View source for Mascarene Islands

{{Short description|Group of islands in the Indian Ocean}}
{{For|the Canadian unincorporated community|Mascarene, New Brunswick}}
{{Infobox islands
| name             = Mascarene Islands
| native_name      = <!-- or local name to remove the "native name:" prefix -->Mascareignes
| sobriquet        = <!-- or nickname -->
| image_name       = Topographic map of Mascarene Islands.png
| image_size       = 
| image_caption    = Topographic map of Mascarene Islands
| image_alt        = 
| map_image        = LocationMascarene.svg
| map_caption      =
| location         = Indian Ocean
| coordinates      = {{Coord|20.20|S|57.75|E|type:isle|display=inline,title}}
| archipelago      = 
| total_islands    = 
| major_islands    = [[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]], [[Rodrigues]]
| other_islands    = [[Saint Brandon]], [[Agalega]], 
| area_km2         = <!-- or area m2 or area ha -->
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| rank             = 
| length_km        = <!-- or length m -->
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| width_km         = <!-- or width m -->
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| coastline_km     = <!-- or coastline m -->
| coastline_footnotes = 
| elevation_m      = 
| elevation_footnotes = 
| highest_mount    = <!--name-->
| country          = [[Mauritius]]
| country1         = [[France]]
| demonym          = 
| population       = 2,195,087
| population_as_of = 
| density_km2      = 
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| website          = 
}}

The '''Mascarene Islands''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|m|æ|s|k|ə|ˈ|r|iː|n}}; {{Langx|fr|Mascareignes}} {{IPA|fr|maskaʁɛɲ||Fr-Paris--Mascareignes.ogg}}) or '''Mascarenes''' or '''Mascarenhas Archipelago''' is a group of [[island]]s in the [[Indian Ocean]] east of [[Madagascar]] consisting of islands belonging to the [[Republic of Mauritius]] as well as the French department of [[Réunion]]. Their name derives from the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] navigator [[Pedro Mascarenhas]], who first visited them in April 1512. The islands share a common [[geological]] origin beneath the [[Mascarene Plateau]] known as the [[Mauritia (microcontinent)|Mauritia microcontinent]] which was a [[Precambrian]] [[continental fragment|microcontinent]] situated between [[Indian Plate|India]] and [[Madagascar]] until their separation about 70 million years ago. They form a distinct [[ecoregion]] with unique biodiversity and endemism of flora and fauna.

==Geography==
The [[archipelago]] comprises three large islands, [[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]], and [[Rodrigues]], plus a number of volcanic remnants in the tropics of the southwestern Indian Ocean, generally between 700 and 1,500 kilometres east of Madagascar. The [[terrain]] includes a variety of [[reef]]s, [[atoll]]s, and small islands. They present various [[Topography|topographical]] and [[Edaphology|edaphic]] regions. On the largest islands these gave rise to endemism and unusual biodiversity. The [[Oceanic climate|climate is oceanic]] and [[Tropics|tropical]].

Mauritius is located 900&nbsp;km east of [[Madagascar]]. It has an area of 1,865&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. The highest point is 828 meters above sea level. Mauritius is the most populous of the Mascarene Islands,<ref name = strahm>{{Cite journal |jstor=45066025 |title=Mascarene Islands an Introduction |last1=Strahm |first1=Wendy |journal=Curtis's Botanical Magazine |year=1996 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=182–185 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8748.1996.tb00567.x}}</ref> with a population of 1,252,964.

Réunion is located 150&nbsp;km southwest of Mauritius. It is the largest of the islands, with an area of 2,512&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>. [[Piton des Neiges]] (3,069 m), an extinct volcano, is the highest peak on Réunion and in the islands. [[Piton de la Fournaise]] is an active volcano on Réunion which erupts frequently.<ref name = strahm/>

Rodrigues is located 574&nbsp;km east of Mauritius. It has an area of 108&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, and reaches 393 meters elevation.<ref name = strahm/>

[[St. Brandon]], also known as the '''[[Cargados Carajos]] shoals''', is a [[coral atoll]] group consisting of a barrier reef, shoals, and low islets. It is the remnant of one -or more- large volcanic islands sitting on the [[Mauritia (microcontinent)]] which were submerged by rising tides. Today, the thirty or so islands that comprise [[St Brandon]] form part of the Republic of [[Mauritius]]. Around seventeen of the uninhabited islands are administered by the 'Outer Islands Development Corporation' of Mauritius (an entity run by the Prime Minister of Mauritius through the Prime Minister's Office) whilst the remaining Thirteen Islands of St. Brandon are managed by the [[Raphael Fishing Company]] from three permanently inhabited island bases of [[Ile Raphael]], [[L'île du Sud]] (South Island, l'île Boisées) and [[L'Île Coco]]. The [[Raphael Fishing Company]] was granted these Thirteen Islands of [[St. Brandon]] under a 1901 Permanent Lease ([[999-year lease]]) which were adjudged as a [[Permanent Grant]] by determination of the [[Privy Council (United Kingdom)]] in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.lexpress.mu/article/le-bail-permanent-de-rapha%C3%ABl-fishing-confirm%C3%A9-sur-st-brandon |title=Le bail permanent de Raphaël Fishing confirmé sur St.-Brandon |access-date=2022-11-27 |archive-date=2017-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170915161453/https://www.lexpress.mu/article/le-bail-permanent-de-rapha%C3%ABl-fishing-confirm%C3%A9-sur-st-brandon |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.saflii.org/mu/cases/UKPC/2008/43.html |title=Privy Council Judgment 30 July 2008 - Raphaël Fishing Company Ltd. |access-date=27 November 2022 |archive-date=1 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001071953/http://www.saflii.org/mu/cases/UKPC/2008/43.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These Thirteen islands of [[St. Brandon]] on Permanent Grant are [[L'île du Sud]] (South Island, l'île Boisée), Petit Fou, l'Avocaire, l'île aux Fous, [[L'île du Gouvernement]], Petit Mapou, Grand Mapou, La Baleine, [[L'Île Coco]], [[Île Raphael]], Verronge, l'île aux Bois and Baleines Rocks.

