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{{short description|Very large wave created by a large, sudden displacement of material into a body of water}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
[[File:Lituya Bay megatsunami diagram (English).png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Diagram of the [[1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami|1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami]], which proved the existence of megatsunamis]]
A '''megatsunami''' is an extremely large wave created by a substantial and sudden displacement of material into a body of water.

Megatsunamis have different features from ordinary [[tsunami]]s. Ordinary tsunamis are caused by underwater [[plate tectonics|tectonic activity]] (movement of the earth's plates) and therefore occur along plate boundaries and as a result of [[earthquake]]s and the subsequent rise or fall in the [[seabed|sea floor]] that displaces a volume of water. Ordinary tsunamis exhibit shallow waves in the deep waters of the open ocean that increase dramatically in height upon approaching land to a maximum [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of around {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}} in the cases of the most powerful earthquakes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tsunami.org/tsunami-characteristics/ |title=Tsunami Characteristics |author=<!---not stated---> |website=Pacific Tsunami Museum |access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> By contrast, megatsunamis occur when a large amount of material [[rockfall|suddenly falls into water]] or anywhere near water (such as via a [[landslide]], [[meteor impact]], or [[volcanic eruption]]). They can have extremely large initial wave heights in the hundreds of metres, far beyond the height of any ordinary tsunami. These giant wave heights occur because the water is "splashed" upwards and outwards by the displacement.

Examples of modern megatsunamis include the one associated with the [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa#Tsunamis and distant effects|1883 eruption of Krakatoa]] (volcanic eruption), the [[1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami]] (a landslide which resulted in wave [[Wave run-up|runup]] up to an elevation of {{convert|524.6|m|0}}), and the 1963 [[Vajont Dam]] landslide (caused by human activity destabilizing sides of valley). Prehistoric examples include the [[Storegga Slide]] (landslide), and the [[Chicxulub crater|Chicxulub]], [[Chesapeake Bay impact crater|Chesapeake Bay]], and [[Eltanin impact|Eltanin]] meteor impacts.{{fact|date=March 2025}}

== Overview ==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
A megatsunami is a tsunami with an initial [[wave]] [[amplitude]] ([[wave height|height]]) measured in many tens or hundreds of metres. The term "megatsunami" has been defined by media and has no precise definition, although it is commonly taken to refer to tsunamis over {{convert|100|m|0}} high.<ref>{{cite journal|first=WJ|last=McGuire|title = Lateral collapse and tsunamigenic potential of marine volcanoes|journal = Geological Society, London, Special Publications|volume = 269|number = 1|pages = 121–140|year = 2006|doi = 10.1144/GSL.SP.2006.269.01.08|bibcode=2006GSLSP.269..121M }}</ref> A megatsunami is a separate class of event from an ordinary tsunami and is caused by different physical mechanisms.

Normal tsunamis result from displacement of the sea floor due to movements in the Earth's crust (plate tectonics). Powerful earthquakes may cause the sea floor to displace vertically on the order of tens of metres, which in turn displaces the water column above and leads to the formation of a tsunami. Ordinary tsunamis have a small wave height offshore and generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell on the order of {{convert|30|cm}} above the normal sea surface. In deep water it is possible that a tsunami could pass beneath a ship without the crew of the vessel noticing. As it approaches land, the wave height of an ordinary tsunami increases dramatically as the sea floor slopes upward and the base of the wave pushes the water column above it upwards. Ordinary tsunamis, even those associated with the most powerful strike-slip earthquakes, typically do not reach heights in excess of {{cvt|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/info/index.shtml | title=Tsunami Facts and Information | author=<!---Not stated---> | date=2021 | website=Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology | access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Reymond | first1=D. | last2=Okal | first2=E.A. | last3=Herbert | first3=H. | last4=Bourdet | first4=M. | date=5 June 2012 | title=Rapid forecast of tsunami wave heights from a database of pre-computed simulations, and application during the 2011 Tohoku tsunami in French Polynesia | url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2012GL051640 | journal=Geophysical Research Letters | volume=39 | issue=11 | doi=10.1029/2012GL051640 | bibcode=2012GeoRL..3911603R | s2cid=1140066 | access-date=9 October 2023| url-access=subscription }}</ref>

By contrast, megatsunamis are caused by landslides and massive earthquakes that displace large volumes of water, resulting in waves that may exceed the height of an ordinary tsunami by tens or even hundreds of metres. Underwater [[earthquake]]s or [[types of volcanic eruptions|volcanic eruptions]] do not normally generate megatsunamis, but [[landslide]]s next to bodies of water resulting from earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can, since they cause a much larger amount of water [[displacement field (mechanics)|displacement]]. If the landslide or impact occurs in a limited body of water, as happened in [[1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami|Lituya Bay]] (1958) and at the [[Vajont Dam]] (1963), then the water may be unable to disperse and one or more exceedingly large waves may result.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Fritz | first1=Hermann M. | last2=Mohammed | first2=Fahad | last3=Yoo | first3=Jeseon | date=6 February 2009 | title=Lituya Bay Landslide Impact Generated Mega-Tsunami 50th Anniversary | url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00024-008-0435-4 | journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics | volume=166 | issue=1–2 | pages=153–175 | doi=10.1007/s00024-008-0435-4 | bibcode=2009PApGe.166..153F | s2cid=129029990 | access-date=9 October 2023| url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Submarine landslides can pose a significant hazard when they cause a tsunami. Although a variety of different types of landslides can cause tsunami, all the resulting tsunami have similar features such as large run-ups close to the tsunami, but quicker attenuation compared to tsunami caused by earthquakes. An example of this was the 17 July 1998 [[Papua New Guinea]]n landslide tsunami, in which waves up to {{convert|15|m}} high struck a {{convert|20|km|abbr=off|adj=on|1}} section of the coast, killing 2,200 people, yet at greater distances the tsunami was not a major hazard. This is due to the comparatively small source area of most landslide tsunami (relative to the area affected by large earthquakes) which causes the generation of waves with shorter wavelengths. These waves are greatly affected by coastal amplification (which amplifies the local effect) and radial damping (which reduces the distal effect).<ref name = "Mason">{{cite journal |vauthors=Masson DG, Harbitz CB, Wynn RB, Pedersen G, Løvholt F |title=Submarine landslides: processes, triggers and hazard prediction |journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences|volume=364 |issue=1845 |pages=2009–39 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16844646 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2006.1810 |bibcode=2006RSPTA.364.2009M }}</ref><ref name="McAdoo">{{cite journal |last1=McAdoo |first1=B.G. |last2=Watts |first2=P. |title=Tsunami hazard from submarine landslides on the Oregon continental slope |journal=Marine Geology |volume=203 |pages=235–245 |date=2004 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1016/S0025-3227(03)00307-4 |bibcode=2004MGeol.203..235M }}</ref>

The size of landslide-generated tsunamis depends both on the geological details of the landslide (such as its [[Froude number]]{{sfn|Løvholt|Pedersen|Gisler|2008|p=3}}) and also on assumptions about the [[hydrodynamics]] of the model used to simulate tsunami generation, thus they have a large margin of uncertainty. Generally, landslide-induced tsunamis decay more quickly with distance than earthquake-induced tsunamis,{{sfn|Masson|Harbitz|Wynn|Pedersen|2006|p=2024}} as the former, often having a dipole structure at the source,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dawson|first1=AG|first2=I|last2=Stewart|title=Tsunami deposits in the geological record|journal=Sedimentary Geology|volume=200|issue=3–4|year=2007|pages=166–183|doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.01.002 |bibcode=2007SedG..200..166D }}</ref> tend to spread out radially and have a shorter wavelength (the rate at which a wave loses energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength, so the longer the [[wavelength]] of a wave, the more slowly it loses energy)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tsunami Characteristics |url=https://tsunami.org/tsunami-characteristics/ |website=Pacific Tsunami Museum}}</ref> while the latter disperses little as it propagates away perpendicularly to the source [[Fault (geology)|fault]].{{sfn|Masson|Harbitz|Wynn|Pedersen|2006|p=2025}} Testing whether a given tsunami model is correct is complicated by the rarity of giant collapses.{{sfn|Pararas-Carayannis|2002|p=255}}

Recent findings show that the nature of a tsunami depends upon the volume, velocity, initial acceleration, length, and thickness of the landslide generating it. Volume and initial acceleration are the key factors which determine whether a landslide will form a tsunami. A sudden deceleration of the landslide may also result in larger waves. The length of the slide influences both the wavelength and the maximum wave height. Travel time or run-out distance of the slide also will influence the resulting tsunami wavelength. In most cases, submarine landslides are noticeably subcritical, that is, the [[Froude number]] (the ratio of slide speed to wave propagation) is significantly less than one. This suggests that the tsunami will move away from the wave-generating slide, preventing the buildup of the wave. Failures in shallow waters tend to produce larger tsunamis because the wave is more critical as the speed of propagation is less.  Furthermore, shallower waters are generally closer to the coast, meaning that there is less radial damping by the time the tsunami reaches the shore. Conversely tsunamis triggered by earthquakes are more critical when the [[seabed]] displacement occurs in the deep ocean, as the first wave (which is less affected by depth) has a shorter wavelength and is enlarged when travelling from deeper to shallower waters.<ref name="Mason" /><ref name="McAdoo" />

Determining a height range typical of megatsunamis is a complex and scientifically debated topic. This complexity is increased by the two different heights often reported for tsunamis – the height of the wave itself in open water and the height to which it surges when it encounters land. Depending upon the locale, this second height, the "[[Wave run-up|run-up]] height," can be several times larger than the wave's height just before it reaches shore.<ref>{{cite tech report | author=State of Hawaii Department of Defense Tsunami Technical Review Committee | title=Field Guide for Measuring Tsunami Run-Ups and Inundations | institution=State of Hawaii Department of Defense | url=https://nws.weather.gov/nthmp/2014mesmms/HawaiiFieldGuide.pdf | date=1 March 2013 | edition=2}}</ref> While there is no minimum or average height classification for megatsunamis that the scientific community broadly accepts, the limited number of observed megatsunami events in recent history have all had run-up heights that exceeded {{convert|100|m|ft|sigfig=1}}. The megatsunami in [[Spirit Lake (Washington)|Spirit Lake]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] in the [[United States]] generated by the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]] reached {{convert|853|feet|m|order=flip}}, while the tallest megatsunami ever recorded (in Lituya Bay in 1958) reached a run-up height of {{convert|1720|feet|m|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-and-services/geology/geologic-hazards/tsunamis/#historical-tsunamis-worldwide | title=Tsunamis | author=<!---Not stated---> | publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources | date=2021 | access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> It is also possible that much larger megatsunamis occurred in prehistory; researchers analyzing the geological structures left behind by prehistoric asteroid impacts have suggested that these events could have resulted in megatsunamis that exceeded {{convert|1500|metres|feet}} in height.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Kinsland | first1=Gary L. | last2=Egedahl | first2 = Kaare | last3 = Strong | first3=Martell Albert | last4=Ivy | first4=Robert | date=13 June 2021 | title=Chicxulub impact tsunami megaripples in the subsurface of Louisiana: Imaged in petroleum industry seismic data | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X21003186#fg0020 | journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters | volume=570 | article-number=117063 | doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2021.117063 | bibcode=2021E&PSL.57017063K | access-date=26 July 2021| url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Recognition of the concept of megatsunami==
{{main|1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami}}

