View source for Medieval warfare

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{{Use British English|date=January 2018}}
[[File:Battle of crecy froissart.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|The [[Battle of Crécy]] (1346) between the English and the French in the [[Hundred Years' War]].]]
{{History of war}}
'''Medieval warfare''' is the warfare of the [[Middle Ages]]. Technological, cultural, and social advancements had forced a severe transformation in the character of warfare from [[Ancient warfare|antiquity]], changing [[military tactics]] and the role of [[cavalry]] and [[artillery]] (see [[military history]]). In terms of fortification, the Middle Ages saw the emergence of the [[castle]] in Europe, which then spread to the [[Holy Land]] (modern day [[Israel]] and [[Palestine]]).

==Organization==
{{Main|Knight|Infantry in the Middle Ages}}
{{See also|Heavy cavalry|Light cavalry}}
The medieval knight was usually a mounted and armoured [[soldier]], often connected with [[nobility]] or [[royal family|royalty]], although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be enslaved persons. The cost of their [[armour]], [[Horses in the Middle Ages|horses]], and [[weapons]] was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. During the [[crusades]], holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see [[Knights Templar]], the [[Knights Hospitaller|Hospitallers]], etc.).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medieval Warfare|last=Carruthers|first=Bob|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2013|isbn=9781473846968|pages=8}}</ref>

The light cavalry consisted usually of lighter armed and armoured men, who could have lances, [[javelin]]s or missile weapons, such as [[Bow and arrow|bows]] or [[crossbow]]s. In much of the Middle Ages, light cavalry usually consisted of wealthy commoners. Later in the Middle Ages, light cavalry would also include sergeants who were men who had trained as knights but could not afford the costs associated with the title. Light cavalry was used as scouts, skirmishers or outflankers. Many countries developed their styles of light cavalries, such as Hungarian [[Hungarian cavalry|mounted archers]], Spanish [[jinete]]s, Italian and German mounted crossbowmen and English [[Hobelar|currours]].

The infantry was recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers.

===Recruiting===
[[File:Kalandozasok.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Before the [[battle of Lechfeld]] in 955 Medieval Europeans were vulnerable from the Nomadic style of war that came from the Hungarians.]]

In the earliest Middle Ages, it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his equipment, archers, and infantry.  This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be.

Typically the feudal armies consisted of a core of highly skilled knights and their household troops, mercenaries hired for the time of the campaign and feudal levies fulfilling their feudal obligations, who usually were little more than rabble. They could, however, be efficient in disadvantageous terrain. Towns and cities could also field militias.

As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen and mercenary armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. It was estimated that the best [[infantrymen]] came from the younger sons of free land-owning [[yeoman|yeomen]], such as the English archers and Swiss pikemen. England was one of the most centralized states in the Late Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the [[Hundred Years' War]] were mostly paid professionals.

In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus the [[scutage]] was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medieval Warfare|last=Carruthers|first=Bob|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2013|isbn=9781473846968|pages=10}}</ref>

As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on [[mercenaries]] to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy, they came to dominate the armies of the city-states. This made them problematic; while at war they were considerably more reliable than a standing army, at peacetime they proved a risk to the state itself like the [[Praetorian Guard]] had once been.

Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles, since the [[condottieri]] recognized it was more efficient to attack the enemy's ability to wage war rather than his battle forces, discovering the concept of [[indirect approach|indirect warfare]] 500 years before Sir Basil [[Liddell Hart]], and attempting to attack the enemy supply lines, his economy and his ability to wage war rather than risking an open battle, and manoeuvre him into a position where risking a battle would have been suicidal. Machiavelli understood this [[indirect approach]] as cowardice.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medieval Warfare|last=Carruthers|first=Bob|publisher=Pen and Sword|year=2013|isbn=9781473846968|pages=11}}</ref>

==Fortifications==
[[File:Falaise chateau guillaume conquerant 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Château de Falaise]] in France.]]

[[File:Celje Celjski grad 003.jpg|thumb|Celje Castle in Slovenia.]]

In Europe, breakdowns in centralized power led to the rise of several groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably the [[Vikings]], [[Arabs]], [[Mongols]], [[Huns]], [[Cumans]], [[Tartars]], and [[Magyars]] raided significantly.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World History: A Concise, Selective, Interpretive History of the World|last=Parsa|first=Ali|publisher=Sentia Publishing|year=2017|isbn=9780999005613}}</ref> As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building [[fortifications]] was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region.