There are several submerged banks or shoals:
*[[Saya de Malha Bank]] is a large, [[submerged bank]]. Prehistorically it was a group of volcanic islands and was enjoined to the [[Great Chagos Bank]] until continental drift pushed them apart.
*[[Soudan Banks]] are a group of low-lying banks on the [[Mascarene Plateau]].
*[[Nazareth Bank]] is located just north of Cargados Carajos, and prehistorically they were a single geological feature. Today it is a large, shallow fishing bank.
*[[Hawkins Bank]] is located on the northernmost point of the [[Mascarene Plateau]].

==Geology==
[[File:Piton de la Fournaise 1.JPG|thumb|left|[[Piton de la Fournaise]]]]
The islands are [[volcanic]] in origin; [[Saya de Malha Bank|Saya de Malha]] (35 [[:wikt:mya#Noun|mya]]) was the first of the Mascarene islands to rise out of the Indian Ocean due to the [[Réunion hotspot]], followed by [[Nazareth Bank]] (approximately 2 mya later), [[Soudan Banks|Soudan Bank]] and [[Cargados Carajos]]. The youngest islands to form were Mauritius (7–10 mya), the oldest of the existing islands, created along with the undersea Rodrigues ridge. The islands of Rodrigues and Réunion were created in the last two million years. Réunion is the largest of the islands (2,500&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), followed by Mauritius (1,900&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>) and Rodrigues (110&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>). Eventually, Saya de Malha, Nazareth and Soudan were completely submerged, Cargados Carajos remaining as a coral atoll.<ref>{{cite web |author=Emmanuel Van Heygen |url=http://www.phelsumania.com/public/articles/biogeography_dispersal_mascarenes.html |title=Dispersal of the Genus Phelsuma in the Mascarenes |publisher=Phelsumania.com |access-date=2012-07-09 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716192754/http://www.phelsumania.com/public/articles/biogeography_dispersal_mascarenes.html |archive-date=2012-07-16}}</ref> The Réunion hotspot was beginning to cool and Rodrigues came out as a small island.

Réunion is home to the highest peaks in the Mascarenes, the [[shield volcano]]es [[Piton des Neiges]] (3,069 m) and [[Piton de la Fournaise]] (2,525 m). Piton de la Fournaise, on the southeastern corner of Réunion, is one of the most active volcanoes in the world, erupting last in December 2021. [[Piton de la Petite Rivière Noire]] (828 m) is the highest peak on Mauritius, and the gentle hills of Rodrigues rise to only 390 m.

The [[Mascarene Plateau]] is an undersea plateau that extends approximately 2000&nbsp;km, from the [[Seychelles]] to Réunion. The plateau covers an area of over 115,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> of shallow water, with depths ranging from 8 to 150 meters, plunging to 4000 m to the [[abyssal plain]] at its edges. The southern part of the plateau, including the [[Saya de Malha Bank]], [[Nazareth Bank]], [[Soudan Banks]] and [[Cargados Carajos]] Shoals (Saint Brandon) (then one large island), was formed by the Réunion hotspot. These were once volcanic islands, much like Mauritius and Réunion, which have now sunk or eroded to below sea level or, in the case of the Cargados Carajos, to low coral islands. The Saya de Malha Bank formed 35&nbsp;million years ago, and the Nazareth Bank and the Cargados Carajos shoals after that. [[Limestone]] banks found on the plateau are the remnants of [[coral reef]]s, indicating that the plateau was a succession of islands. Some of the banks may have been islands as recently as 18,000–6,000 years ago, when sea levels were as much as 130 meters lower during the most recent [[ice age]].

==History==
[[File:D. Pedro Mascarenhas.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Pedro Mascarenhas]], namesake of the Mascarene Islands, was [[List of governors of Portuguese India|Viceroy of Portuguese India]].]]
[[File:1780 Raynal and Bonne Map of Mascarene Islands, Reunion, Mauritius, Bourbon - Geographicus - GeneralesIsles-bonne-1780.jpg|thumb|1780 map of Reunion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues]]
{{See also|History of Mauritius}}
The early colonial history of the islands, like that of the Caribbean, featured a succession of takeovers between rival powers: the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British all ruled some or all of the islands.

Around 1507, the explorer [[Diogo Fernandes Pereira]] discovered the island group. The area remained under nominal Portuguese rule until [[Étienne de Flacourt]] arrived with a French naval squadron and took possession in 1649.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Islands in the southern Indian Ocean westward of Longitude 80 degrees east, including Madagascar |last=Moriarty |first=Cpt. H.A. |year=1891 |publisher=[[United Kingdom Hydrographic Office|Great Britain Hydrographic Office]] |location=London |oclc=416495775 |page=269 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-NmhAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA269 |access-date=11 June 2011}}</ref> From 4 June 1735 to 23 March 1746, a single French Mascarene Islands chartered colony under one ''[[gouverneur général]]'' (governor general) contained [[Isle de France (Mauritius)|Isle de France]] (now [[Mauritius]]), [[Île Bourbon]] (Réunion) and [[Seychelles|Séchelles]] (Seychelles). On 14 July 1767 this became a French crown colony, still under one governor general. From 3 February 1803 until 2 September 1810 the French colony of ''Indes-Orientales'', under a ''[[capitaine général]]'' (captain-general), included Réunion and (nominally) the Seychelles.