Before the 1950s, scientists had theorized that tsunamis orders of magnitude larger than those observed with earthquakes could have occurred as a result of ancient geological processes, but no concrete evidence of the existence of these "monster waves" had yet been gathered. [[Geologist]]s searching for oil in [[Alaska]] in 1953 observed that in [[Lituya Bay]], mature tree growth did not extend to the shoreline as it did in many other bays in the region. Rather, there was a band of younger trees closer to the shore. Forestry workers, glaciologists, and geographers call the boundary between these bands a [[trim line]]. Trees just above the trim line showed severe scarring on their seaward side, while those from below the trim line did not. This indicated that a large force had impacted all of the elder trees above the trim line, and presumably had killed off all the trees below it. Based on this evidence, the scientists hypothesized that there had been an unusually large wave or waves in the deep inlet. Because this is a recently deglaciated [[fjord]] with steep slopes and crossed by a major fault (the [[Fairweather Fault]]), one possibility was that this wave was a landslide-generated tsunami.<ref name=Miller />

On 9 July 1958, a 7.8 {{M|w|link=y}} [[Fault (geology)#Strike-slip faults|strike-slip]] earthquake in [[Southeast Alaska]] caused {{convert|90000000|ST|MT|sigfig=1|abbr=off|order=flip}} of rock and ice to drop into the deep water at the head of Lituya Bay. The block fell almost vertically and hit the water with sufficient force to create a [[1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami|wave]] that surged up the opposite side of the head of the bay to a height of {{convert|520|m|ft|abbr=off}}, and was still many tens of metres high further down the bay when it carried eyewitnesses Howard Ulrich and his son Howard Jr. over the trees in their fishing boat. They were washed back into the bay and both survived.<ref name=Miller />

== Analysis of mechanism==
The mechanism giving rise to megatsunamis was analysed for the Lituya Bay event in a study presented at the Tsunami Society in 1999;<ref name="PC_Model">[http://www.drgeorgepc.com/Tsunami1958LituyaB.html "The Mega-Tsunami of July 9, 1958 in Lituya Bay, Alaska: Analysis of Mechanism"] – George Pararas-Carayannis, Excerpts from Presentation at the Tsunami Symposium of Tsunami Society of 25–27 May 1999, in Honolulu, Hawaii, US</ref> this model was considerably developed and modified by a second study in 2010.

Although the earthquake which caused the megatsunami was considered very energetic, it was determined that it could not have been the sole contributor based on the measured height of the wave. Neither water drainage from a lake, nor a landslide, nor the force of the earthquake itself were sufficient to create a megatsunami of the size observed, although all of these may have been contributing factors.

Instead, the megatsunami was caused by a combination of events in quick succession. The primary event occurred in the form of a large and sudden [[impulse (physics)|impulsive]] impact when about 40 million cubic yards of rock several hundred metres above the bay was fractured by the earthquake, and fell "practically as a monolithic unit" down the almost-vertical slope and into the bay.<ref name="PC_Model" /> The [[rockfall]] also caused air to be "dragged along" due to [[viscosity]] effects, which added to the volume of displacement, and further impacted the [[sediment]] on the floor of the bay, creating a large crater. The study concluded that:

{{blockquote|The giant wave [[Wave run-up|runup]] of 1,720&nbsp;feet (524&nbsp;m) at the head of the Bay and the subsequent huge wave along the main body of Lituya Bay which occurred on July 9, 1958, were caused primarily by an enormous subaerial rockfall into Gilbert Inlet at the head of Lituya Bay, triggered by dynamic earthquake ground motions along the Fairweather Fault.

The large monolithic mass of rock struck the sediments at bottom of Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay with great force. The impact created a large crater and displaced and folded recent and Tertiary deposits and sedimentary layers to an unknown depth. The displaced water and the displacement and folding of the sediments broke and uplifted 1,300&nbsp;feet of ice along the entire front face of the Lituya Glacier at the north end of Gilbert Inlet. Also, the impact and the sediment displacement by the rockfall resulted in an air bubble and in water splashing action that reached the 1,720-foot (524&nbsp;m) elevation on the other side of the head of Gilbert Inlet. The same rockfall impact, in combination with the strong ground movements, the net vertical crustal uplift of about 3.5&nbsp;feet, and an overall tilting seaward of the entire crustal block on which Lituya Bay was situated, generated the giant solitary gravity wave which swept the main body of the bay.

This was the most likely scenario of the event – the "PC model" that was adopted for subsequent mathematical modeling studies with source dimensions and parameters provided as input. Subsequent mathematical modeling at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (Mader, 1999, Mader & Gittings, 2002) supported the proposed mechanism and indicated that there was indeed sufficient volume of water and an adequately deep layer of sediments in the Lituya Bay inlet to account for the giant wave runup and the subsequent inundation. The modeling reproduced the documented physical observations of runup.}}

A 2010 model that examined the amount of infill on the floor of the bay, which was many times larger than that of the rockfall alone, and also the energy and height of the waves, and the accounts given by eyewitnesses, concluded that there had been a "dual slide" involving a rockfall, which also triggered a release of 5 to 10 times its volume of sediment trapped by the adjacent Lituya Glacier, as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide, a ratio comparable with other events where this "dual slide" effect is known to have happened.<ref name="2010model">{{cite journal | last1 = Ward | first1 =Steven N.  | last2 =Day | first2 =Simon  | year = 2010 | title = Lituya Bay Landslide and Tsunami – A Tsunami Ball Approach | url = http://es.ucsc.edu/~ward/papers/Lituya.pdf | journal = [[Journal of Earthquake and Tsunami]] | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 285–319 | doi = 10.1142/S1793431110000893 }}</ref>

