministrationp90" />

Islamic invasions caused minor changes in the land proprietorship system when taxes on Hindu land owners were raised and private ownership of property came down.<ref name="officialadministrationp91">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 91</ref>

When the British took over administration, the centuries-old system of land proprietorship was left intact.<ref name="officialadministrationp92">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 92</ref> The new rulers appointed middlemen to collect revenue for lands which were not under the control of local ''[[zamindar]]''s. In most cases, these go-betweens ignored the welfare of the farmers and exploited them to the full.<ref name="officialadministrationp92" /> A Board of Revenue was established in 1786 to solve the issue but to no avail.<ref name="officialadministrationp93">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 93</ref> At the same time, the ''zamindari'' settlement established in Bengal by [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] proved highly successful and was later implemented in the Madras Presidency from 1799 onwards.<ref name="officialadministrationp94">[[#Official Administration of the Madras Presidency|MaClean 1877]], p. 94</ref>

However, the Permanent Settlement was not as successful as it had been in Bengal. When the Company did not reach the expected profit levels, a new system known as the "Village Settlement" was implemented between 1804 and 1814 in the districts of Tinnevely, Trichinopoly, Coimbatore, North Arcot and South Arcot. This involved the leasing of land to the principal cultivators, who in turn leased the land to ''[[ryot]]s'', or peasant farmers. However, as a village settlement had few differences compared to a permanent settlement, it was eventually discarded. In its place came the "Ryotwari Settlement" implemented by [[Thomas Munro, 1st Baronet|Sir Thomas Munro]] between 1820 and 1827. According to the new system, land was handed over directly to the ''ryots'' who paid their rent directly to the government. The land was assessed and paid revenue fixed by the Government This system had a number of advantages as well as disadvantages for the ''ryots''. In 1833, Lord William Bentinck implemented a new system called the "Mahalwari" or village system under which landlords as well as ''ryots'' entered into a contract with the Government.<ref>[[#Ahmed|Ahmed 2011]] pp. 392–4</ref><ref>[[#Rai|Rai 2011]], p. 91</ref>

By the early 20th century, the greater part of the land was held by ''ryots'' who paid rent directly to the Government. Zamindari estates occupied about {{convert|26|e6acre|km2}}, more than one-quarter of the whole presidency. The ''peshkash'', or tribute, payable to the government in perpetuity was about £330,000 a year. ''Inams'', revenue-free or quit-rent grants of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to the state, occupied an aggregate area of nearly {{convert|8|e6acre|km2}}.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911|p=290}} In 1945–46, there were {{convert|20945456|acre|km2}} of Zamindari estates yielding revenues of {{INR}}{{formatnum:9783167}} and {{convert|58904798|acre|km2}} of ''ryotwari'' lands which produced {{INR}}{{formatnum:72665330}}.<ref name="statesmanp154">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 154</ref> Madras had forest coverage of {{convert|15782|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name="statesmanp155">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 155</ref>

The Land Estates Act of 1908 was passed by the Madras Government in order to protect cultivators in Zamindaris from exploitation. Under the act, ''ryot''s were made permanent occupants of the land.<ref name="thangarajp287">[[#Thangaraj|Thangaraj]] 2003, p. 287</ref> However, far from protecting the ''ryot''s, the legislation proved to be detrimental to the interests of the cultivators in the Oriya-speaking northern districts of the presidency<ref name="patnaikp330">[[#Patnaik|Patnaik]] 1997, p. 330</ref> who were the intended beneficiaries, as it tied the cultivator to his land and landlord with the chains of eternal serfdom. In 1933, an amendment to the Act was introduced by the Raja of Bobbili to curb the rights of Zamindars and safeguard the cultivators from exploitation. This act was passed in the legislative council despite strong opposition from the Zamindars.

== Agriculture and irrigation ==
[[File:Madras Rice 1936.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A 1936 map of rice stations in Madras Presidency|alt=a map of a region]]

Almost 71% of the population of Madras Presidency was engaged in agriculture<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap193">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 193</ref><ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p276">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 276</ref> with the agricultural year usually commencing on 1 July.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap194">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 194</ref> Crops cultivated in the Madras Presidency included cereals such as rice, corn, kambhu ([[Sorghum bicolor|Indian millet]]) and [[Finger millet|ragi]] as well as<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap195">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 195</ref> vegetables including [[brinjal]], [[sweet potato]], [[okra|ladies' fingers]], beans, onions, garlic<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap196">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 196</ref> and spices such as [[Chili pepper|chilli]], [[Black pepper|pepper]] and [[ginger]] along with vegetable oils made from [[castor bean]]s and peanuts.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap197">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 197</ref> Fruits cultivated included [[Lime (fruit)|lime]], banana [[jackfruit]], cashew nuts, mangos, [[custard apple]]s and [[papaya]]s.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap202">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 199</ref> In addition, cabbages, cauliflowers, [[pomelo]]s, peaches, betel pepper, [[niger seed]] and [[millet]] were introduced from Asia, Africa or Europe,<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap195" /> while grapes were introduced from Australia.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap200">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 200</ref> The total cultivated area used for food crops was 80% and for cash crops, 15%.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p274">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 274</ref> Of the gross area, rice occupied 26.4 percent; ''kambhu'', 10 percent; ragi, 5.4 percent and ''Cholam'', 13.8 percent.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p274" /> Cotton occupied {{convert|1740000|acre|km2}}, oilseeds, 2.08 million, spices,0.4 million and indigo, 0.2 million.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p274" /> In 1898, Madras produced 7.47 million tons of food grains from {{convert|21570000|acre|km2}} of crops grown on {{convert|19300000|acre|km2}} of ''ryotwari'' and ''inam'' lands, which supported a population of 28 million.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p276" /> The rice yield was 7 to 10 cwt. per acre, the ''cholam'' yields were 3.5 to 6.25 cwt. per acre, ''khambu'', 3.25 to 5 cwt. per acre and ragi, 4.25 to 5 cwt. per acre.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p274" /> The average gross turnout for food crops was 6.93 cwt. per acre.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p276" />

[[File:Periyar Dam during construction.JPG|right|thumb|200px|The [[Mullaperiyar Dam]] was constructed across the [[Periyar river]] for power generation|alt=image of a dam]]

Irrigation along the east coast is carried out mostly by means of dams across rivers, lakes and [[irrigation tanks]]. The main source of water for agriculture in the [[Coimbatore]] district were tanks.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap200"/>