===Mauritius===

[[File:VOC.svg|alt=VOC - Logo of the Dutch East India Company|right|69x69px|Logo of the Dutch East India Company]]
It is postulated from navigational charts, such as the [[Cantino planisphere]] of 1502,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://saintbrandonconservation.org/the-conservator-programme/highlights-of-st-brandons-history/#tab-1703076837776-13-10|title=The Cantino Planisphere (1502) – Earliest Documented Evidence of the Cargados Carajos Shoals.|website=saintbrandonconservation.org|access-date=21 May 2024}}</ref> that Arab sailors first discovered Mauritius around 975, calling it Dina Arobi (''abandoned island'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://mauritianarchaeology.sites.stanford.edu/history |title=History &#124; Mauritian Archaeology |access-date=2022-11-27 |archive-date=2022-06-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628000251/https://mauritianarchaeology.sites.stanford.edu/history |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA344 |isbn=9781317467519 |title=International Education: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues and Systems |date=17 March 2015 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407102230/https://books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA344 |url-status=live }}</ref> The earliest confirmed discovery on record was in 1507 by Portuguese sailors. [[File:Map_of_Isle_de_France_(now_Mauritius)-P6280065.JPG|alt=Isle de France (Mauritius)|right|80x80px|Isle de France (Mauritius) under the French]]

The Dutch took physical possession in 1598, establishing a succession of short-lived settlements over a period of about 120 years, before abandoning their efforts in 1710.
France took control in 1715, renaming it ''Isle de France''. In 1810, the United Kingdom invaded the island to protect its East India ships coming around the Cape of Good Hope from French pirates. Four years later, at the Treaty of Paris, France ceded Mauritius and its dependencies to the United Kingdom. 
Under [[British Mauritius]] (1810-1968), the island successfully developed as a sugar cane-based plantation economy and colony until independence in 1968.

===Rodrigues===
{{unreferenced section|date = July 2014}}
Rodrigues was first discovered by the [[Arabs]] but named after Portuguese navigator [[Diogo Rodrigues]]. It was under Dutch control in 1601 and settled by the French in 1691. Britain took possession of Rodrigues in 1809. When Mauritius gained independence in 1968, Rodrigues was forcefully joined to it.{{discuss}} Rodrigues remains an autonomous region of Mauritius.{{citation needed|date = July 2014}}

===Réunion===
Réunion was discovered first by the Arabs then by the Portuguese, who named it Santa Apolónia. It was then occupied by the French as part of Mauritius. It was first inhabited by French mutineers who arrived on the island between 1646 and 1669.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Combeau |first=Yvan |url=http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/14363/HERMES_2002_32-33_91.pdf?sequence=1 |title=De Bourbon à la Réunion, l'Histoire d'une Île (du XVII<sup>e</sup> au XX<sup>e</sup> siècle) |journal=Hermès |year=2002 |volume=32-33 |issue= |pages=91–99 |doi=10.4267/2042/14363 |language=fr |access-date=2013-10-25 |hdl=2042/14363 |archive-date=2017-08-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808203117/http://documents.irevues.inist.fr/bitstream/handle/2042/14363/HERMES_2002_32-33_91.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was given its current name in 1793. From 1810 to 1815 it was held by the British, before being returned to France. Réunion became an [[overseas department]] of France in 1946.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reunion {{!}} History, Location, Map, Population, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Reunion |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |access-date=2020-05-25 |archive-date=2022-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413163151/https://www.britannica.com/place/Reunion |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Climate==
The climate of the islands is tropical. At low elevations summer temperatures (December to April) average 30&nbsp;°C. Winter temperatures (May to November) are generally cooler, around 25&nbsp;°C. Temperatures are cooler in the mountains, averaging 18&nbsp;°C. During the winter short-lived snow can fall on Réunion's high peaks.<ref name = wwf>{{WWF ecoregion|name=Mascarene forests|id=AT0120}}</ref>

Southeasterly [[trade winds]] blow throughout the year. Rainfall is generally higher on the windward sides of the islands. On Mauritius average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1905&nbsp;mm on the windward southeast coast to 890&nbsp;mm on the leeward side. Rainfall in the mountains is higher, varying from 2540&nbsp;mm to 4445&nbsp;mm annually. [[Tropical cyclone]]s occur occasionally, bringing heavy rain and high winds, and causing erosion and landslides.<ref name = wwf/>

==Flora==
[[File:Foetidia mauritiana leaves.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|''[[Foetidia mauritiana]]'']]
[[File:Phyllanthus tenellus 1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|''[[Phyllanthus tenellus]]'' (Mascarenes leaf-flower)]]
The habitats of the Macarenes vary with the islands' size, topography, age, and proximity to Madagascar, the nearest major land mass. As is common among remote islands, the Mascarene fauna and flora display a high degree of [[endemism]]; they include over a thousand species of which several hundred are endemic. The Mascarene islands form a distinct [[ecoregion]] known as the '''Mascarene forests'''.<ref name = wwf/> Until Europeans first settled the islands in the sixteenth century the Mascarenes are not known to have harbored any human population, and the islands' wildlife was still flourishing during the early days of settlement. Today much of the natural vegetation is gone, and there are many [[introduced species]] on the islands.