== Examples ==
=== Prehistoric ===
* An [[astronomical object]] between {{convert|37|and|58|km}} wide traveling at {{convert|20|km|1}} per second struck the [[Earth]] 3.26 billion years ago east of what is now [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]], near South Africa's border with [[Eswatini]], in what was then an [[Archean]] ocean that covered most of the planet, creating a crater about {{convert|500|km|sigfig=2}} wide. The impact generated a megatsunami that probably extended to a depth of thousands of meters beneath the surface of the ocean and probably rose to the height of a [[skyscraper]] when it reached shorelines. The resultant event created the [[Barberton Greenstone Belt]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=3 March 2014| first1= Norman H. |last1= Sleep | first2= Donald R. |last2=Lowe |title=Physics of crustal fracturing and chert dike formation triggered by asteroid impact, ∼3.26 Ga, Barberton greenstone belt, South Africa |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2014GC005229 |access-date=19 December 2023 |journal= Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems | volume= 15 | issue= 4 | pages= 1054–1070 | doi= 10.1002/2014GC005229 | bibcode= 2014GGG....15.1054S |url-access= subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 April 2014 |title=Scientists Reconstruct Ancient Impact That Dwarfs Dinosaur-Extinction Blast |url=https://news.agu.org/press-release/scientists-reconstruct-ancient-impact-that-dwarfs-dinosaur-extinction-blast/ |access-date=19 December 2023 |website= AGU Advancing Earth and Space Sciences }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=19 December 2023 |first=Joel |last=Achenbach| title=Scientists Reconstruct Ancient Impact That Dwarfs Dinosaur-Extinction Blast |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2023/12/19/early-earth-life-impacts-ocean/ |access-date=19 December 2023 |newspaper= The Washington Post}}</ref>
* The [[asteroid]] linked to the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|extinction of dinosaurs]], which created the [[Chicxulub crater]] in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] approximately 66 million years ago, would have caused a megatsunami over {{convert|100|m|ft|sigfig=2}} tall. The height of the tsunami was limited due to relatively shallow sea in the area of the impact; had the asteroid struck in the deep sea the megatsunami would have likely been {{convert|4.6|km}} tall. Among the mechanisms triggering megatsunamis were the direct impact, shockwaves, returning water in the crater with a new push outward and [[seismic wave]]s with a [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]] up to ~11.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tOkpBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA178 |title=Tsunami: The Underrated Hazard |first=Edward |last=Bryant |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-06133-7|page=178}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Goto|first1=Kazuhisa|last2=Tada|first2=Ryuji|last3=Tajika|first3=Eiichi|last4=Bralower|first4=Timothy J.|last5=Hasegawa|first5=Takashi|last6=Matsui|first6=Takafumi|date=2004|title=Evidence for ocean water invasion into the Chicxulub crater at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary|journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science|language=en|volume=39|issue=8|pages=1233–1247|doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.2004.tb00943.x|bibcode=2004M&PS...39.1233G|s2cid=55674339|issn=1945-5100|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2021 |title=Generation and propagation of a tsunami from the Cretaceous-Tertiary impact event |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228783220 |access-date=3 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020080538/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228783220_Generation_and_propagation_of_a_tsunami_from_the_Cretaceous-Tertiary_impact_event |archive-date=20 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gulick|first1=Sean P. S.|last2=Bralower|first2=Timothy J.|last3=Ormö|first3=Jens|last4=Hall|first4=Brendon|last5=Grice|first5=Kliti|last6=Schaefer|first6=Bettina|last7=Lyons|first7=Shelby|last8=Freeman|first8=Katherine H.|last9=Morgan|first9=Joanna V.|author9-link= Joanna Morgan |last10=Artemieva|first10=Natalia|author10-link=Natalia Artemieva|last11=Kaskes|first11=Pim|date=24 September 2019|title=The first day of the Cenozoic|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=116|issue=39|pages=19342–19351|doi=10.1073/pnas.1909479116|issn=0027-8424|pmid=31501350|pmc=6765282|bibcode=2019PNAS..11619342G|doi-access=free}}</ref> A more recent simulation of the global effects of the Chicxulub megatsunami showed an initial wave height of {{convert|1.5|km|mi|sigfig=1}}, with later waves up to {{convert|100|m|ft|sigfig=2}} in height in the Gulf of Mexico, and up to {{convert|14|m|0}} in the North Atlantic and South Pacific; the discovery of mega-ripples in Louisiana via seismic imaging data, with average wavelengths of {{convert|600|m|ft|sigfig=2}} and average wave heights of {{convert|16|m|ft|sigfig=2}}, looks like to confirm it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iflscience.com/environment/dinosaurkilling-asteroid-created-a-milehigh-tsunami-that-swept-through-the-worlds-oceans/ |title=Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Created A Mile-High Tsunami That Swept Through The World's Oceans |publisher=iflscience.com |date=8 January 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Huge Global Tsunami Followed Dinosaur-Killing Asteroid Impact|url=https://eos.org/articles/huge-global-tsunami-followed-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-impact|access-date=22 July 2021|website=Eos|date=20 December 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> David Shonting and Cathy Ezrailson propose an "Edgerton effect" mechanism generating the megatsunami, similar to a milk drop falling on water that triggers a crown-shape water column, with a comparable height to the [[Chicxulub crater|Chicxulub impactor's]], that means over {{convert|10|–|12|km|sigfig=1}} for the initial seawater forced outward by the explosion and blast waves; then, its collapse triggers megatsunamis changing their height according to the different water depth, raising up to {{Convert|500|m|ft}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Shonting|first1=D.|url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-39487-9|title=Chicxulub: The Impact and Tsunami|last2=Ezrailson|first2=C.|publisher=Springer Link|year=2017|isbn=978-3-319-39487-9|series=Springer Praxis Books|pages=69–106|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-39487-9|s2cid=133461474}}</ref> Furthermore, the initial [[shock wave]] via impact triggered [[seismic wave]]s producing giant [[landslide]]s and slumping around the region (the largest known event deposits on Earth) with subsequent megatsunamis of various sizes,<ref name="Sanford2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Sanford |first1=Jason C. |last2=Snedden |first2=John W. |last3=Gulick |first3=Sean P. S. |date=March 2016 |title=The Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary deposit in the Gulf of Mexico: Large-scale oceanic basin response to the Chicxulub impact |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |language=en |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=1240–1261 |doi=10.1002/2015JB012615|bibcode=2016JGRB..121.1240S |s2cid=130978191 |doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[seiche]]s of {{convert|10|to|100|m|ft|sigfig=1}} in [[Tanis (fossil site)|Tanis]], {{convert|3000|km|mi}} away, part of a vast inland sea at the time and directly triggered via seismic shaking by the impact within a few minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=DePalma |first1=Robert A. |last2=Smit |first2=Jan |last3=Burnham |first3=David A. |last4=Kuiper |first4=Klaudia |last5=Manning |first5=Phillip L. |last6=Oleinik |first6=Anton |last7=Larson |first7=Peter |last8=Maurrasse |first8=Florentin J. |last9=Vellekoop |first9=Johan |last10=Richards |first10=Mark A. |last11=Gurche |first11=Loren |date=23 April 2019 |title=A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the KPg boundary, North Dakota |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=17 |pages=8190–8199 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1817407116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6486721 |pmid=30936306|bibcode=2019PNAS..116.8190D |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* During the [[Messinian]] (ca. 7.25–ca. 5.3 million years ago) various megatsunamis likely struck the coast of northern [[Chile]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Le Roux |first=Jacobus P. |date=2015 |title=A critical examination of evidence used to re-interpret the Hornitos mega-breccia as a mass-flow deposit caused by cliff failure |url=http://www.andeangeology.equipu.cl/index.php./revista1/article/view/V42n1-a08/html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915230610/http://www.andeangeology.equipu.cl/index.php./revista1/article/view/V42n1-a08/html |archive-date=15 September 2016 |journal=[[Andean Geology]] |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=139–145}}</ref>
* Reservoir-induced seismicity at the end of or shortly after the [[Zanclean Flood]] (ca. 5.33 million years ago), which rapidly filled the [[Mediterranean Basin]] with water from the [[Atlantic Ocean]], created a megatsunami with a height of nearly {{convert|100|m|sigfig=2}} which struck the coast of [[Spain]] near what is now [[Algeciras]].<ref>{{cite journal|format=PDF|via=[[ResearchGate]]|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320868709|journal=IX Reunião do Quaternário Ibérico, Faro|last1=Silva|first1=P.G.|last2=Elez|first2=Javier|last3=Huerta|first3=Pedro|last4=Llovera|first4=Jorge|last5=Perucha|first5=Maria Angeles|last6=Roquero|first6=Elvira|last7=Rodriguez-Pascua|first7=Miguel|last8=Martínez-Graña|first8=A|last9=Azcárate|first9=Teresa|last10=Reicherter|first10=Klaus|date=6 November 2017|pages=137–140|title=Sedimentary record of pre-Quaternary tsunamis in the Gibraltar Strait area after the Zanclean flooding}}</ref>
* A megatsunami affected the coast of [[Zona Sur|south–central Chile]] in the [[Pliocene]] as evidenced by the [[sedimentary record]] of the [[Ranquil Formation]].<ref name=LeRouxetal2008>{{cite journal |last1=Le Roux |first1=J.P. |last2=Nielsen |first2= Sven N. |last3=Kemnitz |first3=Helga |last4=Henriquez |first4=Álvaro |date=2008 |title=A Pliocene mega-tsunami deposit and associated features in the Ranquil Formation, southern Chile |url=http://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/125260/Le%20Roux_J_P.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=[[Sedimentary Geology (journal)|Sedimentary Geology]] |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=164–180 |doi= 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2007.12.002|access-date=11 April 2016|bibcode = 2008SedG..203..164L |hdl=10533/139221 }}</ref>
* The [[Eltanin impact]] in the southeast Pacific Ocean 2.5 million years ago caused a megatsunami that was over {{convert|200|m|ft}} high in southern Chile and the Antarctic Peninsula; the wave swept across much of the Pacific Ocean.
* The northern half of the [[East Molokai Volcano]] on [[Molokai]] in [[Hawaii]] suffered a catastrophic collapse about 1.5 million years ago, generating a megatsunami, and now lies as a debris field scattered northward across the ocean bottom,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mbari.org/volcanism/Hawaii/HR-Landslides.htm|title=Hawaiian landslides have been catastrophic|work=mbari.org|publisher=[[Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute]]|date=22 October 2015|access-date=16 August 2013|archive-date=27 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527191642/http://www.mbari.org/volcanism/Hawaii/HR-Landslides.htm}}</ref> while what remains on the island are the highest [[sea cliff]]s in the world.<ref>Culliney, John L. (2006) Islands in a Far Sea: The Fate of Nature in Hawaii. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. p. 17.</ref> The megatsunami may have reached a height of {{convert|2000|ft|m|order=flip}} near its origin and reached [[California]] and [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/kala/learn/management/upload/MinkVI.pdf|title=Kalaupapa Settlement Boundary Study. Along North Shore to Halawa Valley, Molokai|publisher=National Park Service|date=2001|access-date=29 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416174207/https://www.nps.gov/kala/learn/management/upload/MinkVI.pdf|archive-date=16 April 2021}}</ref>
* The existence of large scattered [[boulder]]s in only one of the four [[marine terrace]]s of Herradura Bay south of the Chilean city of [[Coquimbo]] has been interpreted by [[Roland Paskoff]] as the result of a mega-tsunami that occurred in the [[Pleistocene|Middle Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Paskoff |first=Roland |author-link=Roland Paskoff |date=1991 |title=Likely occurrence of mega-tsunami in the Middle Pleistocene near Coquimbo, Chile |url=http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/viewFile/2485/2690 |journal=[[Andean Geology|Revista Geológica de Chile]] |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=87–91 |access-date=17 July 2016}}</ref>
* In [[Hawaii]], a megatsunami at least {{convert|400|m|0}} in height deposited marine [[sediment]]s at a modern-day elevation of {{convert|326|m|0}} – {{convert|375|to|425|m|0}} above [[sea level]] at the time the wave struck – on [[Lanai]] about 105,000 years ago. The tsunami also deposited such sediments at an elevation of {{convert|60|to|80|m|0}} on [[Oahu]], [[Molokai]], [[Maui]], and the [[Hawaii (island)|island of Hawaii]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Carl | last2=Mader |first2=Charles L. |date=January 1995 |title=Modeling the 105 KA Lanai Tsunami |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264038439 | work=ResearchGate |access-date=18 October 2023}}</ref>
* The collapse of the ancestral Mount Amarelo on [[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]] in the [[Cape Verde Islands]] about 73,000 years ago triggered a megatsunami which struck [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]], {{convert|55|km|mi nmi|0}} away, with a height of {{convert|170|to|240|m|0}} and a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of over {{convert|270|m|0}}. The wave swept {{convert|770|t|sigfig=2|adj=on}} boulders {{convert|600|m|sigfig=2}} inland and deposited them {{convert|200|m|0}} above [[sea level]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Ramalho|first1=Ricardo S.|last2=Winckler|first2=Gisela|last3=Madeira|first3=José|last4=Helffrich|first4=George R.|last5=Hipólito|first5=Ana|last6=Quartau|first6=Rui|last7=Adena|first7=Katherine|last8=Schaefer|first8=Joerg M.|date=1 October 2015|title=Hazard potential of volcanic flank collapses raised by new megatsunami evidence|journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=1|issue=9|article-number=e1500456|doi=10.1126/sciadv.1500456|pmid=26601287|pmc=4646801|bibcode=2015SciA....1E0456R|issn=2375-2548|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2 October 2015 |title=Volcano's collapse caused mega-tsunami 240 metres high – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/02/volcano-collapse-caused-mega-tsunami-cape-verde-fogo-scientists-study |website=theguardian.com |location= |publisher=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=27 January 2025}}</ref>
* A major collapse of the western edge of the [[Lake Tahoe]] basin, a landslide with a volume of {{convert|12.5|km3|cumi|1}} which formed McKinney Bay between 21,000 and 12,000 years ago, generated megatsunamis/[[seiche|seiche wave]]s with an initial height of probably about {{convert|100|m|ft||sigfig=2|abbr=on}} and caused the lake's water to slosh back and forth for days. Much of the water in the megatsunamis washed over the lake's outlet at what is now [[Tahoe City, California|Tahoe City]], California, and flooded down the [[Truckee River]], carrying house-sized boulders as far downstream as the California-Nevada border at what is now [[Verdi, California|Verdi]], California.<ref>{{cite conference|last=Gardner|first=J.V.|title=The Lake Tahoe debris avalanche|conference=Geological Society of Australia|book-title=15th Annual Geological Conference |date=July 2000}}</ref><ref>[https://www.kqed.org/science/20134/the-tahoe-tsunami-new-study-envisions-early-geologic-event Alden, Andrew, "The 'Tahoe Tsunami': New Study Envisions Early Geologic Event," kqed.org, 31 July 2014, Retrieved 23 June 2020]</ref>
* In the [[North Sea]], the [[Storegga Slide]] caused a megatsunami approximately 8,200 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.10.003|last1=Bondevik|first1=S.|first2=F.|last2=Lovholt|first3=C.|last3=Harbitz|first4=J.|last4=Mangerud|first5=A.|last5=Dawsond|first6=J. I.|last6=Svendsen|year=2005|title=The Storegga Slide tsunami – comparing field observations with numerical simulations|journal=[[Marine and Petroleum Geology]]|volume=22|issue=1–2|pages=195–208|bibcode=2005MarPG..22..195B }}</ref> It is estimated to have completely flooded the remainder of [[Doggerland]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27224243|title=Prehistoric North Sea 'Atlantis' hit by 5m tsunami|first=Paul|last=Rincon|date=1 May 2014|access-date=22 February 2017|publisher=BBC News}}</ref>
* Around 6370 BCE, a {{convert|25|km3|0|adj=on}} landslide on the eastern slope of [[Mount Etna]] in [[Sicily]] into the [[Mediterranean Sea]] triggered a megatsunami in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] with an initial wave height along the eastern coast of Sicily of {{convert|40|m|0}}. It struck the [[Neolithic]] village of [[Atlit Yam]] off the coast of [[Israel]] with a height of {{convert|2.5|m}}, prompting the village's abandonment.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Large submarine landslides offshore Mt. Etna |last1=Pareschi |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Boschi |first2=Enzo |last3=Favalli |first3=Mazzarini |last4=Francesco |first4=Massimiliano |date=1 July 2006 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=33 |issue=13 |publisher=Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 33, L13302 |doi=10.1029/2006GL026064 |bibcode=2006GeoRL..3313302P |s2cid=129699316 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Lost tsunami |last1=Pareschi |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Boschi |first2=Enzo |last3=Favalli |first3=Massimiliano |date=28 November 2006 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=33 |issue=22 |publisher=AGU |doi=10.1029/2006GL027790 |bibcode=2006GeoRL..3322608P |s2cid=226235815 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ciesm.org/news/mscience/12.htm |title=From the Etna to the Levantine shore – an ancient tsunami? |author=CISEM News |date=December 2006 |website=ciesm.org |publisher=CISEM: The Mediterranean Science Commission |access-date=28 October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Holocene tsunamis from Mount Etna and the fate of Israeli Neolithic communities |last1=Pareschi |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Boschi |first2=Enzo |last3=Favalli |first3=Massimiliano |date=30 August 2007 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=34 |issue=16 |publisher=AGU |doi=10.1029/2007GL030717 |bibcode=2007GeoRL..3416317P |s2cid=129407252 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0037073809002930 |title=Catastrophic event recorded among Holocene eolianites (Sidi Salem Formation, SE Tunisia) |last1=Frébourg |first1=Gregory |last2=Hasler |first2=Claude-Alain |last3=Davaud |first3=Eric |date=March 2010 |journal=Sedimentary Geology |volume=224 |issue=1–4 |pages=38–48 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.12.006 |bibcode=2010SedG..224...38F |access-date=28 October 2023 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* Around 5650 B.C., a landslide in [[Greenland]] created a megatsunami with a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height on [[Alluttoq Island]] of {{convert|41|to|66|m|0}}.<ref name=Korsgaardetal>{{cite journal |url=https://nhess.copernicus.org/preprints/nhess-2023-32/ |title=Giant mid-Holocene landslide-generated tsunamis recorded in lake sediments from Saqqaq, West Greenland |last1=Korsgaard |first1=Niels J. |last2=Svennevig |first2=Kristian |last3=Søndergaard |first3=Anne S. |last4=Luetzenburg |first4=Gregor |last5=Oksman |first5=Mimmi |last6=Larsen |first6=Nicolaj K. |date=13 March 2023 |website=copernicus.org |publisher=European Geosciences Union |doi=10.5194/nhess-24-757-2024 |doi-access=free |access-date=12 October 2023 }}</ref>
* Around 5350 B.C., a landslide in Greenland created a megatsunami with a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height on Alluttoq Island of {{convert|45|to|70|m|0}}.<ref name=Korsgaardetal/>

