View source for Mari, Syria

{{short description|Ancient Sumerian and Amorite city}}
{{Other uses|Mari (disambiguation){{!}}Mari}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Mari
  |native_name = تل حريري {{in lang|ar}}
  |alternate_name = Tell Hariri
  |image = MariZiggurat.jpg
  |caption = Ruins of Mari
  |map_type = Syria
  |relief=yes
  |map_alt = Mari lies in the east of Syria, close to the border with Iraq.
  |coordinates = {{coord|34|32|58|N|40|53|24|E|display=inline,title}}
  |location = [[Abu Kamal]], [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]], [[Syria]]
  |type = Settlement
  |part_of =
  |length =
  |width =
  |area ={{cvt|60|ha}}
  |height =
  |builder =
  |material =
  |built = c. 2900&nbsp;BC
  |abandoned = 3rd century BC
  |epochs = [[Bronze Age]]
  |cultures = [[Kish civilization|East-Semitic (Kish civilization)]], [[Amorites|Amorite]]
  |dependency_of =
  |occupants =
  |event =
  |excavations =
  |archaeologists = [[André Parrot]]
  |condition = Ruined
  |ownership = Public
  |public_access = Yes
  |website =
  |notes =
}}
'''Mari''' ([[Cuneiform]]: <small>{{cuneiform|𒈠𒌷𒆠}}</small>, ''ma-ri<sup>ki</sup>'', modern '''Tell Hariri'''; {{langx|ar|تل حريري}}) was an ancient [[Semitic people|Semitic]] [[city-state]] in modern-day [[Syria]]. Its remains form a [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]] {{convert|11|km}} north-west of [[Abu Kamal]] on the western bank of the [[Euphrates|Euphrates River]], some {{convert|120|km}} southeast of [[Deir ez-Zor]]. It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900&nbsp;BC and 1759&nbsp;BC.{{#tag:ref|Dates are estimated according to the [[Middle chronology]] unless otherwise stated.|group=note}} The city was built in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes between [[Sumer]] in the south and the [[Ebla|Eblaite kingdom]] and the [[Levant]] in the west.

Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] state before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival [[Ebla]] and is known for its strong affinity with Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the [[Akkadians]], who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor (''[[Shakkanakku]]''). The governors became independent with the disintegration of the Akkadian Empire, and rebuilt the city as a regional center of the Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC, when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time later, Mari became the capital of the [[Amorite]] Lim dynasty. The Amorite Mari lasted only a short time before it was destroyed by [[Babylonia]] in c. 1761 BC, but it survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the [[Assyria]]ns before being abandoned and forgotten during the [[Hellenistic period]].

The Mariotes worshiped both [[List of Mesopotamian deities|Semitic and Sumerian deities]] and established their city as a major trading center. Although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but a Semitic-speaking nation with a dialect similar to [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]]. The Amorites were [[West Semitic languages|West Semites]] who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in the [[Fertile Crescent]].

Mari's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Syria (region)|Syria]], due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets explicating the state administration in the 2nd millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations among the political powers of the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far as [[Afghanistan]] in [[South Asia|Southern Asia]] and [[Crete]] in the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]].

==Name==
[[File:Mari-ki in cuneiform on the statue of Iddi-Ilum.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The name of Mari ([[Cuneiform]]: <small>{{cuneiform|𒈠𒌷𒆠}}</small>, ''ma-ri<sup>ki</sup>''), on the [[statue of Iddi-Ilum]], c. 2090 BC]]
Written in [[Cuneiform]] {{cuneiform|𒈠𒌷𒆠}} (''ma-ri<sup>ki</sup>''),{{sfn|Tinney|Novotny|Robson|Veldhuis|2020}} the name of the city can be traced to [[Itūr-Mēr]], an ancient [[storm deity]] of northern [[Mesopotamia]] and Syria, who was considered the [[tutelary deity]] of the city,<ref>{{cite book | author = Paul-Alain Beaulieu | date = 20 November 2017 | title = A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | page = 106 | isbn = 978-1-119-45907-1 | oclc = 1010542283 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VcQ_DwAAQBAJ&pg=P106}}</ref> [[Georges Dossin]] noted that the name of the city was spelled identically to that of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1969|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hM8UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA60 60]}}

==History==
===Early Bronze Age===
====First kingdom====
Evidence shows that Mari {{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} was founded as a new city in c. 2900 BC during the Mesopotamian [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)#Periodization|Early Dynastic period I]], established to control the waterways of the [[Euphrates]] trade routes connecting the [[Levant]] with the [[Sumer]]ian south.{{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}}{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} The city was built about {{convert|1|to|2|km}} from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods,{{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} and was connected to the river by an artificial [[canal]] {{convert|7|to|10|km}} long, the route of which has not been identified.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA520 520]}}

[[File:Mari landmarks.png|thumb|left|Mari's landmarks]]
The Mari site is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} A circular flood embankment was unearthed,{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} containing an area {{convert|300|m}} in length for gardens and craftsmen's quarters,{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA520 520]}} and a defensive [[Circular rampart|circular internal rampart]] {{cvt|6.7|m}} thick{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} and {{convert|8|to|10|m}} high, strengthened by defensive towers.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA520 520]}} Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} Mari had a central mound,{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA286 286]}} but no temple or palace has been unearthed there.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 m x 25 m), seemingly with an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to {{convert|12|m}} long and {{convert|6|m}} wide.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA522 522]}} The city was abandoned c. 2550 BC at the end of the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)#Periodization|Early Dynastic period II]], for unknown reasons.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}}
{{clear}}

====Second kingdom====
[[File:Ancient Near East 2400BC.svg|thumb|340px|Mari on the map of Ancient Orient around 2400 BCE. Conflict between Ebla and Mari.]]