In prehistoric times the islands were covered in a diverse range of [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist broadleaf forest]]s. The plant communities are not homogeneous, and comprise at least five fairly distinct vegetation zones that reflect variations in altitude and in moisture regime. These include dry lowland forests, semi-dry sclerophyllous forests, lowland rainforests, montane cloud forests, and high-elevation heathlands on Réunion.<ref name="thebaud">Thébaud, Christophe & Warren, Ben & Cheke, Anthony & Strasberg, Dominique. (2009). Mascarene Islands, Biology. [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20120130185300/http://www.edb.ups-tlse.fr/equipe1/Site_Thebaud/Publications_files/EoI_Mascarene_preprint2.pdf]</ref>

Coastal habitats include beach vegetation, coastal [[wetland]]s, and [[swamp forest]]s, grading into lowland rain forest on the windward sides of the islands and lowland dry forests to leeward.

The dry lowland forests are found on the leeward sides of the islands, from sea level to 200 metres in areas with less than 1000&nbsp;mm of average annual rainfall. Palms are the dominant trees, including species of ''[[Latania]]'' and ''[[Dictyosperma album]]'', along with the palm-like screw-pines (''[[Pandanus]]'' spp.).<ref name =thebaud/>

Semi-dry [[sclerophyllous]] [[forests]] are found between the coast and 360 metres elevation on Mauritius and Rodrigues, and from 200 to 750 metres elevation on the western slopes of Réunion, where only small patches of such forest now remain. Average annual rainfall in the semi-dry forests ranges from 1000 to 1500&nbsp;mm. Tree genera and families well-represented in the semi-dry forests include [[ebony]] species in the genus ''[[Diospyros]]'' ([[Ebenaceae]]), ''[[Pleurostylia]]'' ([[Celastraceae]]), ''[[Foetidia]]'' ([[Lecythidaceae]]), [[Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata|''Olea europaea'' subsp. ''cuspidata'']] ([[Oleaceae]]), ''[[Cossinia pinnata]]'' ([[Sapindaceae]]) ''[[Dombeya]]'' ([[Malvaceae]]), ''[[Terminalia bentzoe]]'' ([[Combretaceae]]), and ''[[Sideroxylon boutonianum]], [[Sideroxylon borbonicum]]'', and various species of ''[[Mimusops]]'' in family [[Sapotaceae]]. Shrubs in the semi-dry forests include several spectacular endemic species of ''[[Hibiscus]]'' ([[Malvaceae]]), ''[[Zanthoxylum]]'' ([[Rutaceae]]), ''[[Obetia ficifolia]]'' ([[Urticaceae]]), and ''[[Scolopia heterophylla]]'' ([[Flacourtiaceae]]).<ref name=thebaud/>

The lowland rain forests are characterized by dense [[evergreen]] forests, composed of diverse species creating a canopy of 30 meters or more in height. They are found on the Mauritius' eastern lowlands from the coast to 800–900 metres elevation, and above 360 m on the western slopes. On Réunion lowland rain forests are found between 750 and 1100 m. They occur in areas with average annual rainfall of 1500 to 6000&nbsp;mm. Characteristic trees include species of ''[[Mimusops]]'' and  ''[[Labourdonnaisia]]'' ([[Sapotaceae]]), ''[[Hernandia mascarenensis]]'' ([[Hernandiaceae]]), ''[[Calophyllum]]'' ([[Clusiaceae]]), and species of ''[[Syzygium]]'', ''[[Eugenia]]'', ''[[Sideroxylon]]'', and ''[[Monimiastrum]]'' ([[Myrtaceae]]). Characteristic shrubs include species of ''[[Gaertnera]]'', ''[[Chassalia]]'', ''[[Bertiera]]'', and ''[[Coffea]]'' in family [[Rubiaceae]]. Other plants include [[bamboo]]s like ''[[Nastus borbonicus]]'', numerous species of orchids (e.g., ''[[Angraecum]]'', ''[[Bulbophyllum]]'') and ferns e.g., ''[[Asplenium]]'', ''[[Hymenophyllum]]'', ''[[Trichomanes]]'', ''[[Elaphoglossum]]'', and ''[[Marattia]] fraxinea''.<ref name=thebaud/>

The [[cloud forest]]s are evergreen rain forests found on mountain slopes with high rainfall. They occur on Réunion between 800 and 1900 metres elevation on eastern slopes with an average annual rainfall of 2000–10,000&nbsp;mm, and between 1100 and 2000 metres on western slopes with an average annual rainfall of 2000–3000&nbsp;mm. By 2005, relatively intact cloud forests still covered approximately 44,000 ha on Réunion. On Mauritius they are restricted to a small area of [[Montagne Cocotte]] in the island's southwest, above 750 metres elevation and with average annual rainfall of 4500–5500&nbsp;mm. Trees form a dense canopy 6 to 10 metres high. Typical canopy trees include species of ''[[Dombeya]]'' on Réunion, and species of ''[[Monimia]]'' and ''Tambourissa'' ([[Monimiaceae]]) on both islands. There is an understory of  small trees and shrubs including species of ''[[Psiadia]]'' ([[Asteraceae]]) and ''[[Melicope]]'' ([[Rutaceae]]). The forests are rich in [[epiphyte]]s (orchids, ferns, mosses, lichens), emergent [[tree fern]]s (''[[Cyathea]]'' species), and, originally the palms ''[[Acanthophoenix rubra]]'', but poaching has wiped out palms in many areas of Réunion. Three monodominant plant communities are also found in the cloud forests –&nbsp;forests of  ''[[Acacia heterophylla]]'' (Fabaceae) as the canopy tree, which are similar to the ''[[Acacia koa]]'' forests in [[Hawaii]], thickets dominated by ''[[Erica reunionensis]]'' ([[Ericaceae]]), and hyperhumid forests of screw-pine (''[[Pandanus montanus]]'').<ref name=thebaud/>