The Land Improvement and Agriculturists Loan Act passed in 1884 provided funds for the construction of wells and their utilisation in reclamation projects.<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p278">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 278</ref> In the early part of the 20th century, the Madras government established the Pumping and Boring Department to drill boreholes with electric pumps.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap202"/> The [[Mettur Dam]],<ref name="goughp130">[[#Gough|Gough 2008]], p. 130</ref> the Periyar Project, the Cudappah-Kurnool canal and the Rushikulya Project were the biggest irrigation projects launched by the Madras Government. Constructed below the [[Hogenakkal Falls]] on the Madras-Mysore border in 1934, the Mettur Dam supplied water to the western districts of the presidency. The Periyar Dam (now known as the Mullaperiyar Dam) was constructed across the Periyar river in Travancore, near the border.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap203">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 203</ref> This project diverted the waters of the Periyar river to the Vaigai River basin in order to irrigate the arid lands to the east of the Western Ghats.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap203" /> Similarly, the Rushikulya Project was launched to utilise the waters of the Rushikulya river in Ganjam.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap205">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 205</ref> Under the scheme over {{convert|142000|acre|km2}} of land were brought under irrigation.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap205" /> The British also constructed a number of dams <!-- dam is an anaicuts--> and canals for irrigation. An upper dam was constructed across the Kollidam river near Srirangam island.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap206">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 206</ref> The Dowlaishwaram dam across the Godavari river, the Gunnavaram aqueduct across the Vaineteyam Godavari, the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal<ref name="imperialgazetteer1908v16p276" /> and the Krishna dam are examples of major irrigation works carried out by the British.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap205" /><ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap206" /> In 1946–47, the total area under irrigation was {{convert|9736974|acre|km2}} acres which yielded a return of 6.94% on capital outlay.<ref name="statesmanp175">[[#Statesman|Steinberg 1950]], p. 175</ref>

== Trade, industry and commerce ==
[[File:Sea front Tuticorin 1913.jpg|thumb|200px|The port of [[Tuticorin]]]]
[[File:M V Cunniah Chetty showroom.jpg|thumb|200px|Textile showroom of M. V. Cunniah Chetty and Sons, circa 1914]]
[[File:Handloom weaving 1913.JPG|thumb|200px|Weaving on [[Handloom]]s, c. 1913]]
[[File:ParryRefinery Samalkota 1914.jpg|thumb|200px|Parry & Co. sugar refineries at [[Samalkota]], c. 1914]]
[[File:MadrasAutomobilesLtd1914.JPG|thumb|200px|Workshops of the Madras Automobiles Ltd., c. 1904]]

The trade of the Madras Presidency comprised that of both the presidency with other Provinces and its overseas trade. External trade made up 93 percent of the total with internal trade making up the remainder.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap297">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 297</ref> Foreign trade accounted for 70 percent of the total while 23 percent was inter-provincial.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap297" /> In 1900–01, imports from other provinces of British India amounted to {{INR}}13.43 crores while exports to other provinces amounted to {{INR}}11.52 crores. During the same year, exports to other countries reached {{INR}}11.74 crores while imports were valued at {{INR}}66.2&nbsp;million.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p354">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 354</ref> At the time of India's independence, imports of the presidency amounted to {{INR}}71.32 crores a year while exports were valued at {{INR}}645.1&nbsp;million.<ref name="statesmanp175" /> Trade with the United Kingdom made up 31.54% of the total trade of the presidency with Madras the chief port accounting for 49% of the total trade.<ref name="statesmanp175" />

Cotton piece-goods, cotton twist and yarn, metals and kerosene oil were the main items of import while animal hides and skins, raw cotton, coffee and piece-goods were the chief exports.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap297" /> Raw cotton, animal hides, oil seeds, grains, pulses, coffee, tea and cotton manufactures were the main items of sea trade.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap43">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 43</ref> Most of the sea trade was carried through the presidency's principal port of Madras. Other important ports were Gopalpur, Kalingapatnam, Bimlipatnam, Visakhapatnam, Masulipatnam, Cocanada, Madras, Cuddalore, Negapatam, Pamban and Tuticorin on the east coast along with Mangalore, Cannanore, Calicut, Cochin, Alleppey, [[Quilon|Quilon (Coulão)]] and Colachel on the western seaboard.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap36">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 36</ref> The port of Cochin was taken over by the Government of India on 1 August 1936, and that of Madras on 1 April 1937.<ref name="statesmanp175" /> There were Chambers of Commerce in Madras, Cochin and Cocanada.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap298">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 298</ref> These chambers each nominated a member to the Madras Legislative Council.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap298" />

Cotton-ginning and weaving were two of the main industries in the Madras Presidency. Cotton was produced in large quantities in the Bellary district and was pressed in [[George Town, Chennai|Georgetown]], Madras.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap208">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 208</ref> The scarcity of cotton in Lancashire caused by a decline in trade due to the [[American Civil War]] gave an impetus to cotton and textile production and led to cotton presses being established all over the presidency.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap208" /> In the early years of the 20th century, Coimbatore emerged as an important centre for cotton textiles and earned the epithet "Manchester of South India". The northern districts of Godavari, Vizagapatam and Kistna were well-known cotton-weaving centres. There was a sugar factory at Aska in Ganjam run by F. J. V. Minchin and another at Nellikuppam in South Arcot district run by the East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories Company.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap210">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 210</ref> In the Telugu-speaking northern districts of the presidency large quantities of tobacco were cultivated to be subsequently rolled into [[cheroot]]s.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap211">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 211</ref> Trichinopoly, Madras and Dindigul were the main cheroot-producing areas.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap211" /> Until the discovery of artificial [[aniline]] and [[alizarine]] dyes, Madras possessed a thriving vegetable dye manufacturing industry.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap211" /> The city also imported large quantities of aluminium for the manufacture of aluminium utensils.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap212">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 212</ref> In the early 20th century, the government established the Chrome Tanning Factory which manufactured high-quality leather.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap213">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 213</ref> The first brewery in the presidency was founded in the Nilgiri Hills in 1826.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap213" /> Coffee was cultivated in the region of [[Wynad]] and the kingdoms of [[Coorg]] and [[Mysore]]<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap214">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 214</ref> while tea was grown on the slopes of the Nilgiri Hills.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap216">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 216</ref> Coffee plantations were also established in Travancore but a severe blight at the end of the 19th century destroyed coffee cultivation in the kingdom and almost wiped out coffee plantations in neighbouring Wynad.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap214" /> Coffee-curing works were located at [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], [[Mangalore]] and [[Coimbatore]].<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap216" /> In 1947, Madras had 3,761 factories with 276,586 operatives.<ref name="statesmanp175" />

The presidency's fishing industry thrived, with Shark's fins,<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap219">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 219</ref> fish maws<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap219" /> and fish curing-operations<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap220">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 220</ref> the main sources of income for fishermen. The southern port of Tuticorin was a centre of conch-fishing<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap223">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 223</ref> but Madras, along with Ceylon, was mainly known for its pearl fisheries.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap222">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 222</ref> Pearl fisheries were harvested by the [[Paravas]] and was a lucrative profession.