Near the beginning of [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)#Periodization|Early Dynastic period III]], before 2500 BC, {{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA267 267]}} Mari was rebuilt and populated again.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 117]}} The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}}{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA523 523]}} Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring {{cvt|1.9|km}} in diameter, which was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA523 523]}} protecting [[Archery|archers]].{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}}
[[Image:Ebish-Il Louvre AO17551.jpg|thumb|left| [[Statue of Ebih-Il]], a superintendent in Mari. (25th century BC)]]
The new Mari was carefully planned. Its internal urban structure was radically different from the preceding incarnation.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA524 524]}} First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates which ensured the drainage of rainwater.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}}

A structure known as the [[Royal Palace of Mari]] was built in the heart of the city; the palace also served as a temple.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA136 136]}} Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated ''P3'', while the latest is ''P0''). The last two levels are dated to the [[History of Sumer#Akkadian Empire|Akkadian period]] of Sumer.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA137 137]}} The first two levels were excavated;{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA137 137]}} the findings include a temple dubbed the Enceinte Sacrée ([[sacred enclosure]]) dedicated to an unknown deity,{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA137 137]}}{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA527 527]}} a columned throne room, and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple.{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA137 137]}}

Six smaller temples were also discovered, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (also dedicated to an unknown deity), and temples dedicated to {{ill|Ninni-Zaza|it}} (INANA.ZA.ZA),<ref>Parrot, André, "Les Temples d’Ishtarat et de Ninni-zaza", Mission Archéologique de Mari, vol. 3, Librairie Orientaliste. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1967</ref> [[Ishtarat]],{{sfn|Aruz|Wallenfels|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA531 531]}} [[Ishtar]], [[Ninhursag]], and [[Shamash]].{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA527 527]}} All the temples except that of Ishtar were located in the center of the city; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is thought to be the administrative center of the [[high priest]].{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA527 527]}}

The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center,{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA267 267]}} its kings held the title of [[Lugal]],{{sfn|Nadali|2007|p=[https://www.academia.edu/619545/Davide_Nadali_2007_Monuments_of_war_war_of_monuments_Some_considerations_on_commemorating_war_in_the_Third_Millennium_BC 354]}} and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of king [[Enna-Dagan]] c. 2350 BC,{{#tag:ref|In old readings, it was thought that Enna-Dagan was a general of Ebla. However, the deciphering of Ebla's tablets showed him in Mari and receiving gifts from Ebla during the reigns of his Mariote predecessors.{{sfn|Frayne|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8PNAnIome3AC&pg=PT817 335]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Michalowski|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA463 463]}} which was sent to [[Irkab-Damu]] of [[Ebla]],{{#tag:ref|Irkab-Damu is not named in the letter but it is almost certain that he was the recipient.{{sfn|Podany|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA26 26]}}|group=note}}. In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements.{{sfn|Roux|1992|p=142}} However, the reading of this letter is still uncertain and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA57 57]}}{{sfn|Matthews|Benjamin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6gVAFOSDhL4C&pg=PA261 261]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}}

=====Mari–Ebla war=====
[[File:Helmetted warrior with axe, Mari.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Helmetted warrior with axe, Mari]]
[[File:Ishqi-Mari (dark background).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ishqi-Mari]], king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC]]
The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is [[Ansud]], who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war,{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA58 58]}} and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of [[Belan, Syria|Belan]].{{#tag:ref|Located 26 km west of [[Raqqa]].{{sfn|Frayne|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C5ddTkXWxEMC&pg=PA233 233]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}} The next king mentioned in the letter is [[Saʿumu]], who conquered the lands of [[Ra'ak]] and [[Nirum]].{{#tag:ref|Located in the Euphrates middle valley close to [[Sweyhat]].{{sfn|Frayne|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8PNAnIome3AC&pg=PT765 307–310]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}} King [[Kun-Damu]] of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC.{{sfn|Dolce|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA68 68]}} The war continued with [[Išhtup-Išar]] of Mari's conquest of [[Emar]]{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}} at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King [[Igrish-Halam]] of Ebla had to pay tribute to [[Iblul-Il]] of Mari,{{sfn|Dolce|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=J9eZToFfVJ0C&pg=PA68 68]}}{{sfn|Michalowski|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA462 462]}} who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the [[Sweyhat|Burman]] region.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}}

Enna-Dagan also received tribute;{{sfn|Michalowski|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA462 462]}} his reign fell entirely within the reign of [[Irkab-Damu]] of Ebla,{{sfn|Podany|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA315 315]}} who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute.{{sfn|Podany|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ez3ih5JgzUC&pg=PA26 26]}} Mari defeated Ebla's ally [[Tell Brak#Kingdom of Nagar|Nagar]] in year seven of the Eblaite [[vizier]] [[Ibrium]]'s term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia through upper Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Bretschneider|Van Vyve|Leuven|2009|p=5}} The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier [[Ibbi-Sipish]] made an alliance with Nagar and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] to defeat Mari in a battle near [[Terqa]].{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC,{{sfn|Stieglitz|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA219 219]}} during the reign of the Mariote king [[Hidar]].{{sfn|Bretschneider|Van Vyve|Leuven|2009|p=[https://www.academia.edu/645365/War_of_the_lords_The_battle_of_chronology 7]}} According to {{ill|Alfonso Archi|de}}, Hidar was succeeded by [[Ishqi-Mari]] whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.{{sfn|Bretschneider|Van Vyve|Leuven|2009|p=[https://www.academia.edu/645365/War_of_the_lords_The_battle_of_chronology 7]}}{{sfn|Archi|Biga|2003|p=33–35}}

=====Destruction of Mari by Sargon of Akkad=====
[[File:Soldiers, shell inlay, Mari, Syria.jpg|thumb|Soldiers, shell inlay. Mari]]
Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned by [[Sargon of Akkad]], as shown by one of his year names ("''Year in which Mari was destroyed''").<ref>{{cite web |title=Year Names of Sargon |url=http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/doku.php?id=sargon_year-names |website=cdli.ox.ac.uk}}</ref><ref name="DTP">{{cite book |last1=Potts |first1=D. T. |title=The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-09469-7 |pages=92–93 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WE62CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Álvarez-Mon |first1=Javier |last2=Basello |first2=Gian Pietro |last3=Wicks |first3=Yasmina |title=The Elamite World |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-32983-1 |page=247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yClKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT247 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA123 123]}} [[Michael Astour]] proposed the date as c. 2265 BC ([[short chronology]]).{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA75 75]}} [[Ishqi-Mari]] was probably the last king of Mari before the conquests by the [[Akkadian Empire]].{{sfn|Bretschneider|Van Vyve|Leuven|2009|p=[https://www.academia.edu/645365/War_of_the_lords_The_battle_of_chronology 18]}} [[Sargon of Akkad]] collected tribute from Mari and [[Elam]]:<ref name="Frayne10">{{cite book |last1=Frayne |first1=Douglas |title=Sargonic and Gutian Periods |pages=10–12 |url=https://www.academia.edu/29704423 |language=en}}</ref>