[[File:Réunion HighAltitudeVegetation.JPG|thumb|upright=1|right|Open subalpine shrubland on [[Piton de la Fournaise]], with ''[[Erica reunionensis]]'', ''[[Stoebe passerinoides]]'', ''[[Acacia heterophylla]]'', and ''[[Erica galioides]]'']]
Subalpine shrub occurs on the volcanoes on Réunion, above the treeline at 1800 to 2000&nbsp;metres elevation. Average annual rainfall is from 2000 to 6000&nbsp;mm, and frosts occur regularly in winter. Characteristic shrubs include ''Erica reunionensis'' and ''[[Erica galioides]]'' (Ericaceae), ''[[Stoebe passerinoides]]'' and species of ''[[Hubertia]]'' and ''[[Psiadia]]'' (Asteraceae), and ''[[Phylica nitida]]'' ([[Rhamnaceae]]). Herbaceous endemic species  include ''[[Heterochaenia rivalsii]]'' (Campanulaceae), ''Eriotrix commersonii'' (Asteraceae), and ''[[Cynoglossum borbonicum]]'' ([[Boraginaceae]]).<ref name=thebaud/>

Recent volcanic deposits on Réunion's volcanic summits are covered by sparse grasslands rich in endemic grasses, including ''[[Festuca borbonica]]'', ''[[Agrostis salaziensis]]'', and ''[[Cenchrus afer]]''. along with orchids like ''[[Disa borbonica]]''. Ericoid thickets and thickets of the small tree ''[[Sophora denudata]]''  ([[Fabaceae]]) are found on weathered volcanic substrates.<ref name=thebaud/>

Most of the indigenous Mascarene [[Flore des Mascareignes|flora]] and fauna are thought to have descended originally from [[Madagascar|Madagascan]] and [[Africa]]n ancestors.<ref name=thebaud/>

The four largest families present in the Mascarene Islands are [[Myrtaceae]], [[Rubiaceae]], [[Orchidaceae]], and [[Euphorbiaceae]], which comprise between 193 and 223 species each, for a total of 831 species, or 26.9% of the flowering plant flora. Another seven families contain 80 or more species each: [[Poaceae]], [[Apocynaceae]], [[Cyperaceae]], [[Cunoniaceae]], [[Rutaceae]], [[Araliaceae]], and [[Sapotaceae]], representing an additional ca. 660 species in all, 21.3% of the angiosperm flora.<ref name=thebaud/> Ferns are prominent components of the biotas of the islands, especially in the tropical forest. Most ferns disperse easily via [[Seed dispersal|ornithochory]] of their spores, allowing fairly frequent colonization from Madagascar and exchange among the Mascarene islands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=50c160d51b144d349e6b4916daaf0808&SourceDatabaseId=018774364ea94468b3f4dec24aa1ee53 |title=Mascarenes Ferns – Investigating the fern diversity of the Mascarene Islands using phylogeographic approaches |publisher=Ist-world.org |access-date=2012-07-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605145511/http://www.ist-world.org/ProjectDetails.aspx?ProjectId=50c160d51b144d349e6b4916daaf0808&SourceDatabaseId=018774364ea94468b3f4dec24aa1ee53 |archive-date=2013-06-05}}</ref>

The Mascarenes are home to many endemic species of [[Dombeyoideae]], the [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]] genus ''[[Psiloxylon]]'' (''[[Psiloxylon|Psiloxylon mauritianum]]''), and members of the family [[Monimiaceae]] (the genera ''[[Monimia]]'' and ''[[Trochetia]]'', and species of ''[[Tambourissa]]'') and [[Escalloniaceae]]. Indigenous trees include species of the genera ''[[Ocotea]], [[Erythrina]], [[Sideroxylon]]'', and ''[[Foetidia]]''.<ref name=thebaud/> The [[palm genera]] ''[[Latania]]'', ''[[Hyophorbe]]'', ''[[Acanthophoenix]]'', ''[[Dictyosperma]]'', and ''[[Tectiphiala]]'' are all endemic to the Mascarene Islands.<ref name="GP2008">{{cite book |title=Genera Palmarum: The Evolution and Classification of Palms |first1=John |last1=Dransfield |first2=Natalie W. |last2=Uhl |first3=Conny B. |last3=Asmussen |first4=William J. |last4=Baker |first5=Madeline M. |last5=Harley |first6=Carl E. |last6=Lewis |year=2008 |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |isbn=978-1-84246-182-2}}</ref> Other endemic genera include ''[[Berenice (plant)|Berenice]], [[Heterochaenia]], [[Nesocodon]], [[Ruizia]]'', and ''[[Astiria]]''.

