View source for Mari language

{{about|the Uralic language spoken in Russia|other uses|Mari language (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|Uralic language}}
{{more footnotes|date=January 2015}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Mari
| nativename       = {{lang|chm|марий йылме}} {{tlit|chm|marij jylme}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|chm|mɑˈɾij ˈjəlme|}}
| region           = [[Russian Federation]]: [[autonomous republic]]s [[Mari El]], [[Bashkortostan]], [[Tatarstan]], [[Udmurtia]]; [[oblast]]i [[Nizhny Novgorod Oblast|Nizhny Novgorod]], [[Kirov Oblast|Kirov]], [[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk]], [[Orenburg Oblast|Orenburg]]; [[Perm Krai]]
| ethnicity        = 548,000 [[Mari people|Mari]] (2010 census)<ref>{{e25|mhr|Mari, Meadow}}</ref>
| speakers         = {{sigfig|318495|2}}
| date             = 2020
| ref              = <ref>{{Cite web |title=Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2020 года. Таблица 6. Население по родному языку.|trans-title=Results of the All-Russian population census 2020. Table 6. population according to native language. |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn_popul |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=rosstat.gov.ru}}</ref>
| familycolor      = Uralic
| nation           = {{Flag|Russia}}
*{{Flag|Mari El}}
| dia1             = [[Meadow Mari language|Eastern Mari]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}Eastern proper{{Indent|1}}{{*}}Meadow
| dia2             = Western Mari{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Hill Mari language|Hill]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Northwestern Mari language|Northwestern]]
| dia3             = ?[[Merya language|Merya]] {{extinct}} (unattested)
| iso2             = chm
| iso3             = chm
| lc1              = mhr
| ld1              = [[Meadow Mari language|Eastern and Meadow Mari]] (Eastern Mari)
| lc2              = mrj
| ld2              = [[Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]] (Western Mari)
| glotto           = mari1278
| glottorefname    = Mari
| map              = Mari beginning of 20th century.png
| mapcaption       = Geographic distribution of Mari languages at the beginning of the 20th century<ref name=map1>{{Cite journal |last1=Rantanen |first1=Timo |last2=Tolvanen |first2=Harri |last3=Roose |first3=Meeli |last4=Ylikoski |first4=Jussi |last5=Vesakoski |first5=Outi |date=2022-06-08 |title=Best practices for spatial language data harmonization, sharing and map creation—A case study of Uralic |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=6 |article-number=e0269648 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0269648|doi-access=free |pmid=35675367 |pmc=9176854 |bibcode=2022PLoSO..1769648R }}</ref><ref name=map2>Rantanen, Timo, Vesakoski, Outi, Ylikoski, Jussi, & Tolvanen, Harri. (2021). ''Geographical database of the Uralic languages'' (v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4784188</ref>
| notice           = IPA
| altname          = Cheremiss
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|root=|person= |people= [[Mari people|Mari]]|language= [[Mari language|Marij]]|country=[[Mari El]]}}
The '''Mari language''' ({{lang|chm|марий йылме}}, {{IPA|chm|mɑˈɾij ˈjəlme|IPA}}; {{lang-rus|марийский язык|p=mɐˈrʲijskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk}}), formerly known as the '''Cheremiss language''', spoken by approximately 400,000 people, belongs to the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] language family. It is spoken primarily in the [[Mari Republic]] of the [[Russian Federation]], as well as in the area along the [[Vyatka River|Vyatka river]] basin and eastwards to the [[Ural Mountains|Urals]]. Mari speakers, known as the [[Mari people|Mari]], are found also in the [[Tatarstan]], [[Bashkortostan]], [[Udmurtia]], and [[Perm Krai|Perm]] regions.

Mari is the titular and official language of its republic, alongside [[Russian language|Russian]].

The Mari language today has three standard forms: [[Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]], [[Northwestern Mari language|Northwestern Mari]], and [[Meadow Mari language|Meadow Mari]]. The latter is predominant and spans the continuum Meadow Mari to Eastern Mari from the Republic into the Ural dialects of [[Bashkortostan]], [[Sverdlovsk Oblast]] and [[Udmurtia]]), whereas the former, Hill Mari, shares a stronger affiliation with the Northwestern dialect (spoken in the [[Nizhny Novgorod Oblast]] and parts of the [[Kirov Oblast]]). Both language forms use modified versions of [[Cyrillic script]]. For the non-native, Hill Mari, or Western Mari, can be recognised by its use of the special letters "ӓ" and "ӹ" in addition to the shared letters "ӱ" and "ӧ", while Eastern and Meadow Mari utilise a special letter "ҥ".

The use of two "variants", as opposed to two "languages", has been debated: Maris recognise the unity of the ethnic group, and the two forms are very close, but distinct enough to cause some problems with communication.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

== Ethnonym and glottonym ==
The Mari language and people were known as "Cheremis" ({{langx|ru|черемисы, черемисский язык}}, ''cheremisy'', ''cheremisskiy yazyk''). In medieval texts the variant forms Sarmys and Tsarmys are also found, as well as {{langx|tt-Cyrl|Чирмеш|translit=Çirmeş}}; and {{langx|cv|Ҫармӑс}}, ''Śarmăs'' before the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. The term ''Mari'' comes from the Maris' autonym {{lang|chm|марий}} ({{lang|chm-Latn|mari}}).

== Sociolinguistic situation ==
{{One source section
| date = August 2024
}}
Most Maris live in rural areas with slightly more than a quarter living in cities. In the republic's capital, [[Yoshkar-Ola]], the percentage of Maris is just over 23 percent. At the end of the 1980s (per the 1989 census) Maris numbered 670,868, of whom 80% (542,160) claimed Mari as their first language and 18.8% did not speak Mari. In the Mari Republic, 11.6% claimed Mari was not their first language. In a survey by the Mari Research Institute more than three quarters of Maris surveyed considered Mari language to be the most crucial marker of ethnic identity, followed by traditional culture (61%) and common historical past (22%), religion (16%), character and mentality (15%) and appearance (11%) (see Glukhov and Glukhov for details). A gradual downward trend towards assimilation to Russian has been noted for the Communist period: the 1926 census indicated more than 99% of Maris considered Mari their first language, declining to less than 81% in 1989. Some qualitative evidence of a reversal in recent years has been noted. 