These fortifications evolved throughout the Middle Ages, the most important form being the [[castle]], a structure which has become almost synonymous with the medieval era in the popular eye. The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the enemy from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare|url=https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00brad_406|url-access=limited|last=Bradbury|first=Jim|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=9781134598472|pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgecompani00brad_406/page/n293 284]}}</ref>

Fortifications were a very important part of warfare because they provided safety to the lord, his family, and his servants. They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications. Building [[siege engine]]s was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently. Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands – as [[Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut|Count Baldwin of Hainaut]] commented in 1184 on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, "they can't take the land with them".<ref>{{cite journal  | last = McGlynn  | first = Sean  | title = The Myths of Medieval Warfare  | journal = History Today  | volume = 44  | issue = 1  | pages = 32  | date = Jan 1994  | url = http://web.ebscohost.com   | issn = 0018-2753  | access-date = September 14, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Carruthers |first=Bob |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Medieval_Warfare/gEuuBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=Baldwin%20of%20Hainautdieval%20Warfare |title=Medieval Warfare |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2013 |isbn=9781473846968 |pages=6}}</ref>

===Siege warfare===
In the medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of [[siege engine]]s including: scaling ladders; [[battering ram]]s; [[siege tower]]s and various types of [[catapult]]s such as the [[mangonel]], [[onager (siege weapon)|onager]], [[ballista]], and [[trebuchet]]. Siege techniques also included [[mining (military)|mining]] in which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation.  Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however, this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls.

[[File:Forteresse de Dubrovnik.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Walls of Dubrovnik]] are a series of [[defensive wall|defensive stone walls]], never breached by a hostile army, that have surrounded and protected the maritime [[city-state]] of [[Dubrovnik]] ([[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]]), situated in southern [[Croatia]].]]

Advances in the prosecution of [[siege]]s encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, [[Medieval fortification]]s became progressively stronger – for example, the advent of the [[concentric castle]] from the period of the [[Crusades]] – and more dangerous to attackers – witness the increasing use of [[machicolation]]s, as well the preparation of [[Early thermal weapons|hot or incendiary substances]]. [[Arrow slit]]s, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time. Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with [[drawbridge]]s, [[portcullis]]es and [[barbican]]s. Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to repel fire. [[Moat]]s and other water defences, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders.

In the [[Middle Ages]], virtually all large cities had [[city wall]]s – [[Dubrovnik]] in [[Dalmatia]] is a well-preserved example – and more important cities had [[citadel]]s, [[fort]]s or [[castle]]s. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottoman [[siege of Shkodra]], Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings.<ref>Karaiskaj, Gjerak. "Furnizimi me ujë i kalasë së Shkodrës ne mesjetë." ''Monumentet: Materialet e sesionit III shkencor të Institutit të Monumenteve të Kulturës'' 11 (1985): 55–77.</ref> Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like [[Tábor]] in [[Bohemia]]. Against these would be matched the [[mining]] skills of teams of trained [[sapper]]s, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.

Until the invention of [[gunpowder]]-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics favoured the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defence became less and less effective against a determined siege.
{{See also|Mining (military)}}

==Relics==
The practice of carrying [[relic]]s into battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or early modern warfare and possibly inspired by biblical references.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1+Samuel+4:3%E2%80%9311:3&version=nrsv|title = Oremus Bible Browser}}</ref> The presence of relics was believed to be an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defence; the relics of martyrs were considered by Saint [[John Chrysostom]] much more powerful than "walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers"<ref>John Chrysostom, ''Laudatio martyrum Aegyptiorum'', 1 ''PG'' '''50''' col. 694f.</ref>

In Italy, the ''[[carroccio]]'' or ''carro della guerra'', the "war wagon", was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century. The ''carro della guerra'' of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by [[Bonvesin de la Riva]] in his book on the "Marvels of Milan". Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were [[caparison]]ed in white with the red cross of [[Saint Ambrose]], the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast.<ref>Bovesin de la Riva, ''De Magnalibus Mediolani: Meraviglie di Milano'' (Milan, 1998), as reported in John Dickie, ''Delizia! The Epic History of Italians and Their Food'' (New York, 2008), p. 33.</ref>

==Naval warfare==
{{See also|Byzantine navy}}
[[File:Byzantines repel the Russian attack of 941.jpg|thumb|The Byzantine fleet repels the Rus' attack on Constantinople in 941. The Byzantine [[dromon]]s are rolling over the Rus' vessels and smashing their oars with their spurs.]]
The waters surrounding Europe can be grouped into two types which affected the design of craft that traveled and therefore the warfare. The [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Black Sea]]s were free of large tides, generally calm, and had predictable weather. The seas around the north and west of Europe experienced stronger and less predictable weather. The [[weather gage|weather gauge]], the advantage of having a following wind, was an important factor in naval battles, particularly to the attackers. Typically [[westerlies]] (winds blowing from west to east) dominated Europe, giving naval powers to the west an advantage.<ref>Fernández-Armesto (1999), p.&nbsp;231</ref> Medieval sources on the conduct of medieval naval warfare are less common than those about land-based war. Most medieval chroniclers had no experience of life on the sea and generally were not well informed. [[Maritime archaeology]] has helped provide information.<ref>Fernández-Armesto (1999), pp.&nbsp;230–231</ref>

[[File:Turkish armor during battles of Marica and Kosovo.jpg|thumb|upright|Turkish armor during battles of Marica and Kosovo in 1371 and 1389]]

Early in the medieval period, ships in the context of warfare were used primarily for transporting troops.<ref>DeVries (1992), p.&nbsp;283</ref> In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the Middle Ages was similar to that under late Roman Empire: fleets of [[galley]]s would exchange missile fire and then try to board bow first to allow [[marine (military)|marines]] to fight on deck. This mode of naval warfare remained the same into the early modern period, as, for example, at the [[Battle of Lepanto (1571)|Battle of Lepanto]]. Famous admirals included [[Roger of Lauria]], [[Andrea Doria]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]].