The total revenue of the presidency was {{INR}}57 crores in 1946–47 made as follows: Land revenue, {{INR}}8.53 crores; Excise, {{INR}}14.68 crores; Income tax, {{INR}}4.48 crores; Stamp revenue, {{INR}}4.38 crores; forests, {{INR}}1.61 crores; other taxes, {{INR}}8.45 crores; Extraordinary receipts, {{INR}}2.36 crores and revenue fund, Rs.5.02 crores. Total expenditure for 1946–47 was {{INR}}569.9&nbsp;million.<ref name="statesmanp175" /> 208,675 k.v.a of electricity was generated at the end of 1948 of which 98% was under government ownership.<ref name="statesmanp175" /> The total amount of power generated was 467 million units.<ref name="statesmanp175" />

The [[Madras Stock Exchange]] was established in [[Madras|Madras city]] in 1920 with a strength of 100 members but gradually faded away and membership had reduced to three by 1923 when it had to be closed down.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp264">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 264</ref> Nevertheless, the Madras Stock Exchange was successfully revived in September 1937 and was incorporated as the Madras Stock Exchange Association Limited.<ref name="madras_stock_exchange2">{{cite web|url=http://www.mseindia.in/About-History.aspx|title=History of Madras Stock Exchange|access-date=6 November 2008|publisher=Madras Stock Exchange Limited|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225230/http://www.mseindia.in/About-History.aspx|archive-date=2 December 2013}}</ref> [[EID Parry]], [[Binny and Co.]] and [[Arbuthnot & Co|Arbuthnot Bank]] were the largest private-owned business corporations at the turn of the 20th century.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp261">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 261</ref> EID Parry manufactured and sold chemical fertilizers and sugar while the Binnys marketed cotton garments and uniforms manufactured at its spinning and weaving facility, the [[Buckingham and Carnatic Mills]] in [[Otteri]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp261"/><ref name="madrasrediscoveredp262">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 262</ref><ref name="madrasrediscoveredp263">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 263</ref> Arbuthnot, owned by the [[Arbuthnot family]], was the largest bank in the presidency until its crash in 1906.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp410">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 410</ref> Reduced to penury, disillusioned former Indian investors established the [[Indian Bank]] with funds donated by [[Nagarathar|Nattukottai Chetties]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp338">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 338</ref><ref name="madrasrediscoveredp339">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 339</ref>

Between 1913 and 1914, Madras had 247 companies.<ref name="sinhap44">[[#Sinha|Sinha 2005]], p. 44</ref> In 1947, the city led in the establishment of registered factories but employed only 62% of the total productive capital.<ref name="sinhap44" />

The first Western-style banking institution in India was the Madras Bank which was established on 21 June 1683, with a capital of one hundred thousand pounds sterling.<ref name="bankadministrationp70">[[#Banking Administration|Kumar 2003]], p. 70</ref> This was followed by the opening of the Carnatic Bank in 1788, the Bank of Madras in 1795 and the Asiatic Bank in 1804. In 1843, all the banks were merged to form the Bank of Madras.<ref name="bankadministrationp70" /> The Bank of Madras had branches in all the presidency's major cities and princely states including Coimbatore, Mangalore, Calicut, [[Alappuzha|Alleppy]], Cocanada, [[Guntur]], Masulipatnam, [[Ootacamund]], Negapataam, [[Tuticorin]], Bangalore, and Cochin, as well as a branch in [[Colombo]] in [[British Ceylon]]. In 1921, the Bank of Madras merged with the Bank of Bombay and the Bank of Bengal to form the Imperial Bank of India.<ref name="bankadministrationp71">[[#Banking Administration|Kumar 2003]], p. 71</ref> In the 19th century, the Arbuthnot Bank was one of the largest privately owned banks in the presidency.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp410" /> The [[City Union Bank]],<ref name="thehindu_20061009">{{cite news|title=The birth of a bank|date=6 October 2006|first=S.|last=Muthiah|author-link=S. Muthiah|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/10/09/stories/2006100900420500.htm|location=Chennai, India|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109022805/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/10/09/stories/2006100900420500.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=9 November 2012}}</ref> the [[Indian Bank]],<ref name="thehindu_20061009" /> [[Canara Bank]],<ref name="thehindu_20061009" /> [[Corporation Bank]],<ref name="thehindu_20061009" /> [[Tamilnad Mercantile Bank|Nadar Bank]],<ref name="tercentenaryp261">[[#Tercentenary|Tercentenary Madras Staff]] 1939, p. 261</ref> [[Karur Vysya Bank]],<ref name="fareastp498">[[#Eur|Eur 2002]], p. 498</ref> [[Catholic Syrian Bank]],<ref name="fareastp498" /> [[Karnataka Bank]],<ref name="fareastp498" /> [[Bank of Chettinad]],<ref name="chettiarsp43">[[#W.S.|W.S. 1973]], p. 43</ref> [[Andhra Bank]],<ref name="commercialbanksp40">[[#B.|B. 1998]], p. 37</ref> [[ING Vysya Bank|Vysya Bank]],<ref name="commercialbanksp40" /> [[Vijaya Bank]],<ref name="fareastp498" /> [[Indian Overseas Bank]]<ref name="thehindu_20040412">{{cite news|title=Building a bank, the MCt. way|url=http://www.hindu.com/biz/2004/04/12/stories/2004041200331800.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|date=12 April 2004|location=Chennai, India|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121106022529/http://www.hindu.com/biz/2004/04/12/stories/2004041200331800.htm|archive-date=6 November 2012}}</ref> and the [[Bank of Madura]] were some of the leading banks headquartered in the presidency.

== Transport and communication ==
[[File:Map of the Madras and South Mahratta Railway lines.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Map of the Madras and South Mahratta Railway lines]]

In the early days of the agency, the only means of transportation were bullock-carts known as ''jhatkas'' along with [[palanquin]]s.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap185">[[#Thurston|Thurston 1913]], p. 185</ref> The roads connecting Madras to Calcutta in the north and the kingdom of Travancore in the south served as lines of communication during wars.<ref name="provincialgeographiesofindiap185" /> From the early 20th century onwards, bullock-carts and horses were gradually replaced by bicycles and motor vehicles, while motor buses were the main means of private road transportation.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp323">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 323</ref> Presidency Transport and the City Motor Service were pioneers, operating buses manufactured by Simpson and Co. as early as 1910.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp323" /> The first organised bus system in Madras city was operated by Madras Tramways Corporation between 1925 and 1928.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp323" /> The 1939 Motor Vehicles Act imposed restrictions on public-owned bus and motor services. Most of the early bus services were operated by private agencies.