There was no state support for Mari language in [[Imperial Russia]], and with the exception of some enthusiasts and numerous ecclesiastical texts by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], there was almost no education in Mari language. After the [[October Revolution]], there was a period of support of all lesser national cultures in the [[Soviet Union]], but eventually [[Russification]] returned. While the development of Mari literary language continued, still, only elementary-school education was available in Mari in the Soviet period, with this policy ending in village schools in the 1970–1980s. The period of [[glasnost]] and [[perestroika]] in the 1990s opened opportunities for a revival of efforts expand the use of Mari in education and the public sphere. In the 1990s, the Mari language, alongside Russian, was proclaimed in the republican constitution to be an official language of Mari El. By the beginning of the 21st century, Mari language and literature was taught in 226 schools. At the History and Philology Department of the Mari State University and the [[Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya|Krupskaya]] Teachers' Training Institute (Yoshkar-Ola), more than half of the subjects are taught in Mari. However, by 2024, only 9% of ethnic Mari children were being taught Mari in just 81 schools.<ref>{{cite web |title=Few students in Mari El learn Mari as mother tongue |url=https://fennougria.ee/en/mari-mother-tongue-2024/ |website=[[World Congress of Finno-Ugric Peoples]] |access-date=26 August 2024}}</ref>

== Dialects ==
[[File:Mari language dialect map.svg|thumb|right|400px|The four main dialects of Mari:
{{legend|chocolate|Hill Mari}}
{{legend|#d7d700|Northwestern Mari}}
{{legend|violet|Meadow Mari}}
{{legend|royalblue|Eastern Mari}}]]
The principal division between Mari varieties is the West and the East. According to the Soviet linguist Kovedyaeva (1976:9-15, 1993:163-164) the Mari macrolanguage is divided into four main dialects:
* [[Hill Mari language|Hill Mari]], spoken mainly on the right upper bank of the Volga River around [[Kozmodemyansk]] (hence the name), but also on the left bank and in the mouth of [[Vetluga River|Vetluga]].
* [[Northwestern Mari language|Northwestern Mari]]
* [[Meadow Mari language|Meadow Mari]], spoken on the left Volgan bank on the central and eastern plain ("meadow") of Mari El around the republican capital, [[Yoshkar-Ola]].
* [[Eastern Mari language|Eastern Mari]] is scattered to the east of Mari El from [[Vyatka River|Vyatka]] through [[Kama River|Kama]] to [[Ufa River|Ufa]].
Each main dialect is divided into their own smaller local subdialects. Only Hill and Meadow Mari have their own literary written standard varieties, based on the dialects of Kozmodemyansk and Yoshkar-Ola respectively.

Eastern and Meadow Mari are often united as a Meadow-Eastern [[supra-dialect]]. Northwestern Mari is transitional between the Hill and Meadow dialects, and its phonology and morphology are closer to Hill Mari.

== Phonology ==
=== Vowels ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>[[roundedness|rounded]]</small>
! <small>unrounded</small>
! <small>rounded</small>
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| /{{IPAlink|i}}/<br />'''и/i'''
| /{{IPAlink|y}}/<br />'''ӱ/ü'''
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|u}}/<br />'''у/u'''
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| /{{IPAlink|e}}/<br />'''е/e'''
| /{{IPAlink|ø}}/<br />'''ӧ/ö'''
| /{{IPAlink|ə}}/, /{{IPAlink|ə|ə̟}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''ы/y, ӹ/ÿ'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|o}}/<br />'''о/o'''
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| /{{IPAlink|æ}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''ӓ/ä'''
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|ɑ}}/<br />'''а/a'''
|
|}
# Only in Hill Mari
The schwa {{IPA|/ə/}} and its fronted counterpart are usually transcribed in [[Finno-Ugric transcription]] as ''ə̑'' (reduced mid unrounded vowel) and ''ə'' (reduced front unrounded vowel) respectively. The former has sometimes been transcribed in IPA as {{IPAslink|ɤ}}, but phonetically the vowel is most strongly distinguished by its short duration and reduced quality. Descriptions vary on the degree of backness and labialisation.<ref>{{cite journal|first=Dennis|last=Estill|year=2012|title=Revising the Meadow Mari vocalism|journal=Linguistica Uralica|volume=XLVIII/3|url=http://www.kirj.ee/20975/?tpl=1061&c_tpl=1064}}</ref>

The mid vowels {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ø/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} have more reduced allophones {{IPA|[e̽]}}, {{IPA|[ø̽]}}, {{IPA|[o̽]}} at the end of a word.

==== Word prosody ====
Stress is not phonemic in Mari, but a dynamic stress system is exhibited phonetically, the stressed syllable being higher in pitch and amplitude and greater in length than an unstressed syllable. Generally, there is one prominent syllable per word and prominence may be found in any syllable of the word. Post- and prefixes behave as [[clitic]]s, i.e., they do not have their own stress. For example, пӧ́рт (''pört'', "house") гыч (''gəč'', "out of") ({{IPA|[ˈpørt ɣɤt͡ʃ]}}); or му́ро (''muro'', "song") дене (''dene'', "with") ({{IPA|[ˈmuro ðene]}}).