There are 24 species of trees and shrubs in the Mascarenes from subfamily [[Dombeyoideae]], 23 of which are endemic to the islands.<ref name = lepechon>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1086/679350 |title=Diversification of Dombeyoideae (Malvaceae) in the Mascarenes: Old Taxa on Young Islands? |year=2015 |last1=Le Péchon |first1=Timothée |last2=Dai |first2=Qiang |last3=Zhang |first3=Li-Bing |last4=Gao |first4=Xin-Fen |last5=Sauquet |first5=Hervé |journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences |volume=176 |issue=3 |pages=211–221 |s2cid=83958986}}</ref> The Macarenes' endemic species are polyphyletic and split into nine clades. ''[[Trochetia]]'' appears monophyletic and more closely related to ''[[Eriolaena]]'' and ''[[Helmiopsis]]'' than to ''[[Dombeya]]''. All ''Dombeya'' taxa are included in a clade together with ''[[Ruizia]]'' and ''[[Astiria]]'', this means that ''Dombeya'' is paraphyletic. In terms of breeding systems the Malagasy Dombeyoideae are [[hermaphroditic]], whereas those of the Mascarenes are considered [[dioecious]]. The [[polyphyly]] of the Mascarene Dombeyoideae suggests that dioecy has been acquired several times. At least five colonization events from Madagascar to the Mascarene archipelago occurred. The evolutionary history of two lineages of Mascarene Domeyoideae seems to be related to adaption to xeric habitats.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1002/tax.582016 |title=Systematics of Dombeyoideae (Malvaceae) in the Mascarene archipelago (Indian Ocean) inferred from morphology |year=2009 |last1=Péchon |first1=Timothée Le |last2=Cao |first2=Nathanaël |last3=Dubuisson |first3=Jean-Yves |last4=Gigord |first4=Luc D.B. |journal=Taxon |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=519–531}}</ref>

The flora of the islands co-evolved with the island's unique fauna over millions of years. The human-caused extinction of several of the Mascarenes' land animals, and the introduction of exotic animals to the islands by humans, has disrupted the reproduction and thriving of various island plants. For example, the  [[Tambalacoque]] tree (''Sideroxylon grandiflorum''), often called the dodo tree, is not producing young trees and is threatened with extinction. The extinct [[dodo]], ''[[Cylindraspis]]'' [[tortoises]], and [[broad-billed parrot]]s, along with [[fruit bat]]s, played an important role in dispersing the seeds. Passing through the animals' digestive tract aided in the seeds' germination. However the trees' decline may be mostly due to introduced [[crab-eating macaque]]s (''Macaca fascicularis'') destroying unripened seeds.<ref name=thebaud/>

==Fauna==
[[File:Hoefnagel dodo.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The [[dodo]] was a frugivore giant columbiforme of [[Mauritius]] Island where there are several ''[[Ocotea]]'' species. Painted by [[Jacob Hoefnagel]], c. 1602]]
Much of the Mascarenes' native fauna has become endangered or extinct since the human settlement of the islands in the 17th century. Settlers cleared most of the forests for agriculture and grazing, and introduced many exotic species, including [[pig]]s, [[rat]]s, [[cat]]s, [[monkey]]s, and [[mongoose]]s.{{citation needed|date = February 2017}}

=== Birds ===
Many of the Mascarene birds evolved into flightless forms, the most famous of which was the [[extinct]] flightless [[pigeon]], the [[dodo]] of Mauritius. Thirteen additional species of birds became extinct, including the [[Réunion flightless ibis]], [[broad-billed parrot]], [[red rail]], [[Rodrigues rail]], and [[Rodrigues solitaire]].<ref name="internationaldovesociety1">{{cite web |url=http://www.internationaldovesociety.com/MiscSpecies/RodriguesSolitaire.htm |title=Rodrigues Solitaire |publisher=Internationaldovesociety.com |access-date=2012-07-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313204525/http://www.internationaldovesociety.com/MiscSpecies/RodriguesSolitaire.htm |archive-date=2017-03-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beautyofbirds.com/rodriguessolitairepigeons.html |title=Rodrigues Solitaire |publisher=Beautyofbirds.com |access-date=2012-07-09 |archive-date=2014-05-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506205925/http://www.beautyofbirds.com/rodriguessolitairepigeons.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Contemporary sources state that the dodo used [[gizzard stones]]<ref name="tripod1"/> and could swallow ''Ocotea'' fruits.<ref name="tripod1">{{cite web |url=http://tmale.tripod.com/SeedDispersal/IntroPage.htm |title=Seed Dispersal in Australian Subtropical Rainforest |publisher=Tmale.tripod.com |access-date=2012-07-09 |archive-date=2013-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220084058/http://tmale.tripod.com/SeedDispersal/IntroPage.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.potomitan.info/dodo/c32.php |title=Le Musée Du Dodo - Dodo And Solitaires, Myths And Reality |publisher=Potomitan.info |access-date=2012-07-09 |archive-date=2011-07-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722002235/http://www.potomitan.info/dodo/c32.php |url-status=live }}</ref> Seed distribution of at least some ''Ocotea'' species is performed by [[frugivore|frugivorous]] birds and there exist a few reports of "solitaires" from the Mascarenes without mention of which island these came from, and the term was also used for other [[species]] with "solitary" habits, such as the [[Réunion swamphen|Réunion blue swamphen]] and the [[Réunion sacred ibis]]. At one point it was even believed that Réunion was the home of not only a white dodo, but also a white solitaire.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rothschild |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild |title=Extinct Birds |publisher=Hutchinson & Co |year=1907 |location=London |url=https://archive.org/download/extinctbirdsatte00roth/extinctbirdsatte00roth.pdf}}</ref> In 1786, sub-fossil bones were discovered in a cave which confirmed [[Leguat]]'s descriptions, but at this time no living residents of Rodrigues remembered having seen living birds. The star [[constellation]] [[Turdus Solitarius]] was named after this bird<!--which of the birds mentioned in this paragraph?-->.{{citation needed|date = February 2017}}