[[File:NMR up train at Kateri Road 05-02-28 04.jpeg|thumb|200px|The [[Nilgiri Mountain Railway]], a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]]]
[[File:Pamban Rail Bridge.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Pamban Bridge|Pamban railway bridge]], which connects the [[Pamban island]] with the Indian mainland was constructed in 1914]]
[[File:Backwater Malabar 1913.JPG|thumb|200px|A backwater and canal in [[Malabar (Northern Kerala)|Malabar]], c. 1913]]
The first organised initiative for the construction of new roads and maintenance of existing roads in the presidency was initiated in 1845 with the appointment of a special officer for the maintenance of main roads.<ref name="millp134">[[#Mill|Mill 1996]], p. 134</ref> The principal roads under the aegis of the officer were the Madras-Bangalore road, Madras-Trichinopoly road, Madras-Calcutta road, Madras-Cuddapah road and the Sumpajee Ghaut road.<ref name="millp134" /> A Public Works Department was initiated by Lord Dalhousie in 1852 and subsequently in 1855 an East coast canal was constructed for the purpose of easy navigation.<ref name="millp134" /> Roadways were handled by the Public Works Secretariat which was under the control of the member of the Governor's Executive Council. The principal highways of the presidency were the Madras-Calcutta road, the Madras-Travancore road and the Madras-Calicut road.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p303">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 303</ref> By 1946–47, the Madras Presidency had {{convert|26201|mi|km}} of metalled roads and {{convert|14406|mi|km}} of unmetalled roads, and {{convert|1403|mi|km}} of navigable canals.<ref name="statesmanp175" />

The first railway line in South India was laid between Madras and Arcot, which was opened for traffic on 1 July 1856.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 321</ref> The line was constructed by the Madras Railway Company formed in 1845.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> The railway station at [[Royapuram]], the first in South India, was built in 1853 and served as the headquarters of the Madras Railway Company.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> The Great Southern of India Railway Company was set up in the United Kingdom in 1853.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> and had its headquarters at Trichinopoly where it constructed its first railway line between Trichinopoly and Negapatam in 1859.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> The Madras Railway Company operated standard or broad-gauge railway lines while the Great South Indian Railway Company operated metre-gauge railway lines.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p301">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 301</ref> In 1874, The Great Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Carnatic Railway Company (established in 1864) and was renamed the Southern Indian Railway Company.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp322">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 322</ref> The Southern Indian Railway Company merged with the Pondicherry Railway Company in 1891 while the Madras Railway Company merged with the Southern Mahratta Railway Company in 1908 to form the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> A new terminus was built at [[Chennai Egmore|Egmore]] for the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp321" /> In 1927, the South Indian Railway Company shifted its headquarters from Madurai to [[Chennai Central]]. The company operated a suburban electric train service for Madras city from May 1931 onwards.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp322" /> In April 1944, the Madras and South Mahratta Railway Company was taken over by the Madras Government. In 1947, there were {{convert|4961|mi|km}} of railway in the presidency, in addition to {{convert|136|mi|km}} of district board lines.<ref name="statesmanp175" /> Madras was well-connected with other Indian cities like Bombay and Calcutta and with Ceylon.<ref name="indianempiresouvenirp14">[[#Indian Empire Souvenir|Christophers 1927]], p. 14</ref> The {{convert|6776|ft|m|adj=on}} [[Pamban Bridge|Pamban railway bridge]] connecting [[Mandapam]] on the Indian mainland with [[Pamban island]] was opened for traffic in 1914.<ref name="pamban_bridge">{{cite news | last=Srinivasan | first=T. A. | title= Swept off its feet, literally  | date=8 July 2005 | url =http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2005/07/08/stories/2005070800680300.htm | work =The Hindu: Entertainment Chennai | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024121541/http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/fr/2005/07/08/stories/2005070800680300.htm  | archive-date=24 October 2008 | url-status=usurped | access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> The [[Nilgiri Mountain Railway]] was inaugurated between [[Mettupalayam, Coimbatore|Mettupalayam]] and [[Ootacamund]] in 1899.

The Madras Tramways Corporation was promoted in Madras city in 1892 by Hutchinsons and Co. and began operating in 1895, before even London had its own tramway system.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp323" /> It plied six routes in Madras linking distant parts of Madras city and covered a total of {{convert|17|mi|km}}.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp323" />

The chief navigable waterways in the presidency were the canals in the Godavari and the Kistna deltas.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p303" /> The [[Buckingham canal]] was cut in 1806 at a cost of 90 [[lakh]]s of silver<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p304">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 304</ref> to connect the city of Madras with the delta of the Kistna river at Peddaganjam. Ships of the British India Steam Navigation Company frequently docked at Madras and provided frequent services to Bombay, Calcutta, Colombo and Rangoon.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindia1908v16p304" />

In 1917, Simpson and Co. arranged for a test flight by the first aeroplane in Madras<ref name="chennai_firstplane">{{cite web|url=http://www.chennai.tn.nic.in/chnhistevents.htm|title=Historical Events at a Glance|publisher=District Collectorate, Chennai|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415034646/http://www.chennai.tn.nic.in/chnhistevents.htm|archive-date=15 April 2012}}</ref> while a flying club was established at the Mount Golf Club grounds near [[St Thomas Mount]] by a pilot named G. Vlasto in October 1929.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp127">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 127</ref> This site was later used as the Madras aerodrome.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp127" /> One of the early members of the club, Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar went on to establish an aerodrome in his native Chettinad.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp127" /> On 15 October 1932, [[Royal Air Force]] pilot [[Nevill Vintcent]] piloted [[J. R. D. Tata]]'s plane carrying air-mail from Bombay to [[Madras]] via Bellary.<ref name="airindia_history_1930s">{{cite web|url=http://home.airindia.in/SBCMS/Webpages/Time-line-1932-1940.aspx?MID=196|title=History 1932–1940|publisher=Air India|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119195918/http://home.airindia.in/SBCMS/Webpages/Time-line-1932-1940.aspx?MID=196 |archive-date=19 November 2008|access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> This was the beginning of [[Tata Airlines|Tata Sons]]' regular domestic passenger and airmail service from Karachi to Madras. The flight was later re-routed through Hyderabad and became bi-weekly.<ref name="airindia_history_1930s" /> On 26 November 1935, Tata Sons started an experimental weekly service from Bombay to Trivandrum via Goa and Cannanore. From 28 February 1938, onwards, Tata Sons' Aviation division, now renamed Tata Airlines, began a Karachi to Colombo airmail service via Madras and Trichinopoly.<ref name="airindia_history_1930s" /> On 2 March 1938, the Bombay-Trivandrum air service was extended to Trichinopoly.<ref name="airindia_history_1930s" />

The first organised postal service was established between Madras and Calcutta by Governor [[Edward Harrison (British administrator)|Edward Harrison]] in 1712. After reform and regularisation, a new postal system was started by [[Sir Archibald Campbell]] and was introduced on 1 June 1786. The presidency was divided into three postal divisions: Madras North up to Ganjam, Madras South-West to Anjengo (erstwhile Travancore) and Madras West, up to Vellore. In the same year, a link with Bombay was established then in 1837, the Madras, Bombay and Calcutta mail services were integrated to form the All-India Service. On 1 October 1854, the first stamps were issued by the Imperial Postal Service. The General Post Office (GPO), Madras, was established by Sir Archibald Campbell in 1786. In 1872–73, a bimonthly sea-mail service began between Madras and Rangoon. This was followed by the commencement of a fortnightly sea-mail service between Madras and ports on the eastern coast.