=== Consonants ===
Consonants are shown in Cyrillic, Latin, and the [[help:IPA|IPA]]:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br />alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|- class=small
! plain
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| /{{IPAlink|m}}/<br />'''м/m'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|n}}/<br />'''н/n'''
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|ɲ}}/<br />'''н(ь)/n(')'''<sup>2</sup>
| /{{IPAlink|ŋ}}/<br />'''ҥ'''<sup>3</sup>'''/ŋ'''
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| /{{IPAlink|p}}/<br />'''п/p'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|t}}/<br />'''т/t'''
| /{{IPAlink|tʲ}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''т(ь)/t'[ť]'''<sup>2</sup>
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|k}}/<br />'''к/k'''
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| /{{IPAlink|b}}/<br />'''б/b'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|d}}/<br />'''д/d'''
|
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|ɡ}}/<br />'''г/g'''
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|ts}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''ц/c'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|tʃ}}/<br />'''ч/č'''
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>voiceless</small>
| /{{IPAlink|f}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''ф/f'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|s}}/<br />'''с/s'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|ʃ}}/<br />'''ш/š'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|x}}/<sup>1</sup><br />'''х/h'''
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
| ({{IPAlink|β}})<sup>4</sup><br />'''в/v'''
| ({{IPAlink|ð}})<sup>4</sup><br />'''д/d'''
| /{{IPAlink|z}}/<br />'''з/z'''
|
| /{{IPAlink|ʒ}}/<br />'''ж/ž'''
|
| ({{IPAlink|ɣ}})<sup>4</sup><br />'''г/g'''
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|r}}/ (or /{{IPAlink|ɾ}}/)<br />'''р/r'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
! <small>central</small>
|
|
|
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|j}}/<br />'''й/j'''
|
|-
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|lateral]]</small>
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|l}}/<br />'''л/l'''
|
|
| /{{IPAlink|ʎ}}/<br />'''л(ь)/l(ľ)'''<sup>2</sup>
|
|}
# Only in Russian loanwords, in Hill Mari also onomatopoeia and Chuvashian loanwords.
# Palatalisation is marked in different ways. A {{angle bracket|у}} following a palatalised consonant is written as {{angle bracket|ю}}, and {{angle bracket|а}} following a palatalised consonant is written as {{angle bracket|я}}. If the vowel following a palatalised consonant is an е or an и, palatalisation is not marked at all. In other cases, the [[soft sign]] ь is used to mark palatalisation.
# The modified Cyrillic letter for the velar nasal ({{IPA|ŋ}}) combines the Cyrillic letter {{angle bracket|Н н}} with and {{angle bracket|Г г}}, where the rightmost post of Н is conflated with the vertical post of {{angle bracket|Г}}: {{angle bracket|Ҥ, ҥ}}. Although Hill Mari has this sound too, this character is only used in Meadow Mari.
# In Russian loanwords and after nasals, {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} are voiced stops. Word-finally and before a consonant, there is free variation between voiced fricatives ({{IPA|[β ð ɣ]}}) and voiceless stops {{IPA|[p t k]}}.

=== Phonological processes ===

Like several other Uralic languages, Mari has [[vowel harmony]]. In addition to front/back harmony, Mari also features round/unround harmony. If the stressed vowel in the word is [[roundedness|rounded]], then the suffix will contain a rounded vowel: for example, кӱтӱ́ ([kyˈty] 'herd') becomes кӱтӱ́штӧ ([kyˈtyʃtø], 'in the herd'); if the stressed vowel is unrounded, then the suffix will contain an unrounded vowel: ки́д ([kid], 'hand') becomes ки́дыште ([ˈkidəʃte], 'in the hand'). If the stressed vowel is back, then the suffix will end in a back vowel: агу́р ([aˈgur], 'whirlpool') becomes агу́рышто ([aˈgurəʃto], 'in the whirlpool').<ref>Зорина, Крылова, Якимова 1990: 9</ref>

== Orthography ==
{{Main|Mari orthography}}

[[File:Mari language.png|thumb|261x261px|Geographical distribution of the Mari language]]
Mari is mostly written with the [[Cyrillic script]].

== Declension ==

Like other [[Uralic languages]], Mari is an [[agglutinating language|agglutinative language]], adhering to [[Agglutination|agglutinative typology]] more than other [[Uralic languages]]<ref name=":2" />. It lacks [[grammatical gender]], and does not use articles.

=== Case ===
Meadow Mari has 9 [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] [[Declension|cases]], of which 3 are [[locative case]]s. The usage of the latter ones is restricted to inanimate objects. These cases are all complemented by [[postpositions]], which are either going through or have gone through morphologisation. There are no [[Noun class|noun classes]], and all [[inflected]] forms can be derived from the [[Nominative case|nominative]] singular.<ref name=":2" />

Many cases, aside from their basic function, are used in other situations, such as in expressions of time.
* [[Nominative case|Nominative]], used for subjects, predicatives and for other grammatical functions.
* [[Genitive case|Genitive]], is used for possessive constructions.
* [[Dative case|Dative]], the indirect object's case.
* [[Accusative case|Accusative]], the direct object's case.
* [[Comitative case|Comitative]], used when a subject or an object can be split up into parts, or in adverbials expressing the involvement of an object in an action.
* [[Comparative case|Comparative]], used to express the likeness to something.
* [[Inessive case|Inessive]], used to state where something is.
* [[Illative case|Illative]], used to state where something is going.
* [[Lative case|Lative]], used to express into what something is going.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case Name
! Suffix
! Question Words
! Example (animate)
! Example (inanimate)
|-
| Nominative
| -
| кӧ, мо (who, what)
| йоча (a child; subject)
| ял (a village; subject)
|-
| Genitive
| -(ы)н
| кӧн, мон (whose, what's)
| йоча'''н''' (of a child)
| ял'''ын''' (of a village)
|-
| Dative
| -лан
| кӧлан, молан (to whom, to what/why)
| йоча'''лан''' (to a child)
| ял'''лан''' (to a village)
|-
| Accusative
| -(ы)м
| кӧм, мом (whom, what)
| йоча'''м''' (a child; object)
| ял'''ым''' (a village; object)
|-
| Comitative
| -ге
| кӧге, моге (with whom, with what)
| йоча'''ге''' (with a child)
| ял'''ге''' (with a village)
|-
| Comparative
| -ла
| кӧла, мола (like who, like what)
| йоча'''ла''' (like a child)
| ял'''ла''' (like a village)
|-
| Inessive
| -(ы)ште/(ы)што/(ы)штӧ
| кушто (where)
| -
| ялы'''ште''' (in a village)
|-
| Illative
| -(ы)шке/(ы)шко/(ы)шкӧ, -(ы)ш<ref group="note">The illative has a short form, equivalent to the long form in meaning.</ref>
| кушко/куш (where to)
| -
| ялы'''шке'''/ял'''ыш''' (to a village)
|-
| Lative
| -ш/еш/эш
| кушан (where to)
| -
| ял'''еш''' (into a village)
|}

<references group="note"/>

If a locative statement was to be made about an animate object, postpositions would be used.