{{blockquote|Sargon the King bowed down to [[Dagon|Dagan]] in [[Tuttul]]. He (Dagan) gave to him (Sargon) the Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, and [[Ebla]], as far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains|Nippur inscription of Sargon<ref>{{cite book |last1=Buck |first1=Mary E. |title=The Amorite Dynasty of Ugarit: Historical Implications of Linguistic and Archaeological Parallels |date=2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-41511-9 |page=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KkSxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 |language=en}}</ref><ref>See also Inscription of Sargon. E2.1.1.1 {{cite book |last1=Frayne |first1=Douglas |title=Sargonic and Gutian Periods |pages=10–12 |url=https://www.academia.edu/29704423 |language=en}}</ref>}}

====Third kingdom====
Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king [[Manishtushu]].{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA71 71], [https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA64 64]}} A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title [[Shakkanakku]] (military governor).{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA64 64]}} Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]]'s appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA64 64]}}

=====Shakkanakku dynasty=====
[[File:Statue_of_Puzur-Ishtar.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Puzur-Ishtar]], [[Shakkanakku]] (Military Governor) of Mari, circa 2050 BC]]
In the Akkadian period, the first member of the [[Shakkanakku]] dynasty on the lists is [[Ididish]], who was appointed in c. 2266 BC.{{#tag:ref|According to [[Jean-Marie Durand]], this Shakkanakku was appointed by Manishtushu, other opinions consider Naram-Sin as the appointer of Ididish.{{sfn|Michalowski|1993|p=83}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Leick|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nAGFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 77]}} According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years{{sfn|Oliva|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MM3SJvJgGKoC&pg=PA86 86]}} and was succeeded by his son=, making the position hereditary.{{sfn|Leick|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nAGFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 152]}}

The layout of the third Mari was similar to that of its predecessor;{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA138 138]}} phase ''P0'' of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA530 530]}} Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA286 286]}} housing royal burials that date to the former periods.{{sfn|Suriano|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MfSfzOqEK4sC&pg=PA56 56]}} The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached {{convert|10|m}} in width.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA530 530]}} The former sacred enclosure was maintained,{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA530 530]}} so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared,{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA530 530]}} while a new temple called the "temple of lions" (dedicated to [[Dagon|Dagan]]),{{sfn|Strommenger|1964|p=167}} was built by the Shakkanakku [[Ishtup-Ilum]] and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured {{convert|40|x|20|m}} for sacrifices.{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA530 530]}}{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA286 286]}}{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA531 531]}}

Akkad disintegrated during [[Shar-Kali-Sharri]]'s reign,{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QD9GrxiILH8C&pg=PR41 xli]}} and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] period.{{sfn|Cooper|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JgA-ez-BLbEC&pg=PA65 65]}} A princess of Mari married the son of king [[Ur-Nammu]] of [[Ur]],{{sfn|Wossink|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA31 31]}}{{sfn|Tetlow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA10 10]}} and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q8Z7AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18]}} However, the [[vassal]]age did not impede the independence of Mari,{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA451 451]}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA127 127]}} and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title [[Lugal]] in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court.{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA132 132]}} The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.{{sfn|Roux|1992|p=188, 189}}{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA597 597]}}{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA139 139]}}

===Middle Bronze Age===
[[File:Third Mari.png|thumb|320px|Mari at its height in the eighteenth century BC]]

====Lim dynasty====
The second millennium BC in the [[Fertile Crescent]] was characterized by the expansion of the [[Amorites]], which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region,{{sfn|Sicker|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5MYFOWRZ8Z4C&pg=PA25 25]}} including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king [[Yaggid-Lim]].{{sfn|Astour|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0Rwals-oh6kC&pg=PA139 139]}}{{sfn|DeVries|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aOJJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}} However, the [[Epigraphy|epigraphical]] and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras.{{#tag:ref|This ruled out the former theory that there was an abandonment of Mari during the transition period.{{sfn|Wossink|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA31 31]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Wossink|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA31 31]}}

Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of [[Suprum]] before establishing himself in Mari,{{#tag:ref|Suprum is 12 kilometers upstream from Mari, perhaps the modern Tel Abu Hasan.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA673 673]}}|group=note}}{{#tag:ref|It is not certain that Yaggid-Lim controlled Mari, however he is traditionally considered the first king of the dynasty.{{sfn|Porter|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TEgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA601 601]}} he entered an alliance with [[Ila-kabkabu]] of [[Ekallatum]], but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war.{{sfn|Porter|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TEgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}}{{sfn|Roux|1992|p=189}} The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heir [[Yahdun-Lim]] and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants.{{#tag:ref|The credibility of the tablet is doubted as it was written by [[Yasmah-Adad]] who was Ila-kabkabu grandson.{{sfn|Porter|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TEgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Porter|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TEgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari.{{#tag:ref|The transition of the Lim family from Suprum to Mari could have been the work of Yahdun-Lim after the war with Ila-kabkabu.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA86 86]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Roux|1992|p=189}}

[[File:Goddess of the vase, Mari,18th century BCE.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Goddess of the vase, Mari, 18th century BC]]
Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim.{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA603 603]}} He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]],{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA606 606]}}{{sfn|Fowden|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0VOzAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 93]}} however he later had to face a rebellion by the Yaminite nomads who were centered at [[Tuttul]], and the rebels were supported by [[Yamhad]]'s king [[Sumu-Epuh]], whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and [[Eshnunna]].{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E1aF0hq1GR8C&pg=PA451 451]}}{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA606 606]}} Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yaminites but an open war with Yamhad was avoided,{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=41-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA19 19]}} as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with [[Shamshi-Adad I]] of [[Shubat-Enlil]], the son of the late Ila-kabkabu.{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA38 38]}} The war ended in a defeat for Mari,{{sfn|Pitard|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4DVHJRFW3mYC&pg=PA38 38]}}{{sfn|Van Der Meer|1955|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gB8VAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son [[Sumu-Yamam]],{{sfn|Launderville|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z4oHNWUWTSkC&pg=PA271 271]}}{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PA613 613]}} who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.{{sfn|Bryce|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=41-MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20]}}