[[Late Middle Ages|Late medieval]] maritime warfare was divided in two distinct regions. In the Mediterranean, galleys were used for raiding along coasts, and in the constant fighting for naval bases. In the Atlantic and Baltic there was greater focus on sailing ships that were used mostly for troop transport, with galleys providing fighting support.<ref>Glete (2000), p. 2</ref> Galleys were still widely used in the north and were the most numerous warships used by Mediterranean powers with interests in the north, especially the French and Iberian kingdoms.<ref>Mott, Lawrence V., "Iberian Naval Power, 1000–1650" in Hattendorf & Unger (2003), &nbsp;pp.&nbsp;105–106</ref>

Bulkier ships were developed which were primarily [[sail]]-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowed [[longship]] saw use well into the 15th century. Their main purpose in the north remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at the [[Battle of Svolder]] or the [[Battle of Sluys]]).

Late medieval sailing warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in the [[bow (boat)|bow]]s and at the [[stern]] (respectively, the [[forecastle]] and [[aftcastle]]).  The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats that the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the 15th century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare.

===Introduction of guns===
The introduction of guns was the first step towards major changes in naval warfare, but it only slowly changed the dynamics of ship-to-ship combat. The first guns on ships were introduced in the 14th century and consisted of small wrought-iron pieces placed on the open decks and in the [[fighting top]]s, often requiring only one or two men to handle them. They were designed to injure, kill or simply stun, shock and frighten the enemy before boarding.<ref>Rodger (1997), pp. 205–206 .</ref>

[[File:HandCulverinWithSmallCannonsEurope15thCentury.jpg|thumb|Two views of a hand culverin and two small cannons from the 15th century.|left]]As guns were made more durable to withstand stronger gunpowder charges, they increased their potential to inflict critical damage to the vessel rather than just their crews. Since these guns were much heavier than the earlier anti-personnel weapons, they had to be placed lower in the ships, and fire from [[gunport]]s, to avoid ships becoming unstable. In Northern Europe the technique of building ships with [[clinker (boat building)|clinker]] planking made it difficult to cut ports in the hull; clinker-built (or clench-built) ships had much of their structural strength in the outer hull. The solution was the gradual adoption of [[Carvel (boat building)|carvel]]-built ships that relied on an internal skeleton structure to bear the weight of the ship.<ref>Marsden (2003), pp. 137–142.</ref>

The first ships to actually mount heavy cannon capable of sinking ships were galleys, with large wrought-iron pieces mounted directly on the timbers in the bow. The first example is known from a woodcut of a Venetian galley from 1486.<ref>Lehmann (1984), p. 31</ref> Heavy artillery on galleys was mounted in the bow which fit conveniently with the long-standing tactical tradition of attacking head-on and bow-first. The ordnance on galleys was quite heavy from its introduction in the 1480s, and capable of quickly demolishing medieval-style stone walls that still prevailed until the 16th century.<ref name="Guilmartin 1974, pp. 264–66">Guilmartin (1974), pp. 264–266</ref>

This temporarily upended the strength of older seaside fortresses, which had to be rebuilt to cope with gunpowder weapons. The addition of guns also improved the amphibious abilities of galleys as they could assault supported with heavy firepower, and could be even more effectively defended when beached stern-first.<ref name="Guilmartin 1974, pp. 264–66"/> Galleys and similar oared vessels remained uncontested as the most effective gun-armed warships in theory until the 1560s, and in practice for a few decades more, and were considered a grave risk to sailing warships.<ref>The British naval historian Nicholas Rodger describes this as a "crisis in naval warfare" which eventually led to the development of the galleon, which combined ahead-firing capabilities, heavy broadside guns and a considerable increase in manoeuvrability by the introduction of more advanced sailing rigs; Rodger (2003), p. 245. For more detailed arguments concerning the development of broadside armament, see Rodger (1996).</ref>

==Rise of infantry==
{{Main|Infantry in the Middle Ages}}[[File:Spinello-Battle of Punta San Salvatore-detail1.jpg|thumb|A battle between the Venetian and Holy Roman fleets. Detail of a fresco by [[Spinello Aretino]] 1407–1408.]]
In the medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Heavily armoured mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in antiquity by the Greeks.

===Swiss pikemen===
The use of long pikes and densely packed foot troops was not uncommon in the Middle Ages. The [[Flemings|Flemish]] footmen at the [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] met and overcame French knights in 1302, as the [[Lombard League|Lombards]] did in [[Battle of Legnano|Legnano]] in 1176 and the Scots held their own against heavily armoured English cavalry. During the St. Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry.  The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive manoeuvring, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won at [[Battle of Morgarten|Morgarten]], Laupen, [[Battle of Sempach|Sempach]], [[Battle of Grandson|Grandson]] and [[Battle of Morat|Murten]], and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe (except the English and Scottish) hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e.g., the [[Landsknechte|German Landsknechte]]).[[File:Arc long anglais.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|A modern replica of an English longbow.]]
===Welsh and English longbowmen===
{{Main|English longbow}}