Additionally, terms denoting family members have [[Vocative case|vocative]] forms. These are, however, not created with a specific paradigm, and only exist in a few pre-defined cases.

Hill Mari has these cases, plus the [[abessive case]] (of the form -де), which is used to form [[adverbial]]s stating without the involvement or influence of which an action happens.

=== Number ===
Mari has three morphemes to signify plurality. Plurality is not always marked and may be inferred from [[semantics]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=The Uralic languages |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-08198-6 |editor-last=Abondolo |editor-first=Daniel Mario |edition=Repr |series=Routledge language family descriptions |location=London}}</ref>
* -влак (''-vlak'') – Standard plural form.
* -шамыч (''-šamõč'') – Alternative standard plural, used in many dialects. There is no difference in meaning between these two.
* -мыт (''mət'') – Sociative plural. Used to signify a group of people: the members of a family, a person and their family and friends.

=== Possessive suffixes ===
Every grammatical person in Mari has its own [[possessive suffix]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person
! Suffix
! Example
|-
| -
| -
| шӱргӧ (face)
|-
| First-person singular
| -ем/эм
| шӱрг'''ем''' (my face)
|-
| Second-person singular
| -ет/эт
| шӱрг'''ет''' (your face)
|-
| Third-person singular
| -же/жо/жӧ/ше/шо/шӧ
| шӱргы'''жӧ''' (his/her/its face)
|-
| First-person plural
| -на
| шӱргы'''на''' (our face)
|-
| Second-person plural
| -да
| шӱргы'''да''' (your face)
|-
| Third-person plural
| -шт/ышт
| шӱргы'''шт''' (their face)
|}

=== Additional suffixes ===
Additional particles, falling into none of the categories above, can be added to the very end of a word, giving it some additional meaning. For example, the suffix -ат ''(-at''), means 'also' or 'too'.

=== Arrangement of suffixes ===
The arrangement of suffixes varies from case to case. Although the case suffixes are after the possessive suffixes in the genitive and the accusative, the opposite is the case for the locative cases. In the dative, both arrangements are possible. 

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case
! Singular
! Example
! Plural
|-
| Nominative
| P
| пӧртем – 'my house (subject)'
| пӧртем-влак – 'my houses (subject)'
|-
| Genitive
| rowspan="3"| P → C
| пӧртемын – 'of my house'
| пӧртем-влакын – 'of my houses'
|-
| Accusative
| пӧртемым – 'my house (object)'
| пӧртем-влакым – 'my houses (object)'
|-
| Comitative
| пӧртемге – 'with my house'
| пӧртем-влакге – 'with my houses'
|-
| Dative
| P → C, C → P
| пӧртемлан, пӧртланем – 'to my house'
| пӧртем-влаклан – 'to my houses'
|-
| Comparative
| P → C, C → P
| пӧртемла, пӧртлам – 'like my house'
| пӧртем-влакла – 'like my houses'
|-
| Inessive
| rowspan="3"| C → P
| пӧртыштем – 'in my house'
| пӧрт-влакыштем – 'in my houses'
|-
| Illative
| пӧртышкем – 'into my house'
| пӧрт-влакышкем – 'into my houses'
|-
| Lative
| пӧртешем – 'into my house'
| пӧрт-влакешем – 'into my houses'
|-
|}

There are many other arrangements in the [[plural]]—the position of the plural particle is flexible. The arrangement here is one commonly used possibility. [[Allomorph|Allomorphy]] is generally transparent, with the realisation of [[Affix|affixes]] being predictable, with the exception of some cases.<ref name=":2" />

=== Comparison ===
[[Comparison (grammar)|Comparison]] happens with adjectives and adverbs. The [[comparative]] is formed with the suffix -рак (-rak). The [[superlative]] is formed by adding the word эн (en) in front.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Comparative
! Superlative
|-
| кугу – 'big'
| кугурак – 'bigger'
| эн кугу – 'biggest'
|}

== Conjugation ==
Morphologically, [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] follows three [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] and three [[Grammatical moods|moods]] in Meadow Mari.

=== Conjugation types ===
In Meadow Mari, verbs can conjugate according to two conjugation types. These differ from each other in all forms but the infinitive and the third-person plural of the imperative. Unfortunately, the infinitive is the form denoted in dictionaries and word lists. It is, thus, necessary to either mark verb infinitives by their conjugation type in word lists, or to include a form in which the conjugation class is visible—usually, the first-person singular present, which ends in -ам (or -ям) for verbs in the first category, and in -ем (or -эм) for second-type verbs.

Literary Meadow Mari has only two irregular verbs, the '[[Mari language#Negation|negative verb]]' and the word for '[[Mari language#Example|to be]]'.<ref name=":2" />

Like nouns, [[Nonfinite verb|nonfinite verb forms]] can also take person suffixes, reflecting the subject or possessor.<ref name=":2" />

=== Tense ===
The three tenses of Mari verbs are:
# [[Present tense|Present]]: The present tense is used for present and future actions, for states of being and for habitual actions, among others.
# First [[preterite]]: The first preterite is used to express observed, recent actions.
# Second preterite: The second preterite is used for actions that are in the more-distant past.