====Shamshi-Adad of Assyria and Yasmah-Adad====
Shamshi-Adad (r. 1809-1775 BC) appointed his son [[Yasmah-Adad]] on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter,{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2011|p=109}}{{sfn|Tetlow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA125 125]}} while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad,{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA452 452]}} and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts committed by the Lim family.{{sfn|Grayson|1972|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=psmYIYJZCnoC&pg=PA27 27]}} To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of [[Ishi-Addu]] of [[Qatna]].{{sfn|Tetlow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA125 125]}} However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC,{{sfn|Tetlow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA125 125]}}{{sfn|Harris|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=O0qOp_rDTHUC&pg=PA141 141]}}{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=254 258]}} while the armies of [[Yarim-Lim I]] of Yamhad were advancing in support of [[Zimri-Lim]], the heir of the Lim dynasty.{{#tag:ref|Although officially a son of Yahdun-Lim, in reality he was a grandchild or nephew.{{sfn|Charpin|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Nvgz3NOuo5EC&pg=PA252 252]}}|group=note}}{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=254 258]}}
[[File:Investiture of Zimri-Lim Louvre AO19826 n01.jpg|thumb|[[Investiture of Zimri-Lim]] (18th century BC)]]

====Zimri-Lim of Mari====
As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the ''Sim'alites'' (Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad,{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA228 228]}} opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape,{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=143}} and married princess [[Shibtu]], a daughter of Yarim-Lim I, a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=254 258]}} Zimri-Lim's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deity [[Hadad]] and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad.{{sfn|Malamat|1980|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fwGAtGBa_JcC&pg=PA75 75]}}

Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the ''Yaminites'', he also established alliances with [[Eshnunna]] and [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]],{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA452 452]}} and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians.{{sfn|Van Der Toorn|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VSJWkrXfbLQC&pg=PA101 101]}} The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Upper Khabur]] region, which was named {{ill|Idamaraz|ca}},{{sfn|Kupper|1973|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=FF5-7JVj4jYC&pg=PA9 9]}} where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as [[Urkesh]],{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA329 329]}} and {{ill|Talhayum|ca}}, forcing them into vassalage.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA687 687]}} The expansion was met by the resistance of [[Andarig|Qarni-Lim]], the king of [[Andarig]],{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA45 45]}} whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC,{{sfn|Charpin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u__yJn8MHJQC&pg=PA39 39]}} and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace.{{sfn|Hamblin|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=biyDDd0uKGMC&pg=254 258]}} Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of the [[Royal Palace of Mari|Royal Palace]], which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms,{{sfn|Akkermans|Schwartz|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_4oqvpAHDEoC&pg=PA286 286]}}{{sfn|Burns|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA198 198]}} exquisite artifacts such as ''The Goddess of the Vase'' statue,{{sfn|Gates|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA65 65]}} and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.{{sfn|Shaw|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8HKDtlPuM2oC&pg=PA379 379]}}

====Babylonian period====
Mari's relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of [[Hīt]] that consumed much time in negotiations,{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA68 68]}} during which a war against [[Elam]] involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA70 70]}} Babylon invaded in c. 1761 BC under the rule of [[Hammurabi]] and defeated Zimri-Lin, ending the Lim dynasty,{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA76 76], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA139 139], [https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA152 152]}} while Terqa became the capital of a rump state called the [[Kingdom of Khana|Kingdom of Hana]].{{sfn|Fleming|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3_sfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA226 226]}} In the south, the region of [[Suhum]] became a Babylonian province.

Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, which prompted Hammurabi to raze the city.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA76 76]}} Marc Van De Mieroop suggests that Hammurab, in a gesture of mercy, may have allowed Mari to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELMAGvmJ7YIC&pg=PA76 76]}}

===Late Bronze Age===
Mari became part of [[Assyria#Middle Assyrian Empire 1392–1056 BC|Assyria]] and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]] (r. 1243–1207 BC).{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}} Mari frequently changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}}

===Iron Age===
In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana. The king of Hana [[Tukulti-Mer]] assumed the title ''king of Mari'' and rebelled against Assyria, prompting Assyrian king [[Ashur-bel-kala]] (r. 1074-1056 BC) to attack.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}} In the first half of the 8th century BC Mari came firmly under the authority of the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]]. It was assigned to the governorship of a certain [[Nergal-Erish]], under the authority of king [[Adad-Nirari III]] (r. 810–783 BC).{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}}

[[File:Shamsh-res-usur, governor of Mari and Suhi.jpg|thumb|Shamash-Risha-Usur (c. 760 BC)]]
In c. 760 BC [[Shamash-Risha-Usur]],{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=201}} an autonomous administrator under the nominal authority of [[Ashur-dan III]], ruled parts of the upper middle Euphrates; he styled himself the governor of the lands of [[Suhu]] and Mari, as did his son [[Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur]].{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}} In 760 BC Mari was part of [[Laqe]],{{#tag:ref|An ancient designation for the land that include the confluence of the Khabur and the Euphrates rivers.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA408 408]}}|group=note}}, suggesting that the title "governor" was a historical designation.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}}

The city of Mari persisted as a small settlement until the [[Hellenistic period]] (323 – 30 BCE) when it disappeared from records.{{sfn|Bryce|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AwwNS0diXP4C&pg=PA453 453]}}

===Modern history===
By 2015, the [[Islamic State]] (ISIS) had devastated and systematically looted the site, particularly the [[Royal Palace of Mari]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222062735/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology |url-status=dead |archive-date=February 22, 2021 |title=Here Are the Ancient Sites ISIS Has Damaged and Destroyed |first=Andrew |last=Curry |date=1 September 2015 |access-date=24 October 2022 |work=[[National Geographic]] |publisher=[[National Geographic Society]]}}</ref> It was one of the first archaeological sites to be occupied by this group.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/apr/19/destruction-at-the-ancient-site-of-mari-in-syria |title=Destruction at the ancient site of Mari in Syria |first=Mary |last=Shepperson |date=19 April 2018 |access-date=24 October 2022 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |publisher=[[Guardian News & Media Limited]]}}</ref>