Madras was linked to the rest of the world through telegraphs in 1853 and a civilian telegraph service was introduced on 1 February 1855. Soon afterwards, telegraph lines linked Madras and Ootacamund with other cities in India. A Telegraph department was set up in 1854, with a Deputy Superintendent stationed in Madras city. The [[Colombo]]-[[Talaimannar]] telegraph line established in 1858, was extended to Madras in 1882, thereby connecting the city with [[Ceylon]].<ref name="impressionsofceylonp207">[[#Impressions of Ceylon|Wright 1999]], p. 207</ref> Telephones were introduced in the presidency in 1881 and on 19 November 1881, the first telephone exchange with 17 connections was established at Errabalu Street in Madras.<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp54">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 54</ref> A wireless telegraphy service was established between Madras and Port Blair in 1920 and in 1936, the Indo-Burma radio telephone service was established between Madras and Rangoon.

== Education ==

The first schools offering Western-style education in the presidency were established in Madras<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap383">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 383</ref> during the 18th century. In 1822, a Board of Public Instruction was created based on the recommendations of Sir Thomas Munro, after which schools teaching students in vernacular language was established.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap338">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 338</ref> A central training school was set up in Madras as per Munro's scheme.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap338" /> However, this system appeared to be a failure and the policy was altered in 1836 in order to promote European literature and science.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap338" /> The Board of Public Instruction was superseded by a Committee for Native Education.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap339">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 339</ref> In January 1840, during the viceroyalty of [[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]], a University Board was established with [[Alexander John Arbuthnot|Alexander J. Arbuthnot]] as the Joint Director of Public Instruction.<ref name="The Hindu_madras_university">{{cite news | last=Jebaraj | first=Priscilla | title=Ongoing saga of higher learning | date=5 September 2008 | url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/05/stories/2008090554532400.htm | location=Chennai, India | access-date=17 November 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109071315/http://www.hindu.com/2008/09/05/stories/2008090554532400.htm | archive-date=9 November 2012 | work=[[The Hindu]] | df=dmy-all }}</ref> The central school was converted to a high school in April 1841 with 67 students and in 1853 became the [[Presidency College, Madras|Presidency College]] with the addition of a college department.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap339" /><ref name="The Hindu_madras_university" /> On 5 September 1857, the [[University of Madras]] was established as an examining body using the [[University of London]] as a model with the first examinations held in February 1858.<ref name="The Hindu_madras_university" /> [[C. W. Thamotharampillai|C. W. Thamotharam Pillai]] and Caroll V. Visvanatha Pillai of Ceylon were the first to graduate from the university.<ref name="The Hindu_madras_university" /> [[S. Subramania Iyer|Sir S. Subramaniya Iyer]] was the first Indian Vice-Chancellor of the university.<ref name="The Hindu_madras_university" />

Similarly, [[Andhra University]] was established by the Andhra University Act of 1925<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp74">[[#Ralhan|Ralhan 2002]], p. 74</ref> and in 1937, the University of Travancore was established in the princely state of Travancore.<ref name="university_of_travancore">{{cite web|url=http://www.keralauniversity.edu/ |title=University of Kerala Home page |publisher=University of Kerala |access-date=17 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611165005/http://www.keralauniversity.edu/ |archive-date=11 June 2010 }}</ref>

The Government Arts College, established in [[Kumbakonam]] in 1867, was one of the first educational institutions outside Madras.<ref name="craikp260">[[#Craik|Craik 2007]], p. 260</ref> The oldest engineering college in the presidency, [[College of Engineering, Guindy]], was established as a Government Survey School in 1794 before being upgraded to an Engineering College in 1861.<ref name="muthiahp239">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 239</ref> Initially, only [[Civil Engineering]] was taught,<ref name="muthiahp239" /> with the further disciplines of Mechanical Engineering added in 1894, Electrical Engineering in 1930 and Telecommunication and Highways in 1945.<ref name="muthiahp240">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 240</ref> The AC College, with its emphasis on textiles and leather technology, was founded by Alagappa Chettiar in 1944.<ref name="muthiahp241">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 241</ref> The [[Madras Institute of Technology]], which introduced courses such as aeronautical and automobile engineering was established in 1949.<ref name="muthiahp241" /> In 1827, the first medical school in the presidency was established then followed by the [[Madras Medical College]] in 1835.<ref name="indianempiresouvenirp41">[[#Indian Empire Souvenir|Christophers 1927]], p. 41</ref> The [[Saidapet Teachers' College|Government Teacher's College]] was established at [[Saidapet]] in 1856.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap343">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 343</ref>

Among the private institutions, the [[Pachaiyappa's College]], established in 1842, is the oldest Hindu educational institution in the presidency. The [[Annamalai University]], established by Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar in Chidambaram in 1929, was the first university in the presidency to have hostel facilities<ref name="annamalai_university">{{cite web|url=http://annamalaiuniversity.ac.in/aboutus.htm|title=About University|publisher=Annamalai University|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121125052844/http://annamalaiuniversity.ac.in/aboutus.htm|archive-date=25 November 2012}}</ref> Christian missionaries were pioneers in promoting education in the region. The [[Madras Christian College]], [[St. Aloysius College (Mangalore)|St. Aloysius College]] at Mangalore, [[Loyola College, Chennai|Loyola College]] in Madras and the St. Peter's College at Tanjore were some of the educational institutions established by Christian missionaries.