=== Historic ===

==== c. 2000 BC: Réunion ====
* A [[landslide]] on [[Réunion]] island, to the east of [[Madagascar]], may have caused a megatsunami.<ref name="Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/mega_tsunami.shtml|title=Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction|date=12 October 2000|publisher=[[BBC Two]]}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=Source reference citation states "Scientists now realise that the greatest danger comes from large volcanic islands, which are particularly prone to these massive landslides. Geologists began to look for evidence of past landslides on the sea bed, and what they saw astonished them. The sea floor around Hawaii, for instance, was covered with the remains of millions of years' worth of ancient landslides, colossal in size. But huge landslides and the mega-tsunami that they cause are extremely rare – the last one happened 4,000 years ago on the island of Réunion." This is incorrect because even this Wikipedia article lists more recent volcanic island collapses causing megatsunamis e.g. Mount Unzen (1792), Krakatoa (1883), Ritter Island (1888) and Mt St Helens (1980).|date=June 2023}}

==== c. 1600 BC: Santorini ====
{{Main|Minoan eruption}}
* The [[Thera]] volcano erupted, the force of the eruption causing megatsunamis which affected the whole [[Aegean Sea]] and the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]].

==== c. 1100 BC: Lake Crescent ====
* An earthquake generated the {{convert|7200000|m3|cuyd|adj=on}} Sledgehammer Point Rockslide, which fell from [[Mount Storm King]] in what is now [[Washington (state)|Washington]] in the United States and entered waters at least {{convert|140|m|0}} deep in [[Lake Crescent]], generating a megatsunami with an estimated maximum [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|82|to|104|m|0}}.<ref name=chehalis2007>{{Cite web |url=https://hazmapper.org/2021/01/12/hazblog-007-landslide-generated-tsunami-the-2007-chehalis-lake-b-c-canada-example/ |title=HazBlog-007: Landslide generated tsunami – the 2007 Chehalis Lake, B.C. Canada Example |last=Wegmann |first=Karl |date=12 January 2021 |website=hazmapper.org|access-date=16 November 2024}}</ref>

=== Modern ===

==== 1674: Ambon Island, Banda Sea ====
{{Main|1674 Ambon earthquake and megatsunami}}
On  17 February 1674, between 19:30 and 20:00 local time, an earthquake struck the Maluku Islands. Ambon Island received [[Wave run-up|run-up]] heights of {{convert|100|m|0}}, making the wave far too large to be caused by the quake itself. Instead, it was probably the result of an underwater landslide triggered by the earthquake. The quake and tsunami killed 2,347 people.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The 1674 Ambon Tsunami: Extreme Run-up Caused by an Earthquake-Triggered Landslide |year=2020 |doi=10.1007/s00024-019-02390-2 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00024-019-02390-2 |last1=Pranantyo |first1=Ignatius Ryan |last2=Cummins |first2=Phil R. |journal=Pure and Applied Geophysics |volume=177 |issue=3 |pages=1639–1657 |hdl=1885/219284 |s2cid=212731869 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==== 1731: Storfjorden, Norway====
At 10:00&nbsp;p.m. on 8 January 1731, a [[landslide]] with a volume of possibly {{convert|6000000|m3|cuyd}} fell from the mountain Skafjell from a height of {{convert|500|m|ft|sigfig=3}} into the [[Storfjorden (Sunnmøre)|Storfjorden]] opposite [[Stranda, Møre og Romsdal|Stranda]], [[Norway]]. The slide generated a megatsunami {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}} in height that struck Stranda, flooding the area for {{convert|100|m|ft}} inland and destroying the church and all but two [[boathouse]]s, as well as many boats. Damaging waves struck as far away as [[Sjøholt|Ørskog]]. The waves killed 17 people.<ref>[https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-skafjell/ Hoel, Christer, "The Skafjell Rock Avalanche in 1731," fjords.com Retrieved 23 June 2020]</ref>

==== 1741: Oshima-Ōshima, Sea of Japan ====
{{Main|1741 eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami}}
An eruption of Oshima-Ōshima occurred that lasted from  18 August 1741 to 1 May 1742. On 29 August 1741, a devastating tsunami occurred.<ref name="Significant Volcanic Eruption">{{cite web |title=Significant Volcanic Eruption |url=https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/hazel/view/hazards/volcano/event-more-info/2673 |website=NGDC NCEI |access-date=30 March 2021}}</ref> It killed at least 1,467 people along a {{convert|120|km|0|adj=on}} section of the coast, excluding native residents whose deaths were not recorded. Wave heights for Gankakezawa have been estimated at {{convert|34|m|0}} based on oral histories, while an estimate of {{convert|13|m}} is derived from written records. At Sado Island, over {{convert|350|km|mi nmi|0}} away, a wave height of {{convert|2|to|5|m}} has been estimated based on descriptions of the damage, while oral records suggest a height of {{convert|8|m|0}}. Wave heights have been estimated at {{convert|3|to|4|m}} even as far away as the [[Korean Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Satake |first=Kenji |title=Volcanic origin of the 1741 Oshima-Oshima tsunami in the Japan Sea |journal=Earth, Planets and Space |date=2007 |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=381–390 |doi=10.1186/BF03352698 |bibcode=2007EP&S...59..381S |url=https://earth-planets-space.springeropen.com/counter/pdf/10.1186/BF03352698.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref> There is still no consensus in the debate as to what caused it but much evidence points to a landslide and debris avalanche along the flank of the volcano. An alternative hypothesis holds that an earthquake caused the tsunami.<ref name="Sang Oh">{{cite journal |author1=Im Sang Oh |author2=Alexander B. Rabinovich |title=Manifestation of Hokkaido Southwest (Okushiri) Tsunami, 12 July, 1993, at the Coast of Korea: Statistsl Characteristics Spectul Analysis, and Energy Decay|journal=The International Journal of the Tsunami Society |date=1994 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=93–116 |url=https://library.lanl.gov/tsunami/00394725.pdf |access-date=30 March 2021 |location=Seoul National University |issn=0736-5306}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Katsui, Yoshio |author2=Yamamoto, Masatsugu |title=The 1741–1742 Activity of Oshima-Ōshima Volcano, North Japan |journal=Journal of the Faculty of Science, Geology and Mineralogy |date=1981 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=527–536 |url=https://eprints.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2115/36702/1/19_4_p527-536.pdf |access-date=30 March 2021 |publisher=Hokkaido University |location=Japan}}</ref><ref name="Survey Study Group on Large-Scale Earthquakes in the Sea of Japan report">{{cite web |script-title=ja:日本海における大規模地震に関する調査検討会 報告書 |url=https://www.mlit.go.jp/river/shinngikai_blog/daikibojishinchousa/dai08kai/sanko1.pdf |website=Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism |access-date=30 March 2021 |date=August 2014 |language=ja}}</ref><ref name="Abe">{{cite journal |last1=Abe |first1=Katsuyuki |title=Quantification of tsunamigenic earthquakes by the Mt scale |journal=Tectonophysics |date=1989 |volume=166 |issue=1–3 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.1016/0040-1951(89)90202-3 |bibcode=1989Tectp.166...27A |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0040195189902023 |access-date=30 March 2021 |issn=0040-1951|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The event reduced the elevation of the peak of Hishiyama from {{convert|850|to|722|m|0}}. An estimated {{convert|2.4|km3|cumi|adj=on}} section of the volcano collapsed onto the [[Sea bed|seafloor]] north of the island; the collapse was similar in size to the {{convert|2.3|km3|cumi|adj=on}} collapse which occurred during the [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens]].<ref name="Satake01">{{cite journal |author1=Kenji Satake |author2=Yukihiro Kato |title=The 1741 Oshima-Oshima Eruption: Extent and volume of submarine debris avalanche |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=1 February 2001 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=427–430 |doi=10.1029/2000GL012175 |bibcode=2001GeoRL..28..427S |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== 1756: Langfjorden, Norway====
Just before 8:00&nbsp;p.m. on  22 February 1756, a landslide with a volume of {{convert|12000000|to|15,000,000|m3|cuyd}} travelled at high speed from a height of {{convert|400|m|ft}} on the side of the mountain Tjellafjellet into the [[Langfjorden (Møre og Romsdal)|Langfjorden]] about {{convert|1|km|mi|1}} west of Tjelle, Norway, between Tjelle and Gramsgrø. The slide generated three megatsunamis in the Langfjorden and the [[Eresfjorden]] with heights of {{convert|40|to|50|m|ft}}. The waves flooded the shore for {{convert|200|m|ft|sigfig=2}} inland in some areas, destroying farms and other inhabited areas. Damaging waves struck as far away as [[Veøya]], {{convert|25|km|mi|0}} from the landslide – where they washed inland {{convert|20|m|ft}} above normal flood levels – and [[Gjermundnes]], {{convert|40|km|mi|0}} from the slide. The waves killed 32 people and destroyed 168 buildings, 196 boats, large amounts of forest, and roads and boat landings.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-tjelle/ |title=Hoel, Christer, 'The Tjelle Rock Avalanche in 1756,' fjords.com Retrieved 22 June 2020 |access-date=23 June 2020 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804005621/https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-tjelle/ }}</ref>