Today 17 endemic bird species survive on the islands. Two species – the [[Mascarene paradise flycatcher]] (''Terpsiphone bourbonnensis'') and [[Mascarene swiftlet]] (''Aerodramus francicus'') – inhabit both Mauritius and Réunion. Eight species are endemic to Mauritius – the [[Mauritius grey white-eye]], (''Zosterops mauritianus''), [[Mauritius cuckooshrike]] (''Lalage typica''), [[Mauritius kestrel]] (''Falco punctatus''), [[Mauritius fody]] (''Foudia rubra''), [[Mauritius bulbul]] (''Hypsipetes olivaceus''), [[Mauritius parakeet]] (''Psittacula eques''), [[Mauritius olive white-eye]] (''Zosterops chloronothos''), and [[pink pigeon]] (''Nesoenas mayeri''). The [[Réunion grey white-eye]] (''Zosterops borbonicus''), [[Réunion cuckooshrike]] (''Lalage newtoni''), [[Réunion stonechat]] (''Saxicola tectes''), [[Réunion olive white-eye]] (''Zosterops olivaceus''), and [[Réunion bulbul]] (''Hypsipetes borbonicus'') are endemic to Réunion. The [[Rodrigues warbler]] (''Acrocephalus rodericanus'') and [[Rodrigues fody]] (''Foudia flavicans'') are found only on Rodrigues.<ref name = wwf/>

=== Reptiles ===
Mauritius, Réunion, and Rodrigues were also once each home to one or more species of [[giant tortoise]]s, now extinct, which comprised the genus ''[[Cylindraspis]]''. There are 13 living endemic reptile species, including a number of species of day [[gecko]]es ([[genus]] ''[[Phelsuma]]'').<ref name = wwf/>

=== Mammals ===
The islands' only native mammals are [[bat]]s, including the [[Mauritian flying fox]] (''Pteropus niger''), which is endemic to Mauritius and Réunion, and the [[Rodrigues flying fox]] (''Pteropus rodricensis'') found only on Rodrigues. The [[lesser Mascarene flying fox]] (''Pteropus subniger'') is extinct.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Racey |first1=Paul |title=Prof. |url=http://www.bats.org.uk/news.php/296/cull_of_flying_foxes_in_mauritius_ |website=bats.org |access-date=15 August 2017 |archive-date=1 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801103319/http://www.bats.org.uk/news.php/296/cull_of_flying_foxes_in_mauritius_ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name = wwf/>

==Freshwater==
The three largest islands have many freshwater streams which descend from the mountains to the sea. The upper reaches, particularly on Réunion, are fast-flowing and steep with numerous waterfalls. [[Tamarin Falls]] or Sept Cascades (293 m) on Mauritius is the highest waterfall on Mauritius, while Cascade [[Trou de Fer]] (725 m, ranks 23rd worldwide) on Réunion is the highest of the Mascarenes.<ref name="feow">"Mascarenes". Freshwater Ecoregions of the World. Accessed 21 August 2021. [https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/586] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821183802/https://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/586|date=2021-08-21}}</ref>

The Grand River South East (34&nbsp;km) is the longest river on Mauritius, followed by Rivière du Poste (23&nbsp;km), Grand River North West (22&nbsp;km), Rivière La Chaux (22&nbsp;km), and Rivière des Créoles (20&nbsp;km). Mauritius has two natural crater lakes, Grand Bassin and Bassin Blanc.<ref name = feow/>

There are about twenty species of fish which spend at least part of their lives in freshwater. The islands have five endemic freshwater fish species, all [[goby|gobies]] (Gobiiformes) – ''[[Hypseleotris cyprinoides]], [[Cotylopus acutipinnis]], [[Glossogobius kokius]], [[Gobius commersonii]]'', and ''[[Oxyurichthys guibei]]''. ''[[Cotylopus acutipinnis]]'', which is endemic to Réunion, hatches in the sea before migrating to the rainforest streams where it lives its adult life.<ref name = feow/>

==Marine==
The Mascarene Islands are surrounded by approximately 750 square km of coral reef. Rodrigues has nearly continuous [[fringing reef]]s bounding an extensive lagoon, 7 to 20&nbsp;km wide, with deep channels. Mauritius is also surrounded by a fringing reef.<ref name = strahm/> In contrast, Réunion has very short stretches of narrow fringing reef along the western and southwestern coasts only. The islets of the Cargados Carajos Shoals, which have a very depauperate terrestrial biota owing to being so low-lying and swamped during cyclones, are bound to the east by an extensive arc of fringing reef, which accounts for ~30% of the reefs of the Mascarene Islands. Lagoon reefs and reef flats are dominated by scleractinian corals such as branching and tabular ''[[Acropora]]'', ''[[Porites]]'' massives, foliaceous ''[[Montipora]]'' and ''[[Pavona (coral)|Pavona]]'', and sand consolidated with beds of seagrass such ''[[Halophila]]'' ([[Hydrocharitaceae]]).
Among coral reef fishes, wrasses ([[Labridae]]), damselfish ([[Pomacentridae]]), carnivorous groupers ([[Serranidae]]), and [[Acanthuridae|surgeonfishes]] (Acanthuridae) have many species.<ref name=thebaud/>