The Madras Presidency had the highest literacy rate of all the provinces in [[British India]].<ref name="emergenceofindiannationalismp103">[[#Seal|Seal 1971]], p. 103</ref> In 1901, Madras had a male literacy rate of 11.9 percent and a female literacy rate of 0.9 percent.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap345">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 345</ref> In 1950, when the Madras Presidency became Madras State, the literacy rate was slightly higher than the national average of 18 percent.<ref name="mehrotrap23">[[#Mehrotra|K. Mehrotra 2006]], p. 23</ref> In 1901, there were 26,771 public and private institutions with 923,760 scholars of whom 784,621 were male and 139,139 female.<ref name="imperialgazetteerofindiap361">[[#The Imperial Gazetteer of India|Hunter 1908]], p. 361</ref> By 1947, the number of educational institutions had increased to 37,811 and the number of scholars to 3,989,686.<ref name="statesmanp174" /> Apart from colleges, in 1947 there were 31,975 public and elementary schools, 720 secondary schools for boys and 4,173 elementary and 181 secondary schools for girls.<ref name="statesmanp174" /> Most of the early graduates were [[Brahmins]].<ref name="eliteformation" /><ref name="slaterp168"/> The preponderance of Brahmins in the universities and in the civic administration was one of the main causes for the growth of the Anti-Brahmin movement in the presidency. Madras was also the first province in British India where caste-based communal reservations were introduced.

In 1923, the ''Madras University Act'' was passed after its introduction by Education Minister [[A. P. Patro]].<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp74" /> Under the bill's provisions, the governing body of [[Madras University]] was completely reorganised on democratic lines. The bill asserted that the governing body would henceforth be headed by a Chancellor who would be assisted by a pro-Chancellor, usually the Minister of Education. Apart from the Chancellor and the pro-Chancellor who were elected, there was to be a Vice-Chancellor appointed by the Chancellor.<ref name="encyclopediapoliticalpartiesp74" />

== Culture and society ==
Hindus, Muslims and Christians generally followed a joint family system.<ref name="homelifeinindiap62">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 62</ref><ref name="socialstructurep69">[[#Srinivas|Srinivas 1982]], p. 69</ref> The society was largely patriarchal with the eldest male member the leader of the family.<ref name="socialstructurep69" /> Most of the presidency followed a patrilineal system of inheritance.<ref name="genderp472">[[#Agarwal|Agarwal 1994]], p. 472</ref> The only exceptions were the district of Malabar and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin which practised the ''[[marumakkathayam]]'' system.<ref name="kinshipp177">[[#Böck|Böck 2000]], p. 177</ref>

Women were expected to confine themselves to indoor activities and the maintenance of the household. Muslims and high-caste Hindu women observed [[purdah]].<ref name="homelifeinindiap62" /> The daughter in the family rarely received an education and usually helped her mother with household chores.<ref name="homelifeinindiap22">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 22</ref> Upon marrying, she moved to the house of her in-laws where she was expected to serve her husband and the elder members of his family.<ref name="homelifeinindiap63">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 63</ref><ref name="homelifeinindiap64">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 64</ref> There have been recorded instances of torture and ill treatment of daughters-in-law.<ref name="homelifeinindiap63" /><ref name="homelifeinindiap64" /> A Brahmin widow was expected to shave her head and was subjected to numerous indignities.<ref name="homelifeinindiap65">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 65</ref><ref name="homelifeinindiap66">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], p. 66</ref>

Rural society comprised villages where people of different communities lived together. Brahmins lived in separate streets called ''[[agraharams]]''. Untouchables lived outside village limits in small hamlets called ''cheris'' and were strictly forbidden from having houses in the village.<ref name="castesandtribesv6p87">[[#Castes and Tribes of Southern India|Thurston 1909]], p. 87</ref> They were also forbidden from entering important Hindu temples or approaching high-caste Hindus.<ref name="castesandtribesv6p87_2">[[#Castes and Tribes of Southern India|Thurston 1909]], p. 78</ref><ref name="castesandtribesv6p79">[[#Castes and Tribes of Southern India|Thurston 1909]], p. 79</ref>

[[Slavery in Madras Presidency|Serfdom]] was practised in almost all castes from Brahmins to non-Brahmins subjecting agricultural labourers to bondage for non-payment of debt.<ref>[[#British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society|British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841]], p. 5</ref> The Law Commission report on slavery in 1841 contains the indicative figures on the number of slaves, computed based on the population of specific castes
of [[Pallar]] and [[Paraiyar]].<ref name="Britishp4">[[#British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society|British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841]], p. 4</ref> There were proposed regulations in 1811 and 1823 to prevent child labour.<ref>[[#British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society|British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society 1841]], p. 27</ref> In 1833, the British Crown and the House of Commons proposed immediate abolition of slavery in India, but East India Company decreed otherwise.<ref>[[#Price|Price 1837]], p. 154</ref> All legal recognition to permit the civil status of slavery were withdrawn with the Act V of 1843 and selling of slaves became a criminal offence in 1862 under the new [[Indian Penal Code]].<ref>[[#Chatterjee|Chatterjee 2006]], p. 231</ref> In spite of these regulations, serfdom continued and the slave population formed 12.2%{{snd}}20% of the total population in 1930 across various districts of the presidency.<ref name="Kumarp52">[[#Kumar|Kumar 1965]] pp. 52–53</ref>

The [[Malabar Marriage Act, 1896|Malabar Marriage Act of 1896]] recognised ''[[sambandham]]'' contracts as legal marriages while the ''marmakkathayam'' system was abolished by the Marmakkathayam Law of 1933.<ref name="balakrishnanp21">[[#P.V.|P.V. 1981]], p. 21</ref> Numerous measures were taken to improve the lot of [[Dalit]] outcasts. The Thirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams Act (1933), included Dalits in the ''devasthanam''s administration. The presidency's Temple Entry Authorization Act (1939)<ref name="casteinindianpoliticsp116" /> and its Temple Entry Proclamation (1936) of Travancore were aimed at elevating the status of Dalit and other low castes to a position equal to that of high-caste Hindus. In 1872, [[T. Muthuswamy Iyer]] established the Widow Remarriage Association in Madras and advocated the remarriage of Brahmin widows.<ref name="Madhaviah_biography">[[#Anantha|Anantha Raman 2005]], p. 87</ref> The ''[[devadasi]]'' system was regulated in 1927 and completely abolished on 26 November 1947.<ref name="thehindu_20071217">{{cite news|title=When the devadasi tradition ended|last=S.|first=Muthiah|url=http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/12/17/stories/2007121750320500.htm|date=17 December 2007|location=Chennai, India|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109071456/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/12/17/stories/2007121750320500.htm |work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=9 November 2012}}</ref> The Widow Remarriage movement was spearheaded in the Godavari district by [[Kandukuri Veeresalingam]].<ref name="violencep213">[[#Roy|Roy 2002]], p.&nbsp;213.</ref> Most of the pioneers of social reform were Indian nationalists.<ref name="scoailbackgroundp224">[[#Desai|Desai 2005]], p.&nbsp;224.</ref><ref name="religionnationalismp26">[[#Deol|Deol 2000]], p.&nbsp;26.</ref>