==== 1792: Mount Unzen, Japan ====
{{main|1792 Unzen landslide and tsunami}}
On  21 May 1792, a flank of the Mayamaya dome of [[Mount Unzen]] collapsed after two large earthquakes. This had been preceded by a series of earthquakes coming from the mountain, beginning near the end of 1791. Initial wave heights were {{convert|100|m|sigfig=2}}, but when they hit the other side of Ariake Bay, they were only {{convert|10|to|20|m|0}} in height, though one location received {{convert|57|m|0|adj=on}} waves due to [[Seabed|seafloor]] [[topography]]. The waves bounced back to Shimabara, which, when they hit, accounted for about half of the tsunami's victims. According to estimates, 10,000 people were killed by the tsunami, and a further 5,000 were killed by the landslide. As of 2011, it was the deadliest known volcanic event in Japan.
==== 1853–1854: Lituya Bay, Alaska ====
Sometime between August 1853 and May 1854, a megatsunami occurred in [[Lituya Bay]] in what was then [[Russian America]]. Studies of Lituya Bay between 1948 and 1953 first identified the event, which probably occurred because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay near Mudslide Creek. The wave had a maximum [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|120|m|ft|0}}, flooding the coast of the bay up to {{convert|750|ft|m|order=flip}} inland.<ref>Lander, pp. 39–41.</ref>

==== 1874: Lituya Bay, Alaska ====
A study of Lituya Bay in 1953 concluded that sometime around 1874, perhaps in May 1874, another megatsunami occurred in [[Lituya Bay]] in [[Alaska]]. Probably occurring because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay in the Mudslide Creek Valley, the wave had a maximum [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|80|ft|m|0|order=flip}}, flooding the coast of the bay up to {{convert|2100|ft|m|0|order=flip}} inland.<ref>Lander, pp. 44–45.</ref>

==== 1883: Krakatoa, Sunda Strait ====
{{main|1883 eruption of Krakatoa#Tsunamis and distant effects}}
The massive explosion of [[Krakatoa]] created [[pyroclastic flow]]s which generated megatsunamis when they hit the waters of the [[Sunda Strait]] on 27 August 1883. The waves reached heights of up to 24 metres (79 feet) along the south coast of [[Sumatra]] and up to 42 metres (138 feet) along the west coast of [[Java]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=tOkpBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 Bryant, Edward, ''Tsunami: The Underrated Hazard'', Springer: New York, 2014], {{ISBN|978-3-319-06132-0}}, pp. 162–163.</ref> The tsunamis were powerful enough to kill over 30,000 people, and their effect was such that an area of land in [[Banten]] had its human settlements wiped out, and they never repopulated. (This area rewilded and was later declared a national park.) The [[steamship]] ''Berouw'', a colonial [[gunboat]], was flung over a mile (1.6&nbsp;km) inland on Sumatra by the wave, killing its entire crew. Two thirds of the island collapsed into the sea after the event.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Volcanoes Work – Krakatau, Indonesia 1883 |url=http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Krakatau.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813123615/http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/Krakatau.html |archive-date=13 August 2008 }}</ref> Groups of human skeletons were found floating on pumice numerous times, up to a year after the event.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Krakatoa: The Day The World Exploded, August 27, 1883 |isbn=978-0-670-91430-2 |last1=Winchester |first1=Simon |year=2003 |publisher=Viking }}</ref> The eruption also generated what is often called the loudest sound in history, which was heard {{convert|4800|km|mi nmi|sigfig=2}} away on [[Rodrigues]] in the [[Indian Ocean]].

==== 1905: Lovatnet, Norway ====
On 15 January 1905, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of {{convert|350000|m3|cuyd}} fell from a height of {{convert|500|m|ft}} into the southern end of the lake [[Lovatnet]] in Norway, generating three megatsunamis of up to {{convert|40.5|m|ft|0}} in height. The waves destroyed the villages of Bødal and Nesdal near the southern end of the lake, killing 61 people – half their combined population – and 261 farm animals and destroying 60 houses, all the local [[boathouse]]s, and 70 to 80 boats, one of which – the tourist boat ''Lodalen'' – was thrown {{convert|300|m|ft|sigfig=1}} inland by the last wave and wrecked. At the northern end of the {{convert|11.7|km|mi|1|adj=on}} long lake, a wave measured at almost {{convert|6|m|ft|0}} destroyed a bridge.<ref name=loen>[https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-loen/ Hoel, Christer, "The Loen Accidents in 1905 and 1936," fjords.com Retrieved 22 June 2020]</ref>

==== 1905: Disenchantment Bay, Alaska ====
On 4 July 1905, an overhanging glacier – since known as the Fallen Glacier – broke loose, slid out of its valley, and fell {{convert|1000|ft|m|sigfig=1|order=flip}} down a steep slope into [[Disenchantment Bay]] in [[Alaska]], clearing vegetation along a path {{convert|0.5|mi|km|1|order=flip}} wide. When it entered the water, it generated a megatsunami which broke tree branches {{convert|110|ft|m|0|order=flip}} above ground level {{convert|0.5|mi|km|1|order=flip}} away. The wave killed vegetation to a height of {{convert|65|ft|m|0|order=flip}} at a distance of {{convert|3|mi|km|0|order=flip}} from the landslide, and it reached heights of {{convert|50|to|115|ft|m|0|order=flip}} at different locations on the coast of [[Haenke Island]]. At a distance of {{convert|15|mi|km|0|order=flip}} from the slide, observers at [[Russell Fjord]] reported a series of large waves that caused the water level to rise and fall {{convert|15|to|20|ft|m|0|order=flip}} for a half-hour.<ref>Lander, p. 57.</ref>

==== 1934: Tafjorden, Norway ====
On 7 April 1934, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Langhamaren with a volume of {{convert|3000000|m3|cuyd}} fell from a height of about {{convert|730|m|ft|0}} into the [[Tafjorden]] in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the last and largest of which reached a height of between {{convert|62|and|63.5|m|ft|0}} on the opposite shore. Large waves struck [[Tafjord]] and Fjørå. At Tafjord, the last and largest wave was {{convert|17|m|ft|0}} tall and struck at an estimated speed of {{convert|160|kph|mph|sigfig=1}}, flooding the town for {{convert|300|m|yd|0}} inland and killing 23 people. At Fjørå, waves reached {{convert|13|m|ft|0}}, destroyed buildings, removed all soil, and killed 17 people. Damaging waves struck as far as {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} away, and waves were detected at a distance of {{convert|100|km|mi|0}} from the landslide. One survivor suffered serious injuries requiring hospitalization.<ref>[https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-tafjord/ Hoel, Christer, "The Tafjord Accident in 1934," fjords.com Retrieved 22 June 2020]</ref>

==== 1936: Lovatnet, Norway ====
On 13 September 1936, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of {{convert|1000000|m3|cuyd}} fell from a height of {{convert|800|m|ft|sigfig=1}} into the southern end of the lake [[Lovatnet]] in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the largest of which reached a height of {{convert|74|m|ft|0}}. The waves destroyed all farms at Bødal and most farms at Nesdal – completely washing away 16 farms – as well as 100 houses, bridges, a [[power station]], a [[workshop]], a [[sawmill]], several [[grain mill]]s, a restaurant, a schoolhouse, and all boats on the lake. A {{convert|12.6|m|ft|0|adj=on}} wave struck the southern end of the {{convert|11.7|km|mi|1|adj=on}} long lake and caused damaging flooding in the Loelva River, the lake's northern outlet. The waves killed 74 people and severely injured 11.<ref name=loen/>

==== 1936: Lituya Bay, Alaska ====
On 27 October 1936, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska with a maximum [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|490|ft|m|order=flip}} in Crillon Inlet at the head of the bay. The four eyewitnesses to the wave in Lituya Bay itself all survived and described it as between {{convert|100|and|250|ft|m|order=flip}} high. The maximum inundation distance was {{convert|2000|ft|m|order=flip}} inland along the north shore of the bay. The cause of the megatsunami remains unclear, but may have been a submarine landslide.<ref>Lander, pp. 61–64.</ref>

==== 1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, US ====
{{Main|1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami|Lituya Bay}}
[[File:Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png|thumb|Damage from the [[1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami]] can be seen in this oblique aerial photograph of [[Lituya Bay]], Alaska as the lighter areas at the shore where trees have been stripped away. The red arrow shows the location of the landslide, and the yellow arrow shows the location of the high point of the wave sweeping over the headland.]]