==People, language and government==
{{further|List of kings of Mari}}
[[File:Bust orant Louvre AO17557.jpg|thumb|left|A Mariote from the second kingdom. (25th century BC)]]
Mari's founders were either Sumerians or speakers of an [[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]] language from [[Terqa]] in the north.{{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} [[Ignace Gelb]] relates Mari's foundation with the proposed [[Kish civilization]],{{sfn|Hasselbach|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eiHXt0yIWiIC&pg=PA3 3]}} a cultural entity of East Semitic-speaking populations that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant.{{sfn|Van De Mieroop|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6lDgYxV0DN8C&pg=PA133 133]}}

The population of the second Mari was around 40,000 at its height.{{sfn|Chew|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YmtN6zr_hroC&pg=PA67 67]}} The population spoke an East Semitic dialect very similar to the [[Eblaite language]]. {{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA117 117]}}{{sfn|McMahon|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA469 469]}} In the Shakkanakku period, the population spoke [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], also an East Semitic language.{{sfn|Heimpel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&pg=PA21 21]}} [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] names started to be attested in Mari from the second kingdom era,{{sfn|Haldar|1971|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S88UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA8 8]}} and by the middle [[Bronze-Age#Near East timeline|Bronze-Age]], the west Semitic [[Amorite]] tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] valleys.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222]}} Amorite names were in use by end of the Shakkanakku period, including by the ruling dynasts.{{sfn|Heimpel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&pg=PA22 22]}}

[[File:Statues from Mari. Syria - Aleppo - National Museum.jpg|thumb|Statues from Mari in the [[National Museum of Aleppo]]]]
Mari's population had become predominantly Amorite during the Lim era. Textual evidence shows the continued use of Akkadian names{{#tag:ref|Jean-Marie Durand, although not speculating the fate of the East-Semitic population, believe that the Akkadians during the Lim dynasty are not descended from the East-Semites of the Shakkanakku period.{{sfn|Heimpel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&pg=PA21 21]}}|group=note}} and, although the [[Amorite language]] became the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing.{{sfn|Nemet-Nejat|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lbmXsaTGNKUC&pg=PA114 114]}}{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}}{{sfn|Michalowski|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&pg=PA55 55]}} The [[Pastoralism|pastoral]] Amorites in Mari were called ''Haneans'', a general term referring to [[nomad]]s.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 223]}} These Haneans were split into the ''Yaminites'' (sons of the south) and ''Sim'alites'' (sons of the north), with the ruling house belonging to the ''Sim'al'' branch.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 223]}} The kingdom of Mari was also home to tribes of [[Suteans]] living in Terqa.{{sfn|Heimpel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&pg=PA26 26]}}

Mari was an [[absolute monarchy]]. The king controlled every aspect of administration, with the aid of [[scribe]]s who filled ministerial roles.{{sfn|Finer|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aEziNfjinnMC&pg=PA173 173]}}{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 224]}} During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital. The provincial seats were located at [[Terqa]], [[Saggarâtum]], [[Qaṭṭunān]], and [[Tuttul]]. Each province had its own [[bureaucracy]]; {{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA224 224]}} the state supplied the villagers with ploughs and other agricultural equipment in return for a share in the harvest.{{sfn|Maisels|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YI2JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA322 322]}}

==Culture and religion==
[[File:Woman polos Louvre AO17564.jpg|thumb|left|A Mariote woman. (25th century BC)]]
The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south.{{sfn|Armstrong|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA457 457]}} The society was led by an urban [[oligarchy]],{{sfn|Chavalas|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=REVFoXJM4WIC&pg=PA43 43]}} and the citizenry was known for elaborate hair and dress styles.{{sfn|Pardee|Glass|1984|p=95}}{{sfn|Matthiae|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA170 170]}} They used the Eblaite calendar based on a [[Tropical year|solar year]] divided into twelve months.{{sfn|Pettinato|1981|p=147}}{{sfn|Cohen|1993|p=23}} Scribes wrote in the [[Sumerian language]]; art and architecture was indistinguishable from that of Sumer.{{sfn|Kramer|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iY9xp4pLp88C&pg=PA30 30]}}

Mesopotamia continued to influence Mariote culture during the Amorite period,{{sfn|Green|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGjcLBYTUUgC&pg=PA161 161]}} evidenced by the Babylonian scribal style used in the city.{{sfn|Larsen|2008|p=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_gr5BgOwEJicC/page/n42 16]}} Mesopotamian influence had lessened since former periods, and objects such as royal seals show a clear Syrian origin.{{sfn|Green|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGjcLBYTUUgC&pg=PA161 161]}} The society was [[Tribalism|tribal]],{{sfn|Wossink|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Oy4xUpsa7DkC&pg=PA126 126]}}, primarily mostly of farmers and nomads (''Haneans''),{{sfn|Heimpel|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tiHwDe7JmCEC&pg=PA29 29]}} Unlike in Mesopotamia, the Mariote temple played only a minor role in everyday life as state power was invested in the royal palace.{{sfn|Grabbe|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C32xAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} Women enjoyed a relative equality to men;{{sfn|Dougherty|Ghareeb|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmQYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA657 657]}} queen Shibtu ruled in her husband's name while he was away and she had extensive authority over the highest officials.{{sfn|Tetlow|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ONkJ_Rj1SS8C&pg=PA84 84]}}

The pantheon of Mari included both Sumerian and Semitic deities.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA90 90]}} For most of Mari's history, [[Dagon|Dagan]] was the head of the pantheon{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA304 304], [https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA171 171]}} and Mer the patron deity.{{sfn|Green|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZGjcLBYTUUgC&pg=PA62 62]}} Semitic deities included Ishtar, {{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA90 90]}} [[Attar (god)|Athtar]], {{sfn|Smith|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VLyUd1hau1IC&pg=PA629 629]}} and [[Shamash]], an omniscient solar god and one of the most important of the pantheon.{{sfn|Thompson|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WUGtAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA245 245]}}{{sfn|Darke|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA293 293]}} Sumerian deities included Ninhursag,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA90 90]}} [[Tammuz (deity)|Dumuzi]],{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA92 92]}} [[Enki]], [[Anu]], and [[Enlil]].{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA170 170]}} [[Prophecy]] was important to temple activity;{{sfn|Nissinen|Seow|Ritner|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wOZOYl-T1poC&pg=PA79 79]}} prophets participated in religious festivals and gave council to the king.{{sfn|Walton|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FENzqidE2lsC&pg=PA209 209]}}