The Welsh and English longbowmen used a single-piece longbow (but some bows later developed a composite design) to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary [[Mail (armour)|mail]] and damage/dent [[plate armour]]. The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and constant practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot about 12 shots per minute.  This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the [[crossbow]] or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and [[mercenary]] forces. The crossbow had greater penetrating power and did not require the extended years of training. However, it lacked the rate of fire of the longbow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thebeckoning.com/medieval/crossbow/cross_l_v_c.html|title=The Crossbow vs the Longbow in the Medieval Period – on 'The Beckoning'|website=www.thebeckoning.com|access-date=2020-01-30}}</ref>

At [[Battle of Crécy|Crécy]] and [[Battle of Agincourt|Agincourt]] bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. At Crécy, even 5,000 Genoese crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing [[bodkin point]] arrows and horse-maiming [[Arrowhead#Variants|broadheads]]. Longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility.

==Transition to gunpowder warfare==
{{Further|Gunpowder artillery in the Middle Ages}}
In 1326 the earliest known European picture of a gun appeared in a manuscript by Walter de Milemete.<ref name=kelly29>{{Cite book | last = Kelly | first = Jack | title = Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2004 |page=29}}</ref> In 1350, [[Petrarch]] wrote that the presence of cannons on the battlefield was 'as common and familiar as other kinds of arms'.<ref name="norris 19">{{cite book|last=Norris|first=John|year=2003|title=Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600|publisher=Marlborough: The Crowood Press|isbn=1-86126-615-4|page=19}}</ref>

Early artillery played a limited role in the [[Hundred Years' War]], and it became indispensable in the [[Italian Wars]] of 1494&ndash;1559, marking the beginning of [[early modern warfare]]. Charles VIII, during his [[First Italian War|invasion of Italy]], brought with him the first truly mobile siege train: [[culverin]]s and [[bombard (weapon)|bombard]]s mounted on wheeled carriages, which could be deployed against an enemy stronghold immediately after arrival.

==Strategy and tactics==
Medieval campaigns were planned with strategy in mind, such as maintaining unity in morale, planning troop movements, and mount offensives with numerical advantages.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Titterton |first=James |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781800104747/type/book |title=Deception in Medieval Warfare: Trickery and Cunning in the Central Middle Ages |date=2022-02-25 |publisher=Boydell and Brewer Limited |isbn=978-1-80010-474-7 |edition=1 |pages=28–31 |doi=10.1017/9781800104747.006}}</ref> Medieval armies used strategic deception, such as misleading troop movements, to take opposing armies by surprise. They would also spread misinformation regarding army size and provisions.<ref name=":2" />

One common tactic used in medieval warfare was raiding; this benefitted the attacking army by with new supplies and wealth while damaging the target's resources.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315249247 |title=Medieval Warfare 1000–1300 |date=2017-05-15 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-24924-7 |editor-last=France |editor-first=John |pages=124|doi=10.4324/9781315249247 }}</ref>

===''De re militari''===
{{Quote box | quote=''si vis pacem, para bellum''<br />If you want peace, prepare for war|source = Vegetius, ''De re militari'', preface to book 3.<ref>Milner (1996), p.&nbsp;63</ref>|align=right}}
[[Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus]] wrote ''[[De re militari]] (Concerning Military Matters)'' possibly in the late 4th&nbsp;century.<ref>Nicholson (2004), p.&nbsp;13</ref> Described by historian [[Walter Goffart]] as "the bible of warfare throughout the Middle Ages", ''De re militari'' was widely distributed through the Latin West. While [[Western Europe]] relied on a single text for the basis of its military knowledge, the [[Byzantine Empire]] in [[Southeastern Europe]] had a succession of military writers.<ref>Goffart (1977), p.&nbsp;65</ref> Though Vegetius had no military experience and ''De re militari'' was derived from the works of [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] and [[Frontinus]], his books were the standard for military discourse in Western Europe from their production until the 16th century.<ref>Nicholson (2004), pp.&nbsp;13&ndash;14</ref>

''De re militari'' was divided into five books: who should be a soldier and the skills they needed to learn, the composition and structure of an [[army]], field tactics, how to conduct and withstand [[siege]]s, and the role of the [[navy]]. According to Vegetius, [[infantry]] was the most important element of an army because it was cheap compared to [[cavalry]] and could be deployed on any terrain.<ref name=Nicholson14>Nicholson (2004), p.&nbsp;14</ref> One of the tenets he put forward was that a general should only engage in battle when he was sure of victory or had no other choice.<ref>Gillingham (1992), p.&nbsp;150</ref> As archaeologist Robert Liddiard explains, "[[Pitched battle]]s, particularly in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, were rare."<ref>Liddiard (2005), p.&nbsp;79</ref>

Although his work was widely reproduced, and over 200 copies, translations, and extracts survive today, the extent to which Vegetius affected the actual practice of warfare as opposed to its concept is unclear because of his habit of stating the obvious.<ref name=Nicholson14/> Historian [[Michael Clanchy]] noted "the medieval axiom that laymen are illiterate and its converse that clergy are literate",<ref>Quoted in Nicholson (2004), p.&nbsp;16</ref> so it may be the case that few soldiers read Vegetius' work. While their Roman predecessors were well-educated and had been experienced in warfare, the European nobility of the early medieval period were not renowned for their education, but from the 12th&nbsp;century, it became more common for them to read.<ref name="Nicholson 2004, p. 16">Nicholson (2004), p.&nbsp;16</ref>