On 9 July 1958, a giant landslide at the head of [[Lituya Bay]] in Alaska, caused by an earthquake, generated a wave that washed out trees to a maximum elevation of {{convert|520|m|ft}} at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet.<ref name="Mader">{{cite journal | url=http://library.lanl.gov/tsunami/ts205.pdf | title=Modeling the 1958 Lituya Bay Mega-Tsunami, II | last1 = Mader | first1 = Charles L. | last2 = Gittings | first2 = Michael L. | journal=Science of Tsunami Hazards | year=2002 | volume=20 | issue=5 | pages=241–250}}</ref>  The wave surged over the headland, stripping trees and soil down to bedrock, and surged along the [[fjord]] which forms Lituya Bay, destroying two fishing boats anchored there and killing two people.<ref name=Miller>{{cite journal|first=Don J.|last= Miller|title=Giant Waves in Lituya Bay, Alaska|journal=United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 354-C|year=1960 |pages=51–86 |doi=10.3133/pp354C |doi-access=free|bibcode= 1960usgs.rept....6M}}</ref> This was the highest wave of any kind ever recorded.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} The subsequent study of this event led to the establishment of the term "megatsunami," to distinguish it from ordinary tsunamis.{{citation needed|date=November 2021}}

==== 1963: Vajont Dam, Italy ====
{{Main|Vajont Dam}}
On 9 October 1963, a [[landslide]] above [[Vajont Dam]] in [[Italy]] produced a {{convert|250|m|ft|abbr=on}} surge that overtopped the dam and destroyed the villages of [[Longarone]], Pirago, Rivalta, Villanova, and Faè, killing nearly 2,000 people. This is currently the only known example of a megatsunami that was indirectly caused by human activities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/Dutch/VTrips/Vaiont.HTM |title=Vaiont Dam, Italy |access-date=29 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090729032357/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/projects/geoweb/participants/Dutch/VTrips/Vaiont.HTM |archive-date=29 July 2009 }} Vaiont Dam photos and virtual field trip (University of Wisconsin), retrieved 1 July 2009</ref>

==== 1964: Valdez Arm, Alaska ====
On 27 March 1964, the [[1964 Alaska earthquake]] triggered a [[landslide]] that generated a megatsunami which reached a height of {{convert|70|m|0}} in the Valdez Arm of [[Prince William Sound]] in [[Southcentral Alaska]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Christensen|first1=Doug|title=The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964|url=http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html|publisher=Alaska Earthquake Center|access-date=21 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706212449/http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html|archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref>

==== 1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, US ====
{{Main|Spirit Lake (Washington)|1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|Mount St. Helens}}
On 18 May 1980, the upper {{convert|400|m|ft}} of [[Mount St. Helens]] collapsed, creating a [[landslide]]. This released the pressure on the magma trapped beneath the summit bulge which exploded as a [[lateral eruption|lateral blast]], which then released the pressure on the magma chamber and resulted in a [[plinian eruption]].

One lobe of the avalanche surged onto [[Spirit Lake (Washington)|Spirit Lake]], causing a megatsunami which pushed the lake waters in a series of surges, which reached a maximum height of {{convert|260|m|ft}}<ref name=Voight>{{harvnb|Voight|Janda|Glicken|Douglass|1983}}</ref> above the pre-eruption water level (about {{cvt|975|m|ft}} ASL). Above the upper limit of the tsunami, trees lie where they were knocked down by the [[pyroclastic surge]]; below the limit, the fallen trees and the surge deposits were removed by the megatsunami and deposited in Spirit Lake.<ref>[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Projects/H2O+Volcanoes/Frozen/Geology/MSH/MSH.tsunami.html][[USGS]]<span> Website</span>. ''Geology of Interactions of Volcanoes, Snow, and Water: Tsunami on Spirit Lake early during 18 May 1980 eruption''</ref>

==== 2000: Paatuut, Greenland ====
On 21 November 2000, a landslide composed of {{convert|90000000|m3|cuyd}} of rock with a mass of 260,000,000 tons fell from an elevation of {{convert|1000|to|1,400|m|sigfig=2}} at Paatuut on the [[Nuussuaq Peninsula]] on the west coast of [[Greenland]], reaching a speed of {{convert|140|kph|0}}. About {{convert|30000000|m3|cuyd}} of material with a mass of 87,000,000 tons entered [[Sullorsuaq Strait]] (known in [[Danish language|Danish]] as Vaigat Strait), generating a megatsunami. The wave had a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|50|m|0}} near the landslide and {{convert|28|m|0}} at [[Qullissat]], the site of an abandoned settlement across the [[strait]] on [[Disko Island]], {{convert|20|km|nmi mi}} away, where it inundated the coast as far as {{convert|100|m|ft|0}} inland. Refracted energy from the tsunami created a wave that destroyed boats at the closest populated village, [[Saqqaq]], on the southwestern coast of the Nuussuaq Peninsula {{convert|40|km}} from the landslide.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/spr/nathaz/v31y2004i1p277-287.html |title=Landslide and Tsunami 21 November 2000 in Paatuut, West Greenland |last1=Dahl-Jensen |first1=Trine| last2=Larsen |first2=Lotte  |last3=Pedersen |first3=Stig |last4=Pedersen |first4=Jerrik |last5=Jepsen |first5=Hans |last6=Pedersen |first6=Gunver |last7=Nielsen |first7=Tove |last8=Pedersen |first8=Asger |last9=Von Platen-Hallermund |first9=Frants |last10=Weng |first10=Willy |date=2004 |website=repec.org |publisher=Ideas |access-date=14 October 2023 }}</ref>

==== 2007: Chehalis Lake, British Columbia, Canada ====
On 4 December 2007, a landslide composed of {{convert|3000000|m3|cuyd}} of rock and debris fell from an elevation of {{convert|550|m|0}} on the slope of Mount Orrock on the western short of [[Chehalis Lake]]. The landslide entered the {{convert|175|m|0|adj=on}} deep lake, generating a megatsunami with a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height of {{convert|37.8|m|0}} on the opposite shore and {{convert|6.3|m|0}} at the lake's exit point {{convert|7.5|km}} away to the south. The wave then continued down the [[Chehalis River (British Columbia)|Chehalis River]] for about {{convert|15|km}}.<ref name=chehalis2007/>

==== 2015: Taan Fiord, Alaska, US ====
[[File:Survey of megatsunami runup damage Taan Fiord 9 August 2016.PNG|thumb|On 9 August 2016, [[United States Geological Survey]] scientists survey [[Wave run-up|run-up]] damage from the 17 October 2015 megatsunami in Taan Fiord. Based on visible damage to trees that remained standing, they estimated [[Wave run-up|run-up]] heights in this area of {{convert|5|m|ft|1}}.]]
{{Main|Icy Bay (Alaska)}}

At 8:19&nbsp;p.m. [[Alaska Time|Alaska Daylight Time]] on 17 October 2015, the side of a mountain collapsed at the head of Taan Fiord, a finger of [[Icy Bay (Alaska)|Icy Bay]] in Alaska.<ref name=landslidepresentation>[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327474353_The_2015_landslide_and_tsunami_in_Taan_Fiord_Alaska researchgate.net "The 2015 Landslide and Tsunami in Taan Fiord, Alaska"]</ref><ref name=higman20180906>[https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-30475-w Higman, Bretwood, ''et al.'', "The 2015 landslide and tsunami in Taan Fiord, Alaska," nature.com, 6 September 2018 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref><ref name=npstaanfiord>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/taanfjord.htm nps.gov National Park Service, "Taan Fjord Landslide and Tsunami," nps.gov, Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref> Some of the resulting landslide came to rest on the toe of [[Tyndall Glacier (Alaska)|Tyndall Glacier]],<ref name=landslidepresentation/><ref name=rozell20160407>[https://www.gi.alaska.edu/alaska-science-forum/giant-wave-icy-bay Rozell, Ned, "The giant wave of Icy Bay," alaska.edu, 7 April 2016 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref> but about {{convert|180000000|ST|LT MT|sigfig=3|abbr=off}} of rock with a volume of about {{convert|50000000|m3|cuyd|sigfig=3}} fell into the [[fjord]].<ref name=npstaanfiord/><ref name=landslidepresentation/><ref name=underwood20190426>[https://eos.org/research-spotlights/study-of-alaskan-landslide-could-improve-tsunami-modeling Underwood, Emily, "Study of Alaskan Landslide Could Improve Tsunami Modeling," eos.org, 26 April 2019 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref><ref name=mooney20180906>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/energy-environment/2018/09/06/one-biggest-tsunamis-ever-recorded-was-set-off-three-years-ago-by-melting-glacier/ Mooney, Chris, "One of the biggest tsunamis ever recorded was set off three years ago by a melting glacier," washingtonpost.com, 6 September 2018 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref> The landslide generated a megatsunami with an initial height of about {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=off|sigfig=2}}<ref name=rozell20160407/><ref name=stolz20170317>[https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/landslide-alaska-taan-fjord-2015 Stolz, Kit, "Why Scientists Are Worried About a Landslide No One Saw or Heard," atlasobscura.com, 17 March 2017 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref> that struck the opposite shore of the fjord, with a [[Wave run-up|run-up]] height there of {{convert|193|m|ft|0|abbr=off}}.<ref name=landslidepresentation/><ref name=higman20180906/>

Over the next 12 minutes,<ref name=higman20180906/> the wave traveled down the fjord at a speed of up to {{convert|60|mph|kph|sigfig=2|order=flip}},<ref name=mooney20180906/> with run-up heights of over {{convert|100|m|ft|0|abbr=off|sigfig=2}} in the upper fjord to between {{convert|30|and|100|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=off}} or more in its middle section, and {{convert|20|m|ft|abbr=off}} or more at its mouth.<ref name=landslidepresentation/><ref name=higman20180906/> Still probably {{convert|40|ft|m|abbr=off|order=flip}} tall when it entered Icy Bay,<ref name=stolz20170317/> the tsunami inundated parts of Icy Bay's shoreline with run-ups of {{convert|4|to|5|m|ft|0|abbr=off}} before dissipating into insignificance at distances of {{convert|5|km|mi}} from the mouth of Taan Fiord,<ref name=higman20180906/> although the wave was detected {{convert|140|km|mi|0|abbr=off}} away.<ref name=landslidepresentation/>

Occurring in an uninhabited area, the event was unwitnessed, and several hours passed before the signature of the landslide was noticed on [[seismograph]]s at [[Columbia University]] in New York City.<ref name=higman20180906/><ref name=morford20151218>[https://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2015/12/18/detecting-landslides-from-a-few-seismic-wiggles/ Morford Stacy, "Detecting Landslides from a Few Seismic Wiggles," columbia.edu, 18 December 2015 Retrieved 16 June 2020]</ref>