Traditional pastimes and forms of recreation in rural areas were [[cock-fighting]], [[jallikattu|bull-fighting]], village fairs and plays.<ref name="homelifeinindiap3541">[[#Home Life in India|Finnemore 1917]], pp. 35–41</ref> Men in urban areas indulged in social and communistic activities at recreational clubs, music concerts or sabhas, dramas and welfare organisations. [[Carnatic music]] and [[bharatanatyam]] were especially patronised by the upper and upper-middle class Madras society. Of the sports introduced by the British in the presidency, [[cricket]], tennis, [[association football|football]], and [[field hockey|hockey]] were the most popular. An annual cricket tournament, known as the [[Madras Presidency Matches]], was held between Indians and Europeans during [[Pongal (festival)|Pongal]].<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp173">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 173</ref>

The presidency's first newspaper, the ''Madras Courier'', was started on 12 October 1785, by Richard Johnston, a printer employed by the British East India Company.<ref name="muthiahp50">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 50</ref> The first Indian-owned English-language newspaper was ''The Madras Crescent'' which was established by freedom-fighter [[Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty]] in October 1844.<ref name="muthiahp53">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 53</ref> Lakshminarasu Chetty is also credited with the foundation of the Madras Presidency Association which was a forerunner of the Indian National Congress. The number of newspapers and periodicals published in the presidency totalled 821 in 1948. The two most popular English-language newspapers were ''[[The Hindu]]'' established by [[G. Subramania Iyer]] in 1878, and ''[[The Madras Mail|The Mail]]'',<ref name="madrasrediscoveredp54"/> established as the ''Madras Times'' by the Gantz family in 1868.<ref name="muthiahp51">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 51</ref>

Regular radio service in the presidency commenced in 1938 when [[All India Radio]] established a station in Madras.<ref name="muthiahp164">[[#Muthiah|Muthiah 2004]], p. 164</ref> Cinemas became popular in the 1930s and 1940s with the first film in a South Indian language, [[R. Nataraja Mudaliar]]'s Tamil film ''Keechaka Vadham'', released in 1916. The first sound films in Tamil and Telugu were made in 1931 while the first Kannada talkie ''Sati Sulochana'' was made in 1934 and the first Malayalam talkie ''Balan'' in 1938.<ref name="milestonemovie">{{cite news|title=A milestone movie|work=The Hindu|url=http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/fr/2004/11/26/stories/2004112602680500.htm|date=26 November 2004|first=Randor|last=Guy|author-link=Randor Guy|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318134433/http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/fr/2004/11/26/stories/2004112602680500.htm|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref> There were film studios at Coimbatore,<ref name="reeltime">{{cite news|title=Reel-time nostalgia|last=M.|first=Allirajan|date=17 November 2003|url=http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/11/17/stories/2003111700890100.htm|location=Chennai, India|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109071506/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mp/2003/11/17/stories/2003111700890100.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=9 November 2012}}</ref> [[Salem, Tamil Nadu|Salem]],<ref name="discipline_stickler">{{cite news|title=Stickler for discipline|url=http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/08/08/stories/2008080851340600.htm|date=8 August 2008|first=Randor|last=Guy|author-link=Randor Guy|location=Chennai, India|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103114526/http://www.hindu.com/fr/2008/08/08/stories/2008080851340600.htm|work=[[The Hindu]]|archive-date=3 November 2012}}</ref> Madras and [[Karaikudi]].<ref name="avm">{{cite news|title=The innovative film-maker|last=S.|first=Muthiah|author-link=S. Muthiah|work=The Hindu|date=30 January 2006|url=http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/mp/2006/01/30/stories/2006013000270500.htm|access-date=17 November 2012|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318134438/http://www.thehindujobs.com/thehindu/mp/2006/01/30/stories/2006013000270500.htm|archive-date=18 March 2012}}</ref> Most early films were made in Coimbatore and Salem<ref name="reeltime" /><ref name="discipline_stickler" /> but from the 1940s onwards, Madras began to emerge as the principal centre of film production.<ref name="reeltime" /><ref name="avm" /> Until the 1950s, most films in Telugu,<ref name="cinemasofindiap345">[[#Thoraval|Thoraval 2000]], p. 345</ref> Kannada<ref name="mininghomemoviep174">[[#Ishizuka|Ishizuka 2008]], p. 174</ref> and Malayalam<ref name="popculturep233">[[#Kasbekar|Kasbekar 2006]], p. 233</ref> were made in Madras.