Some soldiers regarded the experience of warfare as more valuable than reading about it; for example, [[Geoffroi de Charny]], a 14th-century knight who wrote about warfare, recommended that his audience should learn by observing and asking advice from their superiors. Vegetius remained prominent in medieval literature on warfare, although it is uncertain to what extent his work was read by the warrior class as opposed to the clergy.<ref name=" Nicholson 2004, p. 16"/> In 1489, King [[Henry VII of England]] commissioned the translation of ''De re militari'' into English, "so every gentleman born to arms and all manner of men of war, captains, soldiers, victuallers and all others would know how they ought to behave in the feats of wars and battles".<ref>Quoted in Nicholson (2004), pp.&nbsp;18&ndash;19</ref>

==Supplies and logistics==
[[File:Topfhelm DHM transparent.png|thumb|left|upright|13th century German [[great helm]] with a flat top to the skull]]
[[File:Byzantine klivanium (Κλιβάνιον).jpg|thumb|right|Byzantine ''[[klivanion]]'']]
[[File:Reproducció de la indumentària d&#039;un almogàver 2.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Spanish [[Almogavars|Almogávar]]]]
Medieval warfare largely predated the use of [[Train (military)|supply trains]], which meant that armies had to acquire food supplies from the territory they were passing through. This meant that large-scale [[looting]] by soldiers was unavoidable, and was actively encouraged in the 14th century with its emphasis on ''[[chevauchée]]'' tactics, where mounted troops would burn and pillage enemy territory in order to distract and demoralize the enemy while denying them their supplies.

Through the medieval period, soldiers were responsible for supplying themselves, either through foraging, looting, or purchases. Even so, military commanders often provided their troops with food and supplies, but this would be provided instead of the soldiers' wages, or soldiers would be expected to pay for it from their wages, either at cost or even with a profit.<ref name=AbelsRichard>{{cite web
 | url = https://www.usna.edu/Users/history/abels/hh381/Medieval%20Logistics.htm
 | title = War in the Middle Ages: Medieval Logistics – English Experience
 | last = Abels, Richard
 | author-link = Abels, Richard
 | publisher = [[United States Naval Academy]]
 | access-date = 3 October 2017
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160413140254/http://www.usna.edu/Users/history/abels/hh381/Medieval%20Logistics.htm
 | archive-date = 13 April 2016
 | url-status = dead
 }}</ref>

In 1294, the same year [[John Balliol|John II de Balliol of Scotland]] refused to support [[Edward I of England]]'s planned invasion of France, Edward I implemented a system in [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] where [[sheriff]]s would acquire foodstuffs, horses and carts from merchants with [[Eminent domain|compulsory sales]] at prices fixed below typical market prices under the Crown's rights of [[purveyance|prise and purveyance]]. These goods would then be transported to [[Supply depot|Royal Magazine]]s in southern Scotland and along the Scottish border where English [[Conscription|conscript]]s under his command could purchase them. This continued during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|First War of Scottish Independence]] which began in 1296, though the system was unpopular and was ended with Edward I's death in 1307.<ref name=AbelsRichard/>

Starting under the rule of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] in 1307 and ending under the rule of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] in 1337, the English instead used a system where merchants would be asked to meet armies with supplies for the soldiers to purchase. This led to discontent as the merchants saw an opportunity to [[War profiteering|profiteer]], forcing the troops to pay well above normal market prices for food.<ref name=AbelsRichard/>

As Edward III went to war with France in the [[Hundred Years' War]] (starting in 1337), the English returned to a practice of foraging and raiding to meet their logistical needs. This practice lasted throughout the war, extending through the remainder of Edward III's reign into the reign of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]].<ref name=AbelsRichard/>

==Regional examples==
{{Inline|date=August 2022}}

===Arabs===
{{Main|Early Muslim conquests}}
[[File:Arab armored 14th century battering ram, reconstructed model.jpg|thumb|14th century Arab style [[battering ram]]]]
The initial [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] began in the 7th century after the death of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]], and were marked by a century of rapid [[Arab]] expansion beyond the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad Caliphate]]s. Under the [[Rashidun]], the Arabs [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquered the Persian Empire]], along with [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Roman Syria]] and [[Muslim conquest of Egypt|Roman Egypt]] during the [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]], all within just seven years from 633 to 640. Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexed [[Umayyad conquest of North Africa|North Africa]] and [[History of Islam in southern Italy|southern Italy]] from the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched from [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|parts of the Indian subcontinent]], across [[Central Asia]], the Middle East, North Africa, and [[southern Italy, Italy]], to the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Iberian Peninsula]] and the [[Pyrenees]].