==== 2017: Karrat Fjord, Greenland ====
On 17 June 2017, {{convert|35000000|to|58,000,000|m3|cuyd}} of rock on the mountain Ummiammakku fell from an elevation of roughly {{convert|1000|m|sigfig=3}} into the waters of the [[Karrat Fjord]]. The event was thought to be caused by melting ice that destabilised the rock. It registered as a magnitude 4.1 earthquake and created a {{convert|100|m|0|adj=on}} wave. The settlement of [[Nuugaatsiaq]], {{convert|32|km}} away, saw [[Wave run-up|run-up]] heights of {{convert|9|m}}. Eleven buildings were swept into the sea, four people died, and 170 residents of Nuugaatsiaq and [[Illorsuit]] were evacuated because of a danger of additional landslides and waves. The tsunami was noted at settlements as far as {{convert|100|km|0}} away.<ref>{{cite web| title=After recon trip, researchers say Greenland tsunami in June reached 300 feet high | url=http://www.ce.gatech.edu/news/after-recon-trip-researchers-say-greenland-tsunami-june-reached-300-feet-high | date=25 July 2017 | publisher=[[Georgia Institute of Technology]] | access-date=26 July 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Four missing after tsunami strikes Greenland coast|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40320629|access-date=18 June 2017|publisher=BBC News|date=18 June 2017}}</ref><ref name="independenttsunami">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/world-news/greenland-tsunami-leaves-four-people-missing-35839239.html|title=Greenland tsunami leaves four people missing|access-date=18 June 2017|work=[[Irish Independent]]|date=18 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=17 June 2017, Karrat Fjord, Greenland Landslide & Tsunami |url=http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2164&Itemid=3237 |publisher=International Tsunami Information Center |access-date=24 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://esurf.copernicus.org/articles/8/1021/2020/ |title=Evolution of events before and after the 17 June 2017 rock avalanche at Karrat Fjord, West Greenland – a multidisciplinary approach to detecting and locating unstable rock slopes in a remote Arctic area |last1=Svennevig |first1=Kristian| last2=Dahl-Jensen |first2=Trine |last3=Keiding |first3=Marie |last4=Boncori |first4=John Peter Merryman |last5=Larsen |first5=Tine B. |last6=Salehi |first6=Sara |last7=Solgaard |first7=Anne Munck |last8=Voss |first8=Peter H. |date=8 December 2020 |journal=Earth Surface Dynamics |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=1021–1038 |publisher=European Geosciences Union |doi=10.5194/esurf-8-1021-2020 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020ESuD....8.1021S |access-date=14 October 2023 }}</ref>

==== 2020: Elliot Creek, British Columbia, Canada ====
On 28 November 2020, unseasonably heavy rainfall triggered a [[landslide]] of {{cvt|18000000|m3|cuyd}} into a [[glacial lake]] at the head of Elliot Creek. The sudden displacement of water generated a {{cvt|100|m|ft|sigfig=2}} high megatsunami that cascaded down Elliot Creek and the [[Southgate River]] to the head of [[Bute Inlet]], covering a total distance of over {{cvt|60|km|mi}}. The event generated a [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 5.0 earthquake and destroyed over {{cvt|8.5|km|mi}} of [[salmon]] habitat along Elliot Creek.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Landslide caused by melting B.C. glacier created massive tsunami, destroyed salmon habitat: study |url=https://globalnews.ca/news/8723389/bc-glacier-landslide-study/ |access-date=3 April 2022 |agency=Global News |language=en-US}}</ref> The slope had been gradually weakened over time by the retreat of West Grenville Glacier, causing the weight distribution in this area to change.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bridge |first=Tyee |title=The Big Slide |url=https://hakai.org/the-big-slide/ |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=Hakai Institute |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=At a Melting Glacier, a Landslide, Then Tsunami, Signal Climate-Related Threat {{!}} Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory |url=https://lamont.columbia.edu/news/melting-glacier-landslide-then-tsunami-signal-climate-related-threat |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=lamont.columbia.edu |language=en}}</ref>

{{anchor|Dickson Fjord seiche}}
====2023: Dickson Fjord, Greenland====
{{Main|2023 Greenland landslide}}
On 16 September 2023 a large landslide originating {{cvt|300–400|m}} above sea level entered [[Dickson Fjord]], triggering a tsunami exceeding {{cvt|200|m}} in run-up. Run-up of {{cvt|60|m}} was observed along a {{cvt|10|km}} stretch of coast. There was no major damage and there were no casualties. The tsunami was followed by a [[seiche]] that lasted for a week.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carrillo-Ponce |first1=Angela |last2=Heimann |first2=Sebastian |last3=Petersen |first3=Gesa M. |last4=Walter |first4=Thomas R. |last5=Cesca |first5=Simone |last6=Dahm |first6=Torsten |title=The 16 September 2023 Greenland Megatsunami: Analysis and Modeling of the Source and a Week-Long, Monochromatic Seismic Signal |journal=The Seismic Record |date=2024 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=172–183 |doi=10.1785/0320240013|doi-access=free |bibcode=2024SeisR...4..172C }}</ref> The seiche produced a nine-day disturbance recorded by seismic instruments globally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gill |first1=Victoria |title=Mystery tremors were from massive nine-day tsunami |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cged3jd8llyo |access-date=16 September 2024 |publisher=BBC News |date=12 September 2024}}</ref>

==== 2025: Tracy Arm, Alaska ====
On 10 August 2025, a large landslide consisting of approximately {{cvt|100000000|m3|cuyd}} of material occurred near the terminus of South Sawyer Glacier in [[Tracy Arm]], a [[fjord]] in [[Southeast Alaska]]. A {{convert|470|to|500|m|abbr=off|adj=on|0}} [[Wave run-up|run-up]] occurred on the shore of Tracy Arm opposite the landslide and a run-up of at least {{convert|30|m|0}} took place at nearby Sawyer Island in Tracy Arm. At the mouth of Tracy Arm, waves estimated at {{convert|10|to|15|ft|0|order=flip}} in height struck Harbour Island, where water rose at least {{convert|25|ft}} above the high tide line. Tsunami waves of up to {{convert|36|cm}} reached a gauge {{convert|80|mi|0}} from the landslide at [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]], Alaska.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A likely large, tsunamigenic landslide in Tracy Arm inlet, Alaska on 10 August 2025|url=https://eos.org/thelandslideblog/tracy-arm-1|last=Petley |first=Dave |publisher=Eos|date=11 August 2025|access-date=23 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2025-08-12 |title=Major Landslide in Southeast Alaska Fjord |url=https://earthquake.alaska.edu/major-landslide-southeast-alaska-fjord |access-date=12 August 2025 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=2025 Tracy Arm Landslide-Generated Tsunami {{!}} U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/programs/landslide-hazards/science/2025-tracy-arm-landslide-generated-tsunami |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=www.usgs.gov |language=en}}</ref> According to the Alaska Earthquake Center, the event had a magnitude of {{Earthquake magnitude|w}}5.4.<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 10, 2025 |title=M 5.4 Landslide - 44 km NNE of Hobart Bay, Alaska |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eventpage/ak025a7d7cil/executive |access-date=2025-08-15 |website=earthquake.usgs.gov}}</ref>

== Potential future megatsunamis ==
In a BBC television documentary broadcast in 2000, experts said that they thought that a landslide on a volcanic ocean island is the most likely future cause of a megatsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/mega_tsunami_transcript.shtml|title=Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction|work=Transcript|publisher=BBC Two television programme, first broadcast|date=12 October 2000}}</ref> The size and power of a wave generated by such means could produce devastating effects, travelling across oceans and inundating up to {{convert|25|km|0}} inland from the coast. This research was later found to be flawed.<ref name=MegatsunamiStudyFlawed/> The documentary was produced before the experts' scientific paper was published and before responses were given by other geologists. There have been megatsunamis in the past,<ref name=PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami/> and future megatsunamis are possible but current geological consensus is that these are only local. A megatsunami in the Canary Islands would diminish to a normal tsunami by the time it reached the continents.<ref name=LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation/> Also, the current consensus for La Palma is that the region conjectured to collapse is too small and too geologically stable to do so in the next 10,000 years, although there is evidence for past megatsunamis local to the Canary Islands thousands of years ago. Similar remarks apply to the suggestion of a megatsunami in Hawaii.<ref name=NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami/>

=== British Columbia ===
Some geologists consider an unstable rock face at [[Mount Breakenridge]], above the north end of the giant fresh-water fjord of [[Harrison Lake]] in the [[Fraser Valley]] of southwestern [[British Columbia]], Canada, to be unstable enough to collapse into the lake, generating a megatsunami that might destroy the town of [[Harrison Hot Springs]] (located at its south end).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/ffip/Evans_SG1994.pdf|title=Landslides in the Vancouver-Fraser Valley-Whistler region|last=Evans|first=S.G.|author2=Savigny, K.W.|year=1994|work=Geological Survey of Canada|publisher=Ministry of Forests, Province of British Columbia|pages=36 p|access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref>

=== Canary Islands ===
{{Main|Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard}}
{{See also|Cumbre Vieja#Potential megatsunami}}
Geologists Dr. Simon Day and Dr. Steven Neal Ward consider that a megatsunami could be generated during an eruption of [[Cumbre Vieja]] on the volcanic ocean island of [[La Palma]], in the [[Canary Islands]], Spain.<ref name="Day et al.">{{harvnb|Day|Carracedo|Guillou|Gravestock|1999}}</ref><ref name="Ward and Day">{{harvnb|Ward|Day|2001}}</ref> Day and Ward hypothesize<ref name="Day et al." /><ref name="Ward and Day" /> that if such an eruption causes the western flank to fail, a megatsunami could be generated.