<gallery class="center">
File:Tamil brahmin couple circa 1945.jpg|A Westernized middle-class urban Tamil Brahmin couple. c.a .1945
<!-- Deleted image removed: File:Rajah Sir Annamalai Chettiar aerodrome.JPG|Rajah [[Raja Annamalai Chettiar|Sir Annamalai Chettiar]] ''(third from left)'' at his [[aerodrome]] in [[Chettinad]]. c.a. 1940 -->
File:M. K. Thyagaraja Bhagavathar.jpg|Tamil film actor [[M. K. Thyagaraja Bhagavathar]]
File:Nambudiri house 1909.jpg|A [[Namboodiri]] [[Brahman]]'s house, c.a. 1909
File:Hindu devotees Secunderamalai Madurai.jpg|Hindu devotees in procession around the temple at [[Tirupparankunram]], c.a. 1909
File:Kapu bride and groom 1909.jpg|[[Telugu people|Telugu]] bride and groom belonging to the [[Kapu (caste)|Kapu]] caste, c.a. 1909
File:Cajetan Lobo Prabhu.jpg|A [[Mangalorean Catholics|Mangalorean Catholic]] gentleman belonging to the ''[[Roman Catholic Brahmin|Bamonn]]'' caste, c. a. 1938
<!-- Deleted image removed: File:Kalki 03 1948.jpg|Cover of Tamil magazine ''[[Kalki (magazine)|Kalki]]'' issue dated 28 March 1948 -->
File:William Henry Jackson-Refreshment stall.jpg|Refreshment stall at a railway station in the Madras Presidency, c. a. 1895
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[History of Tamil Nadu]]
* [[History of Kerala]]
* [[Administrative divisions of Madras Presidency]]
* [[Madras States Agency]]
* [[List of colonial governors and presidents of Madras Presidency]]
* [[Advocate-General of Madras]]
* [[Sheriff of Madras]]
* [[Bengal Presidency]]
* [[Bombay Presidency]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|35em}}
; Government publications
* {{cite book |title=Slavery and the slave trade in British India: with notices of the existence of these evils in the islands of Ceylon, Malacca, and Penang, drawn from official documents|publisher=T. Ward, and to be had at the office of the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery society|year=1841|last=British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society|ref=British and Foreign Anti-slavery Society}}
* {{cite book|title=Standing Information regarding the Official Administration of Madras Presidency|first=MaClean|last=C. D.|publisher=Government of Madras|year=1877|ref=Official Administration of the Madras Presidency}}
* {{cite book | title=The India List and India Office List| last=Great Britain India Office| year=1905| publisher=Harrison and Sons| location=London|ref=India Office List 1905}}
* {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India 1908|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.123568|last=Hunter|first=Sir William Wilson|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1908|ref=The Imperial Gazetteer of India}}
* {{cite book | title=Illustrated Guide to the South Indian Railway (Incorporated in England): Including the Tanjore District Board, Pondicherry, Peralam-Karaikkal, Travancore State, Cochin State, Coimbatore District Board, Tinnevelly-Tiruchendur, and the Nilgiri Railways| year=1926| publisher=South Indian Railway Company| location=Madras|ref=South Indian Railway}}
* Madras District Gazetteers
* {{cite book|title=Memorandum of progress of the Madras Presidency during the last forty years of British Administration|last=Raghavaiyangar|first=Srinivasa|author-link=S. Srinivasa Raghavaiyangar|publisher=Government of Madras|year=1893|url=https://archive.org/details/memorandumonpro00raghgoog|quote=madras presidency.|ref=Memorandum of progress}}
* {{cite book|title=Economic Studies Vol I:Some South Indian villages|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.190113|last=Slater|first=Gilbert|author-link=Gilbert Slater|year=1918|ref=Slater}}
* {{cite book | title=Madras Tercentenary Celebration Committee Commemoration Volume| last=Tercentenary Madras Staff| year=1939| publisher=Oxford Press|ref=Tercentenary}}
* {{cite book |author=Tara Dutt |title=Odisha District Gazetteers: Nabarangapur |url=http://www.gopabandhuacademy.gov.in/sites/default/files/gazetter/Nabarangapur_Gazetteer.pdf |year=2015 |publisher=Government of Odisha |isbn=978-81-86772-17-1 }}
* {{cite book|title=Provincial Geographies of India:The Madras Presidency with Mysore, Coorg and Associated States|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|author-link=Edgar Thurston|publisher=Cambridge University|year=1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hTc1AQAAIAAJ&q=madras+presidency|ref=Thurston}}
* {{cite book|title=Castes and Tribes of Southern India Vol. I to VII|last=Thurston|first=Edgar|author2=K. Rangachari |publisher=Government of Madras|year=1909|ref=Castes and Tribes of Southern India|isbn=0-520-04315-4|author2-link=K. Rangachari}}
* {{cite book| title=Hand-book to the cotton cultivation in the Madras presidency| url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktocotton00wheerich| last=Wheeler| first=James Talboys| year=1862| publisher=J. Higginbotham and Pharaoh and Co.| ref=Cotton}}
* {{cite book | title=Madras in the Olden Time: Being a History of the Presidency from the First Foundation of Fort St. George to the Occupation of Madras by the French (1639–1748)| last=Wheeler| first=James Talboys| year=1996| publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=8120605535 |ref=Madras in the Olden Time}}

; Other publications
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* {{cite book| title=How India Wrought for freedom| url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201490| last=Besant| first=Annie| author-link=Annie Besant| year=1915| publisher=Theosophical Publishing House| location=Adyar, Madras| ref=Annie_Besant}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Madras (presidency)|display=Madras|volume=17|pages=288–291}}
* {{cite book | title=The Indian Empire Souvenir| last=Christophers| first=S. R.| year=1927| publisher=Executive Committee of the Congress|ref=Indian Empire Souvenir}}
* {{cite book| title=A Short history of Lanka| url=https://archive.org/details/dli.csl.7980| last=Codrington| first=Humphry William| year=1926| publisher=Macmillan & Co.| ref=Codrington}}
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* {{cite book|title=Southern India|first=Penny|last=F. E.|author2=Lady Lawley|publisher=A. C. Black|year=1914|ref=Southern India}}
* {{cite book|title=Peeps at many lands: Home Life in India|first=John|last=Finnemore|publisher=A. & C. Black, Ltd|place=London|year=1917|ref=Home Life in India}}
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* {{cite book| title=Indian National Evolution| url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.201046| last=Mazumdar| first=Amvika Charan| year=1917| publisher=G. A. Natesan & Co.| location=Madras| ref=Mazumdar}}
* {{cite book | title=Madras, the Birth Place of British India: An Illustrated Guide with Map| last=Newell| first=Herbert Andrews| year=1919| publisher=The Madras Times Printing and Publishing|ref=Newell}}
* {{cite book|title=Indian Students Geography|url=https://archive.org/details/indianstudentsg00pirigoog|publisher=Methodist Episcopal Church Press|year=1883|first=A. H.|last=Pirie|ref=Pirie}}
* {{cite book|title=Southern India: Its History, People, Commerce, and Industrial Resources|url=https://archive.org/details/southernindiaits00some|last=Playne|first=Somerset|author2=J. W. Bond|author3=Arnold Wright|year=1914|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=9788120613447|ref=Somerset Playne}}
* {{cite book|last=Price|first=Thomas|ref=Price|title=Slavery in America: With Notices of the Present State of Slavery and the Slave Trade Throughout the World|year=1837|publisher=Oxford University}}
* {{cite book | title=The Statesman's Yearbook 1950| first=Steinberg| last=S. H.| year=1950| publisher=Macmillan and Co| location=London|ref=Statesman}}
* {{cite book|title=Some Madras Leaders|publisher=Babu Bhishambher Nath Bhargava|year=1922|ref=Some Madras Leaders}}
* {{cite book | title=The Modern part of a universal history from the Earliest Account of Time, Vol XLIII| last=T.|first= Osborne|author2= C. Hitch|author3= A. Millar|author4= John Rivington|author5= S. Crowder|author6= B. Law & Co|author7= T. Longman|author8= C. Ware| year=1765| publisher= Oxford University| location=London|ref=universalhistory}}
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* {{cite book|title=The Growth of public opinion in the Madras Presidency (1858–1909)|last=D.|first= Sadasivan|publisher=University of Madras|year=1974|ref=Sadasivan}}
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{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-madraspresidency.html Coins of the Madras Presidency]

{{Presidencies and provinces of British India}}

{{Andhra Pradesh}}
{{Kerala}}
{{Odisha}}
{{Chennai Topics|left}}
{{Authority control}}
{{coord|13.08|N|80.27|E|region:IN_type:landmark_source:kolossus-svwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Madras Presidency| ]]
[[Category:Historical Indian regions]]
[[Category:Presidencies of British India]]
[[Category:History of Chennai]]
[[Category:History of Andhra Pradesh]]
[[Category:Lakshadweep]]
[[Category:History of Karnataka]]
[[Category:Colonial Kerala]]
[[Category:History of Odisha]]
[[Category:1652 establishments in British India]]
[[Category:1950 disestablishments in India]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1950]]