==Wildlife, threats, and preservation==
[[File:The Saint Brandon Conservation Trust at Corporate Council on Africa in May 2024 in Dallas, Texas.png|thumb|The Saint Brandon Conservation Trust at Corporate Council on Africa in May 2024 in Dallas, Texas]]
Mauritius has one of the highest population densities in the world. All of the islands have experienced significant losses of habitats. Many of the surviving endemic species are still threatened with extinction and have little protection. Less than 40 percent of Réunion is covered with natural vegetation, only about 5 percent of Mauritius, and almost none of Rodrigues. On Réunion, forest has been cleared for agriculture and then overtaken by introduced plants. Mauritius was largely converted to sugar cane, tea, and conifer plantations. On Rodrigues, shifting cultivation has caused the damage.

=== Launch of Saint Brandon Conservation Trust ===
On 8 May 2024, [[Saint Brandon Conservation Trust]], an independent Mauritian NGO, was internationally launched at the [[Corporate Council on Africa]] in Dallas, Texas,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/view/group/main/main/id/00088409.html?|title=2024 U.S-Africa Biz Summit Takes Place in Dallas, Texas, May 6-9|website=allafrica.com|date=5 February 2024 |access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> to protect St. Brandon from pollution and to protect surviving flora and fauna in the [[Cargados Carajos]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usafricabizsummit.com/USAfricaBizSummit2024/session/2155018/saving-africa's-rarest-species|title=Saving Africa's Rarest Species at the Corporate Council on Africa|website=usafricabizsummit.com|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref>

==Protected areas==
Protected areas constitute 40.6% of the Mascarene Islands' land area. Terrestrial protected areas on Mauritius include [[Black River Gorges National Park]], [[Bras d'Eau National Park]], [[Perrier Nature Reserve]], [[Corps de Garde Nature Reserve]], [[Le Pouce Nature Reserve]], Cabinet Nature Reserve, Gouly Pere Nature Reserve, and Bois Sec Nature Reserve.<ref name = dopa>{{Cite web |url=https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/30120 |title="Mascarene forests". DOPA Explorer. Accessed 18 August 2021 |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819000951/https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/30120 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are 32 designated protected areas on Réunion, including [[Réunion National Park]] (1055.15&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>), which cover 63.13% of the island.<ref>UNEP-WCMC (2021). Protected Area Profile for Réunion from the World Database of Protected Areas. Accessed 18 August 2021. [https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/REU] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220011644/https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/REU|date=2021-12-20}}</ref>

==See also==

*[[St. Brandon]]
*[[Île Raphael]]
*[[L'île du Sud]]
*[[Avocaré Island]] 
*[[France Staub]] 
*[[L'île du Gouvernement]]
*[[Île Verronge]]
*[[Constitution of Mauritius]]
*[[Mauritian Wildlife Foundation]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*[[David Quammen|Quammen, David]], (1996) ''The Song of the Dodo''. Touchstone, [[New York City|New York]].
*[[Jared Diamond|Diamond, Jared]], (1984) "Historic extinctions: A rosetta stone for understanding prehistoric extinctions". In: P. Martin and R. Klein (eds.) (1984) ''Quaternary Extinctions: A prehistoric revolution.'' University of Arizona Press, [[Tucson]].

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mascarene Islands}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051017054642/http://etic.univ-reunion.fr/theresien/ Scientific research application on the nature reserve of Mare-Longue (Réunion - Mascarene Islands)]
* {{WWF ecoregion|id=at0120|name=Mascarene forests}}
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20120716192754/http://www.phelsumania.com/public/articles/biogeography_dispersal_mascarenes.html Dispersal of the Genus Phelsuma in the Mascarenes (Phelsumania)]}}
* [http://bibliotecaestense.beniculturali.it/info/img/geo/i-mo-beu-c.g.a.2.html Carta del Cantino], PDF from the site of [[Biblioteca Estense]], [[Modena]]
* [https://archive.today/20121211212108/http://services.banq.qc.ca/sdx/cep/document.xsp?id=0003250629&db=notice&app=ca.BAnQ.sdx.cep&qid=sdx_q1&p=1&col=*Carta del Cantino], Cantino planisphere image, zoomable to very high resolution, at ''Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec''. (Click on ''1:1'' button to get maximum resolution. Click on ''Image plein écran'' to get full-screen view.) {{in lang|fr}}

{{Africa in topic|History of}}
{{Ecoregions in Africa}}
{{Former French colonies}}
{{Portuguese overseas empire}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mascarene Islands|Mascarene Islands]]
[[Category:Afrotropical ecoregions]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes of Africa]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Former French colonies]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:Former colonies in Africa]]
[[Category:Freshwater ecoregions of Africa]]
[[Category:Geography of East Africa]]
[[Category:Islands of France]]
[[Category:Islands of Mauritius]]
[[Category:Marine ecoregions]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]
[[Category:Volcanic arc islands]]
[[Category:Western Indo-Pacific]]
[[Category:Islands of St. Brandon|Ile Raphael]]
[[Category:Outer Islands of Mauritius]]
[[Category:Reefs of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Fishing areas of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Insular ecology]]
[[Category:Important Bird Areas of Mauritius]]
[[Category:Atolls of the Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
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[[Category:Fly fishing]]
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[[Category:Environment of Mauritius]]
[[Category:Natural history of Mauritius]]