==Economy==
The first Mari provided the oldest wheel workshop yet discovered in Syria,{{sfn|Margueron|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA521 521]}} and was a center of bronze [[Metallurgy#History|metallurgy]].{{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}} The city also contained districts devoted to [[smelting]], [[dyeing]], and pottery manufacture,{{sfn|Margueron|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8l9X_3rHFdEC&pg=PA137 137]}} using charcoal brought by river boats from the upper [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur]] and Euphrates area.{{sfn|Viollet|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eZsAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}}

The second kingdom's economy was based on both agriculture and trade.{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} It was centralized and directed through a communal organization,{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} with grain stored in communal granaries and distributed according to social status.{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom.{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} Some groups were direct beneficiaries of the palace instead of the communal organization, including the metal and textile producers and military officials.{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} Ebla was an important trading partner and rival,{{sfn|Otto|Biga|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9bbgJzacoJYC&pg=PA486 486]}} Mari's position made it an important trading center astride the road linking the Levant and Mesopotamia.{{sfn|Liverani|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0d1JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 126]}}

The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley.{{sfn|Riehl|Pustovoytov|Dornauer|Sallaberger|2013|p=117}} The city remained a trading center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms,{{sfn|Aubet|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Li66Bd4QZD4C&pg=PA141 141]}} with goods from the south and east transported on riverboats bound for the north, northwest and west.{{sfn|Teissier|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA6 6]}} The main trade was metals and tin from the [[Iranian Plateau]] exported west as far as [[Crete]]. Other goods included copper from [[Cyprus]], silver from [[Anatolia]], wood from [[Lebanon]], gold from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], olive oil, wine, and textiles, and even precious stones from modern [[Afghanistan]].{{sfn|Teissier|1996|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oiSoxUE_Vn0C&pg=PA6 6]}}

==Excavations and archive==
[[File:Ishtup-Ilum excavation in Mari, Syria.jpg|thumb|Excavations by the archaeological team of [[André Parrot]] in 1936. Discovery of the statue of military Governor [[Ishtup-Ilum]]]]
Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=10}} A [[Bedouin]] tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=10}} After the news reached the [[French Third Republic|French]] authorities currently in [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|control]] of Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933, by archaeologists from the [[Louvre]] in Paris.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=10}} The location of the fragment was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations.{{sfn|Evans|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5MIgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}} Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the "most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture".{{sfn|Gadd|1971|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=slR7SFScEnwC&pg=PA97 97]}}

Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] were discovered.{{sfn|Malamat|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=P2jtZOP4MLwC&pg=PA45 45]}} Finds from the excavation are on display in the [[Louvre]],{{sfn|Frayne|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u2nUT_RtyQ8C&pg=PR28 xxviii]}} the [[National Museum of Aleppo]],{{sfn|Gates|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA143 143]}} the [[National Museum of Damascus]],{{sfn|Darke|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jv2jHT_GRe0C&pg=PA293 293]}} and the [[Deir ez-Zor Museum]]. In the latter, the southern [[Investiture of Zimrilim|façade]] of the ''Court of the Palms'' room from [[Royal palace of Mari|Zimri-Lim's palace]] has been reconstructed, including the wall paintings.{{sfn|Bonatz|Kühne|Mahmoud|1998|p=93}}

Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960.{{sfn|Daniels|Hanson|2015|p=87}} [[André Parrot]] conducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974,{{sfn|Margueron|1992|p=217}} and was followed by {{ill|Jean-Claude Margueron|fr}} (1979–2004),{{sfn|Crawford|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qSOYAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR17 xvii]}} and [[Pascal Butterlin]] (starting in 2005).{{sfn|Daniels|Hanson|2015|p=87}} A journal devoted to the site, released in 8 volumes between 1982 and 1997, was ''Mari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires''.{{sfn|Dalley|2002|p=2}}{{sfn|Heintz|Bodi|Millot|1990|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dN5gAMc_3b0C&pg=PA48 48]}} Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, "each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site's history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed."{{sfn|McLerran|2011}}

===Mari tablets===
Over 25,000 tablets were found in the burnt library of Zimri-Lim written in Akkadian{{sfn|Ochterbeek|1996|p= [https://books.google.com/books?id=R44VRnNCzAYC&pg=PA214 214]}} from a period of 50 years between circa 1800 – 1750 BC.<ref>Sasson, Jack M.. From the Mari Archives: An Anthology of Old Babylonian Letters, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2015</ref> They give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time.{{sfn|DeVries|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aOJJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27]}} More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts.{{sfn|Fleming|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C32xAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 48]}} Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50&nbsp;years of Mari's independence,{{sfn|Fleming|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C32xAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 48]}} and most have now been published.{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IN9_IRYKKUMC&pg=PA63 63]}} The language of the texts is official [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari's inhabitants was [[Northwest Semitic]].{{sfn|Gates|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=--x-3W2R_QwC&pg=PA62 62]}} Six of the tablets found were in the [[Hurrian language]].<ref>Campbell, Dennis R. M., and Sebastian Fischer, "A HURRIAN RITUAL AGAINST TOOTHACHE: A REANALYSIS OF MARI 5", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 112, pp. 31–48, 2018</ref>

==Current situation==
Excavations stopped from 2011 as a result of the [[Syrian Civil War]] and have not restarted.{{sfn|Simons|2016}} The site came under the control of armed gangs and suffered large scale looting. A 2014 official report revealed that robbers were focusing on the royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar, and the temple of Dagan.{{sfn|Cockburn|2014}} Based on satellite imagery, looting continued until at least 2017.<ref>Casana J, Laugier EJ (2017) Satellite imagery-based monitoring of archaeological site damage in the Syrian civil war. PLoS ONE 12(11): e0188589. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188589</ref>

==See also==
* [[Tourism in Syria]]
* [[Cities of the Ancient Near East]]
* [[Short chronology timeline]]
* [[Statue of Iddi-Ilum]]
* [[Ornina]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|colwidth=40em}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