Additional tenses can be formed through [[periphrasis]].
* First periphrastic [[imperfect]]
* Second periphrastic imperfect
* First periphrastic [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]]
* Second periphrastic perfect

=== Mood ===
The moods are:
# [[Indicative mood|Indicative]]: The indicative is used to express facts and positive beliefs. All intentions that a particular language does not categorise as another mood are classified as indicative. It can be formed in all persons, in all times.
# [[Imperative mood|Imperative]]: The imperative expresses direct commands, requests, and prohibitions. It only exists in the present tense, and exists in all persons but the first person singular.
# [[Desiderative mood|Desiderative]]: The desiderative is used to express desires. It can be formed for all persons, in the present tense and in the two periphrastic imperfect.

=== Negation ===
Negation in Mari uses a '[[negative verb]]', much like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] does. The [[negative verb]] is more versatile than the [[negative verb]] in Finnish (see [[Finnish grammar]]), existing in more grammatical tenses and moods. It has its own form in the [[present indicative]], [[Imperative mood|imperative]] and [[Desiderative mood|desiderative]], and in the first preterite indicative. Other negations are [[Periphrasis|periphrastic]].

The negation verb in its corresponding form is put in front of the negated verb in its second-person singular (the stem-only form), much as it is in Finnish and [[Estonian language|Estonian]].

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person
! Indicative present
! Imperative present
! Desiderative present
! Indicative first preterite
|-
| First-person singular
| ом (om)
| -
| ынем (ənem)
| шым (šəm)
|-
| Second-person singular
| от (ot)
| ит (it)
| ынет (ənet)
| шыч (šəč)
|-
| Third-person singular
| огеш (ogeš) / ок (ok)
| ынже (ənže)
| ынеж(е) (ənež(e))
| ыш (əš)
|-
| First-person plural
| огына (ogəna) / она (ona)
| -
| ынена (ənena)
| ышна (əšna)
|-
| Second-person plural
| огыда (ogəda) / ода (oda)
| ида (ida)
| ынеда (əneda)
| ышда (əšda)
|-
| Third-person plural
| огыт (ogət)
| ынышт (ənəšt)
| ынешт (ənešt)
| ышт (əšt)
|}

The verb улаш (ulaš) – to be – has its own negated forms.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Person
!
|-
| First-person singular – 'I am not'
| омыл (oməl)
|-
| Second-person singular – 'You are not'
| отыл (otəl)
|-
| Third-person singular – 'He/she/it is not'
| огыл (ogəl)
|-
| First-person plural – 'We are not'
| огынал (ogənal) / онал (onal)
|-
| Second-person plural – 'You are not'
| огыдал (ogədal) / одал (odal)
|-
| Third-person plural – 'They are not'
| огытыл (ogətəl)
|}

=== Example ===
In order to illustrate the conjugation in the respective moods and times, one verb of the first declination (лекташ – to go) and one verb of the second declination (мондаш – to forget) will be used.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the present indicative positive
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. pos.
! 2nd dec. pos.
|-
| 1st singular
| лектам (I go)
| мондем (I forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| лектат (You go)
| мондет (You forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лектеш (He/she/it goes)
| монда (He/she/it forgets)
|-
| 1st plural
| лектына (We go)
| мондена (We forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лектыда (You go)
| мондеда (You forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лектыт (They go)
| мондат (They forget)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the present indicative negative
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. neg.
! 2nd dec. neg.
|-
| 1st singular
| ом лек<sup>2</sup> (I don't go)
| ом монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (I don't forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| от лек<sup>2</sup> (You don't go)
| от монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You don't forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| огеш лек<sup>2</sup> (He/she/it doesn't go)
| огеш монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (He/she/it doesn't forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| огына лек<sup>2</sup> (We don't go)
| огына монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (We don't forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| огыда лек<sup>2</sup> (You don't go)
| огыда монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You don't forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| огыт лек<sup>2</sup> (They don't go)
| огыт монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (They don't forget)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to [[vowel harmony]]—they can be е/о/ӧ, depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the 1st preterite indicative positive
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. pos.
! 2nd dec. pos.
|-
| 1st singular
| лектым<sup>3</sup> (I went)
| мондышым (I forgot)
|-
| 2nd singular
| лектыч<sup>3</sup> (You went)
| мондышыч (You forgot)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лект'''е'''<sup>1, 3</sup> (He/she/it went)
| мондыш (He/she/it forgot)
|-
| 1st plural
| лекна<sup>2</sup> (We went)
| мондышна (We forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лекда<sup>2</sup> (You went)
| мондышда (You forgot)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лектыч<sup>3</sup> (They went)
| мондышт (They forgot)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to vowel harmony—they can be е/о/ӧ, depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.
# If the consonant prior to the ending can be palatalised—if it is ''л'' (l) or ''н'' (n)—it is palatalised in this position. Palatalisation is not marked if the vowel following a consonant is an е. <br /> колаш → ко'''ль'''ым, ко'''ль'''ыч, ко'''ль'''о, колна, колда, ко'''ль'''ыч (to hear)