The early Arab army mainly consisted of [[camel]]-mounted [[infantry]], alongside a few [[Bedouin]] [[cavalry]]. Constantly outnumbered by their opponent, they did, however, possess the advantage of strategic mobility, their camel-borne nature allowing them to constantly outmaneuver larger Byzantine and Sassanid armies to take prime defensive positions. The [[Rashidun]] cavalry, while lacking the number and mounted archery skill of their Roman and Persian counterparts was for the most part skillfully employed, and played a decisive role in many crucial battles such as [[Battle of Yarmouk]]. During the 7th century, Arab armies employed weapons such as swords, spears, iron mace and lances. For protection, they used shields and wore helmets and coats of mail, although the latter was extremely rare. The bow and arrow was also utilized. Also, after the [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|naval siege of Constantinople in the 670s]], they started to employ [[greek fire]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Lindsay |first=James E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/62/mode/2up |title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World |date=2005 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=9780313322709 |pages=63–64 |access-date=7 April 2022 }}</ref>

In contrast to the [[Roman army|Roman]] and [[Sassanid army|Persian army]] at the time both had large numbers of [[heavy infantry]] and [[heavy cavalry]] ([[cataphract]]s and [[clibanarii]]) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and were more experienced and disciplined. The Arab invasions came at a time when both ancient powers were exhausted from the protracted [[Byzantine–Sassanid Wars]], particularly the bitterly fought [[Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628]] which had brought both empires close to collapse.  Also, the typically multi-ethnic Byzantine force was always wracked by dissension and lacked a unity of command, a similar situation also being encountered among the Sassanids who had been embroiled in a bitter civil war for a decade before the coming of the Arabs. In contrast, the [[Ridda Wars]] which preceded the Arab conflicts with both the Sasanids and the Byzantines, had forged the [[Caliphate]]'s army into a united and loyal fighting force.

===Vikings===
{{Main|Viking invasions}}

[[File:Vikings 841 at Dublin.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.2|Viking fleet [[Kingdom of Dublin|landing at Dublin]], 841]]
The [[Viking]]s were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time, the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.historyextra.com/period/viking/a-brief-history-of-the-vikings/|title=A brief history of the Vikings|last=Parker|first=Philip|date=May 25, 2016|website=The official website for BBC History Magazine and BBC World Histories Magazine}}</ref> Unlike other raiders, the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age, their expeditions, frequently combining raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish Empire, the British Isles, the Baltic region, Russia, and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famed [[Varangian Guard]], serving the Emperor of Constantinople, was drawn principally of Scandinavian warriors.

[[File:Arbo - Battle of Stamford Bridge (1870).jpg|thumb|Norwegian Vikings' defeat at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]], 1066|left]]Viking [[longship]]s were swift and easily manoeuvered; they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers,<ref name=":0" /> and could carry [[warrior]]s that could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able to land directly. The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of warfare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asme.org/engineering-topics/articles/history-of-mechanical-engineering/engineering-the-viking-longboat|title=Engineering the Viking Longboat|last=Walsh|first=David|date=May 2013|website=The American Society of Mechanical Engineers}}</ref> The usual method was to approach a target with the element of surprise and then retire swiftly using [[guerrilla]]-style fighting. The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a mail hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great "Danish" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a bow and arrows, a [[seax]], a shield and spear. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response and would naturally suffer the most to Viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fall back in the face of a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the "[[Great Heathen Army]]" that ravaged [[Anglo-Saxon England]] in the 9th century. In time, the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

After the Vikings consolidated their kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, this period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest; adapting a more continental European tradition of warfare, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power – the "Viking" [[Clinker (boat building)|clinker-built warship]] was used in the war until the 14th century. However, developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the advantage they previously enjoyed at sea, whilst castle building throughout frustrated and eventually ended Viking raids.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timeref.com/castles/why_castles_were_built.htm|title=Medieval and Middle Ages History Timelines – Why castles were built|website=www.timeref.com|language=en|access-date=2018-05-19}}</ref>{{Clarify|date=June 2012}}

The Scandinavian armies of the [[High Middle Ages]] followed the usual pattern of the Northern European armies, but with a stronger emphasis on infantry. The terrain of Scandinavia favoured heavy infantry, and whilst the nobles fought mounted in the continental fashion, the Scandinavian peasants formed a well-armed and well-armoured infantry, of which approximately 30% to 50% would be archers or crossbowmen. The [[crossbow]], the [[flatbow]] and the [[longbow]] were especially popular in Sweden and Finland. The [[chainmail]], the [[lamellar armour]] and the [[coat of plates]] were the usual Scandinavian infantry armour before the era of plate armour.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reardon |first=Sara |date=19 July 2011 |title=Heavy Armor Gave Knights a Workout |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/heavy-armor-gave-knights-workout |access-date=26 April 2022 |website=Science.org}}</ref>

===Mongols===
{{Main|Mongol invasions|Tatar invasions}}
[[File:Clissa, principal fortezza del Turcho nella Dalmatia - Camocio Giovanni Francesco - 1574.jpg|right|thumb|During The [[Mongol invasion of Europe]], [[Tatars]], under the leadership of [[Kadan]], experienced a major failure in March 1242 at [[Klis Fortress]] in southern [[Croatia]].<ref name="Povijest Klisa">{{cite web | url=http://portal.klis.com.hr/povijest-klisa/ | title=Povijest Klisa | last=Listeš | first=Srećko | work=klis.hr | publisher=Službene stranice Općine Klis | language=hr | access-date=2010-05-16 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323064005/http://portal.klis.com.hr/povijest-klisa/ | archive-date=2010-03-23 }}</ref><ref name="Archdeacon 299">Archdeacon (2006), p. 299.</ref>]] By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeing [[Cumans]], who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV of [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]]. They first invaded [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Poland]], and finally, Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in the [[Battle of Mohi]]. The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance. The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a new [[Great khan|Great Khan]].