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* {{cite book|title=Assyrian Royal Inscriptions: From the Beginning to Ashur-Resha-Ishi I |volume=1|first=Albert Kirk|last=Grayson|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1972|series=Records of the Ancient Near East|issn=0340-8450|isbn=978-3-447-01382-6}}
* {{cite book|first= Alberto Ravinell Whitney|last= Green|title=The Storm-god in the Ancient Near East|year=2003|publisher=Eisenbrauns|series=Biblical and Judaic studies from the University of California, San Diego|volume= 8|isbn=978-1-57506-069-9}}
* {{cite book|title=Who Were the Amorites?|first= Alfred|last=Haldar|publisher=Brill|year=1971|volume=1|series=Monographs on the ancient Near East|oclc= 2656977}}
* {{cite book|last= Hamblin|first=William J.|title= Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC|year=2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-52062-6}}
* {{cite book|title=Gender and Aging in Mesopotamia: The Gilgamesh Epic and Other Ancient Literature|first=Rivkah|last=Harris|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|orig-year=2000|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8061-3539-7}}
* {{cite book|title=Sargonic Akkadian: A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts|first=Rebecca|last=Hasselbach|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2005|isbn=978-3-447-05172-9}}
* {{cite book|title=Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, with Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary|first= Wolfgang |last=Heimpel|publisher=Eisenbrauns|year=2003|volume=12|series=Mesopotamian civilizations|issn=1059-7867|isbn=978-1-57506-080-4}}
* {{cite book|title=Bibliographie de Mari: Archéologie et Textes (1933–1988)|first1=Jean Georges|last1=Heintz|first2=Daniel|last2=Bodi |author-link2=Daniel Bodi |first3=Lison|last3=Millot|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=1990|language=fr|isbn=978-3-447-03009-0|series=Travaux du Groupe de Recherches et d'Études Sémitiques Anciennes (G.R.E.S.A.), Université des Sciences Humaines de Strasbourg|volume=3}}
* {{cite book|title=The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character|first=Samuel Noah |last=Kramer|publisher=University of Chicago Press|orig-year=1963|year=2010|isbn=978-0-226-45232-6}}
* {{cite book|chapter=Northern Mesopotamia and Syria|series= The Cambridge Ancient History (Second Revised Series)|title= Part 1: The Middle East and the Aegean Region, c.1800–1380 BC|first=Jean Robert|last=Kupper|editor1-first=Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen|editor1-last=Edwards|editor2-first= Cyril John |editor2-last=Gadd|editor3-first=Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière|editor3-last=Hammond|editor4-first=Edmond|editor4-last=Sollberger|volume=2|year=1973|edition=3|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-05426-3}}
* {{cite book|first= Mogens Trolle|last= Larsen|title= Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C.|chapter= The Middle Bronze Age|editor1-first= Joan|editor1-last= Aruz|editor2-first= Kim|editor2-last= Benzel|editor3-first= Jean M.|editor3-last= Evans|publisher= Metropolitan Museum of Art|year= 2008|isbn= 978-1-58839-295-4|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/beyondbabylonart0000unse}}
* {{cite book|title=Piety and Politics: The Dynamics of Royal Authority in Homeric Greece, Biblical Israel, and Old Babylonian Mesopotamia|first=Dale|last=Launderville|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing|year=2003|isbn=978-0-8028-3994-7}}
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* {{cite book|title=Prophecy: Essays presented to Georg Fohrer on his Sixty-Fifth Birthday|volume=CL|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|chapter=A Mari Prophecy and Nathan's Dynastic Oracle|editor-first=John Adney|editor-last=Emerton|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1980|series=Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft|isbn=978-3-11-083741-4}}
* {{cite book|title=Mari and the Bible|first=Abraham|last=Malamat|publisher=Brill|series=Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East|volume=12|year=1998|issn=0169-9024|isbn=978-90-04-10863-9}}
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* {{cite book|translator-last=Crawford|translator-first= Harriet|editor1-last=Crawford|editor1-first= Harriet|last=Margueron|first=Jean-Claude|title= The Sumerian World|chapter=The Kingdom of Mari|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21912-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East|edition= 3|first1=Victor Harold|last1=Matthews|first2=Don C.|last2=Benjamin|publisher=Paulist Press|orig-year=1994|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8091-4435-8}}
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* {{cite web|last=McLerran|first=Dan|publisher=Popular Archaeology Magazine|date=September 13, 2011|title=Ancient Mesopotamian City in Need of Rescue|url=http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/september-2011/article/ancient-mesopotamian-city-in-need-of-rescue|access-date=January 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161105212155/http://popular-archaeology.com/issue/september-2011/article/ancient-mesopotamian-city-in-need-of-rescue|archive-date=November 5, 2016|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Crawford|editor1-first= Harriet|last=McMahon|first=Augusta|title= The Sumerian World|chapter=North Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium BC|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-21912-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Akkad: the First World Empire: Structure, Ideology, Traditions|editor1-first=Mario|editor1-last=Liverani|first=Piotr|last=Michalowski|chapter=Memory and Deed: The Historiography of the Political Expansion of the Akkad State|volume=5|series=History of the Ancient Near East Studies|publisher=Padua: S.a.r.g.o.n. Editrice Libreria|year=1993|oclc=32011634}}
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* {{cite book|title=Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|first=Karen Rhea|last=Nemet-Nejat|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-313-29497-6|issn=1080-4749|series=Daily Life Through History|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme}}
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* {{cite journal|last1=Pardee|first1= Dennis|first2=Jonathan T.|last2=Glass|year= 1984|title=Literary Sources for the History of Palestine and Syria: The Mari Archives|journal=The Biblical Archaeologist|publisher=The American Schools of Oriental Research|volume=47|issue=2|issn= 2325-534X}}
* {{cite book|title= The archives of Ebla: an empire inscribed in clay|first= Giovanni|last= Pettinato|publisher= Doubleday|year= 1981|isbn= 978-0-385-13152-0|url= https://archive.org/details/archivesofeblaan00pett}}
* {{cite book|chapter= Before Israel: Syria-Palestine in the Bronze Age|title=The Oxford History of the Biblical World|editor-first=Michael David|editor-last=Coogan|first1=Wayne T.|last1=Pitard|publisher=Oxford University Press|orig-year= 1998|edition=revised|year= 2001|isbn=978-0-19-513937-2}}
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* {{cite book|last= Shaw|first= Ian|editor1-last=Shaw|editor1-first= Ian|editor2-last=Jameson|editor2-first=Robert|title=A Dictionary of Archaeology|chapter= Mari|year=1999|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-75196-1}}
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* {{cite book|chapter=The God Athtar in the Ancient Near East and His Place in KTU 1.6 I|title=Solving Riddles and Untying Knots: Biblical, Epigraphic, and Semitic Studies in Honor of Jonas C. Greenfield|first=Mark S.|last=Smith|editor1-first=Ziony|editor1-last=Zevit|editor2-first=Seymour|editor2-last=Gitin|editor3-first=Michael|editor3-last=Sokoloff|year=1995|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-0-931464-93-5}}
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* {{cite book|title=5000 Years of the Art of Mesopotamia|first=Eva|last=Strommenger|translator-first=Christina|translator-last=Haglund|publisher=Harry N. Abrams|orig-year=1962|year=1964|oclc=505796}}