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the 1st preterite indicative negative
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. neg.
! 2nd dec. neg.
|-
| 1st singular
| шым лек<sup>2</sup> (I didn't go)
| шым монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (I didn't forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| шыч лек<sup>2</sup> (You didn't go)
| шыч монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You didn't forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| ыш лек<sup>2</sup> (He/she/it didn't go)
| ыш монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (He/she/it didn't forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| ышна лек<sup>2</sup> (We didn't go)
| ышна монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (We don't forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| ышда лек<sup>2</sup> (You didn't go)
| ышда монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You didn't forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| ышт лек<sup>2</sup> (They didn't go)
| ышт монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (They didn't forget)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to vowel harmony—they can be е/о/ӧ, depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the 2nd preterite indicative positive
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. pos.
! 2nd dec. pos.
|-
| 1st singular
| лектынам (I went)
| монденам (I forgot)
|-
| 2nd singular
| лектынат (You went)
| монденат (You forgot)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лектын (He/she/it went)
| монден (He/she/it forgot)
|-
| 1st plural
| лектынна (We went)
| монденна (We forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лектында (You went)
| монденда (You forgot)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лектыныт (They went)
| монденыт (They forgot)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the 2nd preterite indicative negative
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. neg.
! 2nd dec. neg.
|-
| 1st singular
| лектын омыл (I didn't go)
| монден омыл (I didn't forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| лектын отыл (You didn't go)
| монден отыл (You didn't forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лектын огыл (He/she/it didn't go)
| монден огыл (He/she/it didn't forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| лектын огынал (We didn't go)
| монден огынал (We don't forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лектын огыдал (You didn't go)
| монден огыдал (You didn't forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лектын огытыл (They didn't go)
| монден огытыл (They didn't forget)
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the imperative positive
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. pos.
! 2nd dec. pos.
|-
| 1st singular
| –
| –
|-
| 2nd singular
| лек<sup>3</sup> (Go!)
| монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (Forget!)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лекше<sup>2</sup> (He/She/It should go)
| мондыж'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (He/She/It should forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| лектына (Let's go)
| мондена (Let's forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лекса<sup>2</sup> (Go!)
| мондыза (Forget!)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лекытшт (They should go)
| мондышт (They should forget)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to vowel harmony—they can be ''е/о/ӧ'', depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative.
# In the first conjugation, the imperative second-person singular is formed by removing the ''-аш'' ending from the infinitive. Four consonant combinations are not allowed at the end of an imperative, and are thus simplified—one consonant is lost. <br /> ''кт'' → ''к'', ''нч'' → ''ч'', ''чк'' → ''ч'', ''шк'' → ''ш''

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the imperative negative
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. neg.
! 2nd dec. neg.
|-
| 1st singular
| -
| -
|-
| 2nd singular
| ит лек<sup>2</sup> (Don't go!)
| ит монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (Don't forget!)
|-
| 3rd singular
| ынже лек<sup>2</sup> (He/She/It shouldn't go)
| ынже монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (He/She/It shouldn't forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| огына лек<sup>2</sup> (Let's not go)
| огына монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (Let's not forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| ида лек<sup>2</sup> (Don't go!)
| ида монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (Don't forget!)
|-
| 3rd plural
| ынышт лек<sup>2</sup> (They shouldn't go)
| ынышт монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (They shouldn't forget)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to vowel harmony—they can be ''е/о/ӧ'', depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the present desiderative positive
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. pos.
! 2nd dec. pos.
|-
| 1st singular
| лекнем<sup>2</sup> (I want to go)
| мондынем (I want to forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| лекнет<sup>2</sup> (You want to go)
| мондынет (You want to forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| лекнеже<sup>2</sup> (He/she/it wants to go)
| мондынеже (He/she/it wants to forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| лекнена<sup>2</sup> (We want to go)
| мондынена (We want to forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| лекнеда<sup>2</sup> (You want to go)
| мондынеда (You want to forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| лекнешт<sup>2</sup> (They want to go)
| мондынешт (They want to forget)
|}

# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of the present desiderative negative
|-
! Person
! 1st dec. neg.
! 2nd dec. neg.
|-
| 1st singular
| ынем лек<sup>2</sup> (I don't want to go)
| ынем монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (I don't want to forget)
|-
| 2nd singular
| ынет лек<sup>2</sup> (You don't want to go)
| ынет монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You don't want to forget)
|-
| 3rd singular
| ынеже лек<sup>2</sup> (He/she/it doesn't want to go)
| ынеже монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (He/she/it doesn't want to forget)
|-
| 1st plural
| ынена лек<sup>2</sup> (We don't want to go)
| ынена монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (We don't want to forget)
|-
| 2nd plural
| ынеда лек<sup>2</sup> (You don't want to go)
| ынеда монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (You don't want to forget)
|-
| 3rd plural
| ынешт лек<sup>2</sup> (They don't want to go)
| ынешт монд'''о'''<sup>1</sup> (They don't want to forget)
|}
# Bold letters are subject to vowel harmony—they can be ''е/о/ӧ'', depending on the preceding full vowel.
# First-conjugation verb forms using the imperative second-person singular as their stem are subject to the same stem changes as the imperative – see imperative second-person singular.

{| class="wikitable"
|+Conjugation of улаш – ''to be'' – in the indicative mood
|-
! rowspan="2" |Person
! colspan="2" | Present
! colspan="2" | 1st preterite
! colspan="2" | 2nd preterite
|-
! positive || negative
! positive || negative
! positive || negative
|-
| 1st sing.
| улам <br />(I am)
| омыл <br />(I am not)
| ыльым <br />(I was)
| шым лий <br />(I was not)
| улынам <br />(I was)
| лийын омыл <br />(I was not)
|-
| 2nd sing.
| улат <br />(You are)
| отыл <br />(You are not)
| ыльыч <br />(You were)
| шыч лий <br />(You were not)
| улынат <br />(You were)
| лийын отыл <br />(You were not)
|-
| 3rd sing.
| уло (улеш) <br />(He/she/it is)
| огыл <br />(He/she/it is not)
| ыле <br />(He/she/it was)
| ыш лий <br />(He/she/it was not)
| улмаш(ын) <br />(He/she/it was)
| лийын огыл <br />(He/she/it was not)
|-
| 1st pl.
| улына <br />(We are)
| огынал <br />(We are not)
| ыльна <br />(We were)
| ышна лий <br />(We were not)
| улынна <br />(We were)
| лийын огынал <br />(We were not)
|-
| 2nd pl.
| улыда <br />(You are)
| огыдал <br />(You are not)
| ыльда <br />(You were)
| ышда лий <br />(You were not)
| улында <br />(You were)
| лийын огыдал <br />(You were not)
|-
| 3rd pl.
| улыт <br />(They are)
| огытыл <br />(They are not)
| ыльыч <br />(They were)
| ышт лий <br />(They were not)
| улыныт <br />(They were)
| лийын огытыл <br />(They were not)
|}

=== Infinitive forms ===
Verbs have two [[infinitive]] forms: the standard infinitive and the necessive infinitive, used when a person must do something. The person needing to do something is put in the dative in such a situation.