The [[Golden Horde]] would frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively. In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them. The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde. Also, the large scale invasions and raiding that had previously characterized the expansion of the Mongols was cut short probably in some part due to the death of the last great Mongol leader, [[Timur|Tamerlane]].

The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better-armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority. The Lithuanians relied on their forested homelands for defence and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia. When attacking fortresses they would launch dead or diseased animals into fortresses to help spread disease.

===Turks and Central Asia===

An early [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] group, the [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]]s, were known for their cavalry archers. These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavy [[cataphract]]s of the Byzantines.

One notable victory was at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]], where conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike. They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmanoeuvred them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that used [[scimitar]]s (in use since the 9th century).<ref name=":1" /> When gunpowder was introduced, the [[Ottoman Turks]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] hired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for the [[Janissary|Janissaries]]. Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (''yeni ceri''; "new soldier"), from which they also recruited many of their heavy infantry. Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period and [[Ottoman wars in Europe|attacked Europe]], taking [[Constantinople]] by massed infantry assaults.

Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes. These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantine ''pronoiai'') and Qapukulu (''door slaves'', taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts).

Already by the late 13th century, the [[Khilji Dynasty|Khilji dynasty]] utilized several siege technologies such as [[Trebuchet|trebuchets]], [[Ballista|ballistas]] and wooden parapets by their war engineers. In order to breach a fortification's [[Curtain wall (architecture)|curtain walls]], long earthen-ramps were used to fill up [[Moat|moats]]. In ranged military techniques, they used the powerful war-horses from Central Asia with mounted archers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ |title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765 |date=2019|publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-0-14-196655-7 |language=en |chapter=Chapter Two}}</ref>
==Equipment==
{{Main|List of medieval weapons}}
[[File:Costimography for the Nemanjići series.IMG 3637 (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Replica of 12th century Serbian medieval armor]]

[[File:Varlet or Squire carrying a Halberd with a thick Blade and Archer in Fighting Dress drawing the String of his Crossbow with a double handled Winch.png|thumb|right|A varlet or [[squire]] carrying a [[halberd]] with a thick blade; and archer, in fighting dress, drawing the string of his crossbow with a double-handled winch. From the [[Miniature (illuminated manuscript)|miniatures]] of the "Jouvencel", and [[Froissart's Chronicles|Froissart's ''Chronicles'']]. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|Imperial Library of Paris]].]]

[[File:Marksburg03.jpg|thumb|right|15th century armor from Germany]]

'''Weapons'''

Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects:
* Melee
** [[Battleaxe]]
*** [[Horseman's pick]]
** Blades
*** [[Arming sword]]
*** [[Dagger]]
*** [[Knife]]
*** [[Longsword]]
*** [[Messer (weapon)|Messer]]
** Blunt weapons
*** [[Club (weapon)|Club]]
*** [[Mace (bludgeon)|Mace]]
*** [[War hammer]]
** [[Polearm]]
*** [[Halberd]]
*** [[Lance]]
*** [[Military fork]], the weaponized [[Pitchfork]]
*** [[Pollaxe (polearm)|Pollaxe]]
*** [[Spear]]
* Ranged
** [[Bow and arrow|Bow]]
** [[English longbow|Longbow]]
** [[Crossbow]]
** [[Throwing axe]]
** [[Spear|Throwing spear]] and [[Javelin]]
** [[Sling (weapon)|Sling]]

'''Armour'''
* [[Components of medieval armour|Body armour]]
** [[Boiled leather|Leather]]
** [[Gambeson|Fabric]]
** [[Chain mail]]
** [[Brigandine]]
** [[Plate armour|Plate]]
* [[Shield]]
* [[Combat helmet|Helmet]]

'''Artillery and Siege engine'''
* [[Battering ram]]
* [[Catapult]]
* [[Trebuchet]]
* [[Ballista]]
* [[Siege tower]]

'''Animals'''
* [[Camel cavalry|Camels in warfare]]
* [[Dogs in warfare#History|Dogs in warfare]]
* [[Horses in warfare]] and [[Horses in the Middle Ages]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[War pig|War pigs]]