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{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |author-link=André Parrot |date=1935 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Première campagne (hiver 1933-34) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1935_num_16_1_8338 |journal=[[Syria (journal)|Syria]] |volume=16 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.3406/syria.1935.8338 |JSTOR=4389913}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1935 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Première campagne (1933-1934). Second article |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1935_num_16_2_3820 |journal=Syria |volume=16 |pages=117–140 |doi=10.3406/syria.1935.3820 |JSTOR=4389913}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1936 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Deuxième campagne (hiver 1934-35) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1936_num_17_1_3886 |journal=Syria |volume=17 |pages=1–31 |doi=10.3406/syria.1936.3886 |JSTOR=4195901}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1937 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Troisième campagne (hiver 1935-36) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1937_num_18_1_4032 |journal=Syria |volume=18 |pages=54–84 |doi=10.3406/syria.1937.4032 |JSTOR=4196009}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1938 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Quatrième campagne (hiver 1936-37) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1938_num_19_1_4034 |journal=Syria |volume=19 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.3406/syria.1938.4034 |JSTOR=4196112}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1939 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Cinquième campagne (automne 1937) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1939_num_20_1_4122 |journal=Syria |volume=20 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.3406/syria.1939.4122 |JSTOR=4196220}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1940 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Sixième campagne (automne 1938) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1940_num_21_1_4179 |journal=Syria |volume=21 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.3406/syria.1940.4179 |JSTOR=4389992}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1952 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Septième Campagne (hiver 1951-1952) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1952_num_29_3_4787 |journal=Syria |volume=29 |pages=183–203 |doi=10.3406/syria.1952.4787 |JSTOR=4390310}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1953 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Huitième campagne (automne 1952) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1953_num_30_3_4901 |journal=Syria |volume=30 |pages=196–221 |doi=10.3406/syria.1953.4901 |JSTOR=4196708}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1954 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Neuvième campagne (automne 1953) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1954_num_31_3_4996 |journal=Syria |volume=31 |pages=151–171 |doi=10.3406/syria.1954.4996 |JSTOR=4196802}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1955 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Dixième campagne (automne 1954) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1955_num_32_3_5098 |journal=Syria |volume=32 |pages=185–211 |doi=10.3406/syria.1955.5098 |JSTOR=4196927}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1962 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Douzième campagne (automne 1961) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1962_num_39_3_5593 |journal=Syria |volume=39 |pages=151–179 |doi=10.3406/syria.1962.5593 |JSTOR=4197405}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1964 |title=Les Fouilles de Mari. Treizième campagne (printemps 1963) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1964_num_41_1_5738 |journal=Syria |volume=41 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.3406/syria.1964.5738 |JSTOR=4197440}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1965 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Quatorzième campagne (printemps 1964) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1965_num_42_1_5768 |journal=Syria |volume=42 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.3406/syria.1965.5768 |JSTOR=4197506}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1965 |title=Les Fouilles de Mari. Quinzième campagne (printemps 1965) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1965_num_42_3_5808 |journal=Syria |volume=42 |pages=197–225 |doi=10.3406/syria.1965.5808 |JSTOR=4390505}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1967 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Seizième campagne (printemps 1966) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1967_num_44_1_5911 |journal=Syria |volume=44 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.3406/syria.1967.5911 |JSTOR=4197596}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1969 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Dix-septième campagne (automne 1968) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1969_num_46_3_6094 |journal=Syria |volume=46 |pages=191–208 |doi=10.3406/syria.1969.6094 |JSTOR=4237183}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1970 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Dix-huitième campagne (automne 1969) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1970_num_47_3_6185 |journal=Syria |volume=47 |pages=225–243 |doi=10.3406/syria.1970.6185 |JSTOR=4237212}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1971 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Dix-neuvième campagne (printemps 1971) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1971_num_48_3_6250 |journal=Syria |volume=48 |pages=253–270 |doi=10.3406/syria.1971.6250 |JSTOR=4197737}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1972 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. Vingtième campagne de fouilles (printemps 1972) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1972_num_49_3_6326 |journal=Syria |volume=49 |pages=281–302 |doi=10.3406/syria.1972.6326 |JSTOR=4197813}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Parrot |first=André |date=1975 |title=Les fouilles de Mari. XXIe campagne de fouilles (automne 1974) |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1975_num_52_1_6485 |journal=Syria |volume=52 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.3406/syria.1975.6485 |JSTOR=4197986}}

==External links==

{{Commons category|Mari, Syria}}
* [http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=245&id=701 Mari] Mari passage on the Syrian ministry of culture website (in Arabic).
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/364795/Mari Syrie - Mari] Mari page on Britannica.
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1294/ Mari (Tell Hariri)] Suggestion to have Mari (Tell Hariri) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site, in 1999

{{Ancient states and regions of the Levant |state=collapsed}}
{{Syria topics}}
{{Deir ez-Zor Governorate}}
{{Early Rulers of Mesopotamia}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mari}}
[[Category:Mari, Syria| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 3rd millennium BC]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 18th century BC]]
[[Category:Amorite cities]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Syria]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]
[[Category:Bronze Age sites in Syria]]
[[Category:Tells (archaeology)]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 3rd millennium BC]]
[[Category:29th-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:Kish civilization]]
[[Category:Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms]]
[[Category:City-states]]
[[Category:Ancient Levant]]