=== Participles ===
There are four [[participle]]s in Meadow Mari:
* Active participle
* Passive participle
* Negative participle
* Future participle

=== Gerunds ===
There are five [[gerund]]s in Meadow Mari:
* Affirmative instructive gerund
* Negative instructive gerund
* Gerund for prior actions I
* Gerund for prior actions II
* Gerund for simultaneous actions

== Syntax ==
{{Expand section|date=August 2018}}

=== Word order ===
Word order in Mari is [[subject–object–verb]].<ref name=":0">Saarinen, Sirkka, 'Mari', in [[Marianne Bakró-Nagy]], [[Johanna Laakso]], and Elena Skribnik (eds), ''The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages'' (Oxford, 2022; online edn, Oxford Academic, 23 June 2022), {{doi|10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0024}} , accessed 31 July 2023.</ref> This means that the object appears directly before the predicate.<ref name=":0" /> Word order in Mari is affected by information structure.<ref name=":0" /> However, the position of the verb is not affected.<ref name=":0" /> The focus position is directly before the verb.<ref name=":0" /> Subjects, objects, adverbial, and secondary predicate can appear in this position.<ref name=":0" /> The examples below quoted in Saarinen (2022)<ref name=":0" /> show the different elements that can appear in the focus position.

<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
1PST:first preterite
2PST:second preterite
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Element in the focus position 
!
|-
|Object  
|{{fs interlinear
|Чачи корно мучко '''Сакарым''' шонен кайыш.
|t͡ɕɑt͡ɕi korno mut͡ɕko '''sɑkɑr-əm''' ʃon-en kɑjə-ʃ
|Chachi road end-ILL.U '''Sakar-ACC''' think-CVB go-1PST.3SG
|'Chachi walked to the end of the road, while thinking of '''Sakar'''.'}}
|-
|Subject
|{{fs interlinear
|Школым '''мый''' ыштенам мо?
|ʃkol-əm '''məj''' əʃt-en-ɑm mo
|school-ACC '''1SG''' make-2PST-1SG Q
|'Was it '''I''' who built the school?'}}
|-
|Adverbial
|{{fs interlinear
|Игече келге '''шыжыш''' тошкалын.
|iget͡ɕe kelge '''ʃəʒə-ʃ''' toʃkɑl-ən
|weather deep '''autumn-ILL''' step-2PST.3SG
|'The weather changed to that '''of a true autumn'''.'}}
|-
|Secondary predicate
|{{fs interlinear
|Мам '''нулевой''' '''мычаш''' маныт?
|mɑ-m '''nuleβoj''' '''mət͡ʃɑʃ'''  mɑn-ət
|what-ACC '''zero''' '''ending''' say-3PL
|'Which (elements) are called '''zero endings'''?'}}
|}
Question particles мо /mo/ and ма /mɑ/ are clause-final.<ref name=":0" />

However, Georgieva et al. (2021) point out that Mari also allows backgrounded material to occur after the verb.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Georgieva |first1=Ekaterina |last2=Salzmann |first2=Martin |last3=Weisser |first3=Philipp |date=2021-05-01 |title=Negative verb clusters in Mari and Udmurt and why they require postsyntactic top-down word-formation |journal=Natural Language & Linguistic Theory |language=en |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=457–503 |doi=10.1007/s11049-020-09484-w |s2cid=225270981 |issn=1573-0859|doi-access=free }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Example taken from Georgieva et al. (2021)<ref name=":1" /> showing that backgrounded material can occur after the verb 
|-
|{{interlinear
|məj kert-am kušt-en
|1SG can-1SG dance-GER
|'I can dance (e.g. as opposed to you).}}
|}
Moving the verb to other positions in the sentence is possible for stylistic reasons or for emphasis.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Riese |first1=Timothy |url=https://mari-language.univie.ac.at/book.php?int=0 |title=A Comprehensive Introduction to the Mari Language |last2=Bradley |first2=Jeremy |last3=Yakimova |first3=Emma |last4=Krylova |first4=Galina |year=2017 |location=Department of Finno-Ugric Studies, University of Vienna}}</ref>

=== Nominal predication ===
Two nouns can be put against each other to form nominal predication.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kangasmaa-Minn |first=Eeva |title=The Uralic languages |year=1998 |editor-last=Abondolo |editor-first=Daniel Abondolo}}</ref> According to Saarinen (2022) both nouns and adjectives appear in the nominative case and do not agree with the subject in number in nominal predication.<ref name=":0" /> Saarinen (2022) notes that when the sentence is in the indicative mood with 3sg, a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] is not used.<ref name=":0" /> However, a [[Copula (linguistics)|copula]] is obligatory and appears clause-final and in other persons, tenses, and moods.<ref name=":0" />

=== Verbal predication ===
Saarinen (2022) points out that the object is marked with the accusative in transitive clauses.<ref name=":0" /> However, the object can appear in the nominative case in non-finite constructions.<ref name=":0" /> When the clause is ditransitive, the direct object appears in the accusative case and the indirect takes the dative case.<ref name=":0" /> However, Saarinen (2022) notes that in dialects and with verbs such as йӱкты- /jyktə-/ 'water' and пукшы- /pukʃə-/ 'feed' both objects appear in the accusative case.<ref name=":0" />

== Vocabulary ==
Note that the accent mark, which denotes the place of stress, is not used in actual Mari orthography.