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=44em}}
* [[Endemic warfare]]
* [[Great Stirrup Controversy]]
* [[Horses in warfare]]
* [[Slighting]]
* [[Timeline of women in Medieval warfare]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book | last=Archdeacon | first=Thomas of Split | author-link1=Thomas the Archdeacon | title=History of the Bishops of Salona and Split – Historia Salonitanorum atque Spalatinorum pontificum | publisher=Central European University Press | location=Budapest | year=2006 | language=la, en | isbn=978-963-7326-59-2}}
* {{citation |last=DeVries |first=Kelly |author-link=Kelly DeVries |title=Military Medieval Technology |year=1992 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=0-921149-74-3}}
* {{citation |last=Fernández-Armesto |first=Felipe |contribution=Naval Warfare after the Viking Age, ''c''. 1100–1500 |title=Medieval Warfare: A History |year=1999 |editor=Keen, Maurice |editor-link=Maurice Keen |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/medievalwarfareh00maur/page/230 230–252] |isbn=0-19-820639-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalwarfareh00maur/page/230 }}
* {{citation |last=Gillingham |first=John |editor=Strickland, Matthew |contribution=William the Bastard at War |title= Anglo-Norman warfare: Studies in Late Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Military Organization and Warfare |year=1992 |publisher=The Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |isbn=0-85115-327-5 |pages=143–160}}
* Glete, Jan, ''Warfare at Sea, 1500–1650: Maritime Conflicts and the Transformation of Europe.'' Routledge, London. 2000. {{ISBN|0-415-21455-6}}
* {{citation |last=Goffart |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Goffart |title=The date and purpose of Vegetius' ''De Re Militari'' |journal=Traditio |volume=xxxiii |year=1977 |pages=65–100 |doi=10.1017/S0362152900009077 |jstor=27831025|s2cid=151406462 }}
* Guilmartin, John Francis, ''Gunpowder and Galleys: Changing Technology and Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the Sixteenth Century.'' Cambridge University Press, London. 1974. 
* Hattendorf, John B. & Unger, Richard W. (editors), ''War at Sea in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.'' Woodbridge, Suffolk. 2003. {{ISBN|0-85115-903-6}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=YVbAwbQrJtAC]
* {{citation |last=Liddiard |first=Robert |year=2005 |title=Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500 |publisher=Windgather Press Ltd |location=Macclesfield |isbn=0-9545575-2-2}}
* Lehmann, L. Th., ''Galleys in the Netherlands.'' Meulenhoff, Amsterdam. 1984. {{ISBN|90-290-1854-2}}
* Marsden, Peter, ''Sealed by Time: The Loss and Recovery of the Mary Rose.'' The Archaeology of the ''Mary Rose'', Volume 1. The Mary Rose Trust, Portsmouth. 2003. {{ISBN|0-9544029-0-1}}
* {{citation |last=Nicholson |first=Helen |title=Medieval Warfare: Theory and Practice of War in Europe, 300–1500 |year=2004 |location=Basingstoke |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=0-333-76330-0}}
* {{citation |last1=Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus |editor=Milner, N. P. |title=Vegetius: epitome of military science |series=Translated Texts for Historians |volume=xvi |year=1996 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |location=Liverpool}}
* Rodger, Nicholas A. M., "The Development of Broadside Gunnery, 1450–1650." ''Mariner's Mirror'' 82 (1996), pp.&nbsp;301–324.
* Rodger, Nicholas A. M., ''The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649.'' W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 1997. {{ISBN|0-393-04579-X}}
* Laury Sarti, "Perceiving War and the Military in Early Christian Gaul (ca. 400–700 A.D.)" (= Brill's Series on the Early Middle Ages, 22), Leiden/Boston 2013, {{ISBN|978-9004-25618-7}}.

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Contamine, Philippe. ''War in the Middle Ages''. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.
* [[Martin Van Creveld|Creveld, Martin Van]]. ''Technology and War: From 2000 BC to present'', 1989.
* {{citation |last=France |first=John |title=Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000&ndash;1300 |year=1999 |location=London |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-8607-4}}
* [[John Keegan|Keegan, John]]. ''[[The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme]]''. London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988.
* [[Maurice Keen|Keen, Maurice]]. ''Medieval Warfare: A History''. Oxford University Press, 1999.
* H. W. Koch: ''Medieval Warfare.'' Bison Books Limited, London, 1978, {{ISBN|978-0-86124-008-1}}
* Kosztolnyik, Z.J. ''Hungary in the thirteenth century''. New York: Columbia University Press: Stackpole Books, 1996. ([http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/kosztolnyik.htm Parts of which are available online])
* McNeill, William Hardy. ''The pursuit of power: technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
* Oman, Charles William Chadwick. ''A history of the art of war in the Middle Ages''. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998.
* [http://www.deremilitari.org De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History]
* Parker, Geoffrey. ''The Military Revolution: Military innovation and the Rise of The West'', 1988.
* Titterton, James, ''Deception in Medieval Warfare''. Boydell & Brewer, 2022, {{ISBN|9781783276783}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.medievalwarfare.info Medieval Warfare] Siege warfare, open battles, weapons, armour and fighting techniques.
* [https://www.medievalsoldier.org/ Database of thousands of English soldiers during the later medieval period]
* [http://medieval-history.org/ Medieval History Database (MHDB), which includes medieval military records]
* [https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/medieval-early-modern-soldiers/ Guide to researching records of medieval soldiers, from the British National Archives site]

{{Military and war}}
{{Middle Ages}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Medieval Warfare}}
[[Category:Warfare of the Middle Ages| ]]
[[Category:Military history of Europe]]