{| class="wikitable"
! Mari word/expression !! Transliteration !! Meaning 
|-
|По́ро ке́че || Póro kéče || Good day
|-
|Ку́гу та́у || Kúgu táu || Thank you (very much)
|-
|ик || ik || one
|-
|кок || kok || two
|-
|кум || kum || three
|-
| ныл || nəl || four
|-
| вич || vič || five
|-
|куд || kud || six
|-
|шым || šəm || seven
|-
|канда́ш || kandáš || eight
|-
|инде́ш || indéš || nine
|-
|лу || lu || ten
|-
|мут || mut || word
|}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |author-link=Alho Alhoniemi |last=Alhoniemi |first=Alho |title=Marin kielioppi |trans-title=Mari Grammar |location=Helsinki |edition=2nd |orig-date=1985 |year=2010 |publisher=[[Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura]] |url=http://www.sgr.fi/apuneuvoja/apuneuvojax.pdf |access-date=2015-01-03 |language=fi}} (Hill and Meadow)
* {{cite book |last=Alhoniemi |first=A. |title=Marin kielen lukemisto sanastoineen |location=Helsinki |year=1986}} (Hill and Meadow)
* {{cite book |last=Beke |first=О. |title=Cseremisz nyelvtan |location=Budapest |year=1911}} (Hill and Meadow)
* {{cite book |last=Budenz |first=J. |title=Erdéi és hegyi cseremisz szótár |location=Pest |year=1866}} (Mari [Hill and Meadow], Hungarian, Latin)
* {{cite book |last=Castrén |first=M. A. |title=Elementa grammaticae tscheremissicae |location=Kuopio |year=1845}} (Hill)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220551/http://webfu.univie.ac.at/archiv.php Glukhov, N. and V. Glukhov, "Mari Men and Women as Bearers of the Mari Language and Identity", Wiener elektronische Beiträge des Instituts für Finno-Ugristik, 2003. Available, along with other papers on Finno-Ugric languages and cultures]
* Ingemann, F. J. and T. A. Sebeok, An Eastern Cheremis Manual: Phonology, Grammar, Texts and Glossary (= American Council of Learned Societies, Research and Studies in Uralic and Altaic languages, project nos. 6 and 31), Bloomington, 1961 (Meadow);
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01700/01794/ Klima, L. "The linguistic affinity of the Volgaic Finno-Ugrians and their ethnogenesis", 2004]
* Kangasmaa-Minn, Eeva. 1998. Mari. In Daniel Abondolo (ed.), The Uralic Languages, 219-248. London: Routledge.
* Lewy E., Tscheremissische Grammatik, Leipzig, 1922 (Meadow);
* [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|Ramstedt G. J.]], Bergtscheremissische Sprachstudien, Helsinki, 1902 (Hill);
* Räsänen M., Die tschuwassischen Lehnwörter im Tscheremissischen, Helsinki, 1920;
* Räsänen M., Die tatarischen Lehnwörter im Tscheremissischen, Helsinki, 1923.
* Sebeok, T. A. and A. Raun. (eds.), The First Cheremis Grammar (1775): A Facsimile Edition, Chicago, 1956.
* Szilasi M., Cseremisz szótár, Budapest, 1901 (Mari [Hill and Meadow], Hungarian, German);
* Wichmann Y., Tscheremissische Texte mit Wörterverzeichnis und grammatikalischem Abriss, Helsingfors, 1923 (Hill and Meadow);
* Wiedemann F., Versuch einer Grammatik der tscheremissischen Sprache, Saint Petersburg, 1847 (Hill);
* Васильев В. М., Записки по грамматике народа мари, Kazan', 1918 (Hill and Meadow);
* Васильев В. М., Марий Мутэр, Moscow, 1929 (Hill and Meadow);
* Галкин, И. С., Историческая грамматика марийского языка, vol. I, II, Yoshkar-Ola, 1964, 1966;
* Галкин, И. С., "Происхождение и развитие марийского языка", Марийцы. Историко-этнографические очерки/Марий калык. Историй сынан этнографий очерк-влак, Yoshkar-Ola, 2005: 43-46.
* Зорина, З. Г., Г. С. Крылова, and Э. С. Якимова. Марийский язык для всех, ч. 1. Йошкар-Ола: Марийское книжное издательство, * Кармазин Г. Г., Материалы к изучению марийского языка, Krasnokokshajsk, 1925 (Meadow);
* Иванов И. Г., История марийского литературного языка, Yoshkar-Ola, 1975;
* Иванов И. Г., Марий диалектологий, Yoshkar-Ola, 1981;
* Кармазин Г. Г., Учебник марийского языка лугово-восточного наречия, Yoshkar-Ola, 1929 (Meadow);
* Коведяева Е. И. "Марийский язык", Основы финно-угорского языкознания. Т.3. Moscow, 1976: 3-96.
* Коведяева Е. И. "Марийский язык", Языки мира: Уральские языки. Moscow, 1993: 148-164.
* Коведяева Е. И. "Горномарийский вариант литературного марийского языка", Языки мира: Уральские языки. Moscow, 1993: 164-173.
* Шорин В. С., Маро-русский словарь горного наречия, Kazan', 1920 (Hill);
* Троицкий В. П., Черемисско-русский словарь, Kazan', 1894 (Hill and Meadow);

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=mrj|1=Hill Mari}}
{{InterWiki|code=mhr|1=Meadow Mari}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.mari-language.com/ Electronic Resources on the Mari Language]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101010082818/http://www.mari-language.com/book/book_en.html English-Language Mari Textbook]
* [http://www.uta.fi/~km56049/mari/indexmari.html Kimberli Mäkäräinen's Meadow Mari Grammar]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090525104531/http://mari.finno-ugristik.at/morph.html Meadow Mari morphology generator]
* [http://marlamuter.org/muter/Кычалаш Online dictionaries on Mari language]

{{Uralic languages}}
{{Languages of Russia}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mari Language}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Mari language| ]]
[[Category:Uralic languages]]
[[Category:Culture of Mari El]]
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]