In 1949, an eruption occurred at three of the volcano's vents{{snd}}Duraznero, Hoyo Negro, and Llano del Banco. A local geologist, Juan Bonelli-Rubio, witnessed the eruption and recorded details on various phenomenon related to the eruption. Bonelli-Rubio visited the summit area of the volcano and found that a fissure about {{convert|2.5|km|mi}} long had opened on the east side of the summit. As a result, the western half of the volcano{{snd}}which is the volcanically active arm of a triple-armed rift{{snd}}had slipped approximately {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=1}} downwards and {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1}} westwards towards the [[Atlantic Ocean]].<ref>Bonelli-Rubio, J. M. (1950). Contribucion al estudio de la erupcion del Nambroque o San Juan. Madrid: Inst. Geografico y Catastral, 25 pp.</ref>

In 1971, an eruption occurred at the [[Teneguía]] vent at the southern end of the [[subaerial|sub-aerial]] section of the volcano without any movement. The section affected by the 1949 eruption is currently stationary and does not appear to have moved since the initial rupture.<ref>As per Bonelli Rubio</ref>

Cumbre Vieja remained dormant until an [[2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption|eruption began on 19 September 2021]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Jones|first=Sam|date=19 September 2021|title=Spanish Canary Island volcano erupts after weeks of earthquakes|language=en|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/19/spanish-canary-island-volcano-erupts-after-weeks-of-earthquakes}}</ref>

It is likely that several eruptions would be required before failure would occur on Cumbre Vieja.<ref name="Day et al." /><ref name="Ward and Day" /> The western half of the volcano has an approximate volume of {{convert|500|km3|cumi}} and an estimated mass of {{convert|1.5|e12MT|ST}}. If it were to catastrophically slide into the ocean, it could generate a wave with an initial height of about {{convert|1000|m}} at the island, and a likely height of around {{convert|50|m|ft|sigfig=1}} at the [[Caribbean]] and the Eastern [[North America]]n seaboard when it runs ashore eight or more hours later. Tens of millions of lives could be lost in the cities and/or towns of [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Boston]], [[New York City|New York]], [[Baltimore]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Miami]], [[Havana]] and the rest of the eastern coasts of the United States and Canada, as well as many other cities on the Atlantic coast in Europe, South America and Africa.<ref name="Day et al." /><ref name="Ward and Day" /> The likelihood of this happening is a matter of vigorous debate.<ref name="Pararas-Carayannis">{{harvnb|Pararas-Carayannis|2002}}</ref>{{Update inline|reason=Is this still true 19 years after publication of the cited source reference?|?=yes|date=October 2021}}

Geologists and [[volcanologist]]s are in general agreement that the initial study was flawed. The current geology does not suggest that a collapse is imminent. Indeed, it seems to be geologically impossible right now{{snd}}the region conjectured as prone to collapse is too small and too stable to collapse within the next 10,000 years.<ref name=MegatsunamiStudyFlawed>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/09/060920192823.htm|title=New Research Puts 'Killer La Palma Tsunami' At Distant Future|publisher=Science Daily, based on materials from the Delft University of Technology|date=21 September 2006}}</ref> A closer study of deposits left in the ocean from previous landslides suggests that a landslide would likely occur as a series of smaller collapses rather than a single landslide. A megatsunami does seem possible locally in the distant future as there is geological evidence from past deposits suggesting that a megatsunami occurred with marine material deposited {{convert|41|to|188|m|ft|0}} above sea level between 32,000 and 1.75 million years ago.<ref name=PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami>{{cite journal|last1=Pérez-Torrado|first1=FJ|last2=Paris|first2=R|last3=Cabrera|first3=MC|last4=Schneider|first4=J-L|last5=Wassmer|first5=P|last6=Carracedo|first6=JC|last7=Rodríguez-Santana|first7=A|last8=Santana|first8=F|year=2006|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_url?url=http://www.academia.edu/download/46082254/j.margeo.2005.11.00820160530-19206-1rdt4r3.pdf&hl=en&sa=T&oi=gsb-gga&ct=res&cd=0&d=8226638742047341218&ei=lXU2W4XnOcqUmgHQv7QI&scisig=AAGBfm35w-vFbGatfP2kAiTY9LGqIpSZsw|title=Tsunami deposits related to flank collapse in oceanic volcanoes: The Agaete Valley evidence, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands|journal=Marine Geol|volume=227|issue=1–2 |pages=135–149|doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2005.11.008 |bibcode=2006MGeol.227..135P |hdl=10553/46254 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> This seems to have been local to Gran Canaria.

Day and Ward have admitted that their original analysis of the danger was based on several worst case assumptions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm|title=Tidal wave threat 'over-hyped'|publisher=BBC News|author=Ali Ayres|date=29 October 2004|access-date=30 December 2004|archive-date=24 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192613/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm}}</ref>{{sfn|Pararas-Carayannis|2002}} A 2008 study examined this scenario and concluded that while it could cause a megatsunami, it would be local to the Canary Islands and would diminish in height, becoming a smaller tsunami by the time it reached the continents as the waves interfered and spread across the oceans.<ref name=LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation>{{cite journal|last1=Løvholt|first1=F.|last2=Pedersen|first2=G.|last3=Gisler|first3=G.|year=2008|title=Oceanic propagation of a potential tsunami from the La Palma Island|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans|volume=113|issue=C9|article-number=C09026|doi=10.1029/2007JC004603|bibcode=2008JGRC..113.9026L}}</ref>

=== Hawaii ===
Sharp cliffs and associated ocean debris at the [[Kohala (mountain)|Kohala Volcano]], [[Lanai]] and [[Molokai]] indicate that landslides from the flank of the [[Kilauea]] and [[Mauna Loa]] volcanoes in [[Hawaii]] may have triggered past megatsunamis, most recently at 120,000 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{cite journal |author1=McMurtry, Gary M. |author2=Fryer, Gerard J. |author3=Tappin, David R. |author4=Wilkinson, Ian P. |author5=Williams, Mark |author6=Fietzke, Jan |author7=Garbe-Schoenberg, Dieter |date=1 September 2004 |title=Megatsunami deposits on Kohala volcano, Hawaii, from flank collapse of Mauna Loa |journal=Geology |volume=32 |issue=9 |page=741 |doi=10.1130/G20642.1 |url=http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/full/32/9/741|bibcode = 2004Geo....32..741M |last8=Watts |first8=Philip }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/SOEST_News/PressReleases/Megatsunami/ |title=A Gigantic Tsunami in the Hawaiian Islands 120,000 Years Ago|first1=Gary M. |last1=McMurtry |first2=Gerard J. |last2=Fryer |first3=David R.|last3=Tappin|first4=Ian P.|last4=Wilkinson|first5=Mark|last5=Williams|first6=Jan|last6=Fietzke|first7=Dieter|last7=Garbe-Schoenberg|first8=Philip|last8=Watts|date=1 September 2004|work=Geology |volume=32|publisher=SOEST Press Releases|access-date=20 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=McMurtry, G. M. |author2=Tappin, D. R. |author3=Fryer, G. J. |author4=Watts, P. |date=December 2002 |title=Megatsunami Deposits on the Island of Hawaii: Implications for the Origin of Similar Deposits in Hawaii and Confirmation of the 'Giant Wave Hypothesis' |journal=AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts |volume=51 |pages=OS51A–0148 |bibcode=2002AGUFMOS51A0148M }}</ref> A tsunami event is also possible, with the tsunami potentially reaching up to about {{convert|1|km|ft}} in height.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/environment/041214_tsunami_mega.html|title=The Megatsunami: Possible Modern Threat |last=Britt|first=Robert Roy|date=14 December 2004|publisher=LiveScience|access-date=20 December 2008}}</ref> According to the documentary ''National Geographic's Ultimate Disaster: Tsunami'', if a big landslide occurred at Mauna Loa or the [[Hilina Slump]], a {{convert|30|m|ft|adj=on}} tsunami would take only thirty minutes to reach [[Honolulu]]. There, hundreds of thousands of people could be killed as the tsunami could level Honolulu and travel {{convert|25|km|mi}} inland. Also, the West Coast of America and the entire Pacific Rim could potentially be affected.

Other research suggests that such a single large landslide is not likely. Instead, it would collapse as a series of smaller landslides.{{sfn|Pararas-Carayannis|2002}}

In 2018, shortly after the beginning of the [[2018 lower Puna eruption]], a [[National Geographic]] article responded to such claims with "Will a monstrous landslide off the side of Kilauea trigger a monster tsunami bound for California? Short answer: No."<ref name=NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami>{{cite web|url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/05/kilauea-volcano-tsunami-explosive-hawaii-myths-explained-science/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517205733/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/05/kilauea-volcano-tsunami-explosive-hawaii-myths-explained-science/|archive-date=17 May 2018|title=No, Hawaii's Volcano Won't Trigger a Mega-Tsunami|publisher=National Geographic|author=Sarah Gibbons|date=17 May 2018}}</ref>

In the same article, geologist [[Mika McKinnon]] stated:<ref name=NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami/>

{{blockquote|there are submarine landslides, and submarine landslides do trigger tsunamis, but these are really small, localized tsunamis. They don't produce tsunamis that move across the ocean. In all likelihood, it wouldn't even impact the other Hawaiian islands.}}

Another volcanologist, [[Janine Krippner]], added:<ref name=NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami/>

{{blockquote|People are worried about the catastrophic crashing of the volcano into the ocean. There's no evidence that this will happen. It is slowly{{snd}}really slowly{{snd}}moving toward the ocean, but it's been happening for a very long time.}}

Despite this, evidence suggests that catastrophic collapses do occur on Hawaiian volcanoes and generate local tsunamis.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami2/deposits/downloads/posters/fryer05worksmall.pdf|title=Megatsunami Deposits vs. High-stand Deposits in Hawaiʻi|publisher=Department of Earth and Space Sciences, [[University of Washington]]|work=NSF Tsunami Deposits Workshop|date= 12–15 June 2005|first1=G.J.|last1=Fryer|first2=G.M.|last2=McMurtry}}</ref>

=== Norway ===

Although known earlier to the local population, a crack {{convert|2|m|ft|1}} wide and {{convert|500|m|ft|sigfig=3}} in length in the side of the mountain [[Åkerneset]] in [[Norway]] was rediscovered in 1983 and attracted scientific attention. Located at (62°10'52.28"N, 6°59'35.38"E), it since has widened at a rate of {{convert|4|cm|in|1}} per year. [[Geology|Geological]] analysis has revealed that a slab of rock {{convert|62|m|ft|0}} thick and at an elevation stretching from {{convert|150|to|900|m|ft|sigfig=2|0}} is in motion. Geologists assess that an eventual catastrophic collapse of {{convert|18000000|to|54,000,000|m3|cuyd}} of rock into [[Sunnylvsfjorden]] is inevitable and could generate megatsunamis of {{convert|35|to|100|m|ft|0}} in height on the [[fjord]]′s opposite shore. The waves are expected to strike [[Hellesylt]] with a height of {{convert|35|to|85|m|ft|0}}, [[Geiranger]] with a height of {{convert|30|to|70|m|ft|0}}, [[Tafjord]] with a height of {{convert|14|m|ft|0}}, and many other communities in Norway's [[Sunnmøre]] district with a height of several metres, and to be noticeable even at [[Ålesund]]. The predicted disaster is depicted in the 2015 Norwegian film ''[[The Wave (2015 film)|The Wave]]''.<ref>[https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-akerneset/ Hole, Christer, "The Åkerneset Rock Avalanche," fjords.com Retrieved 23 June 2020]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]]
* [[List of tsunamis]]
* [[Teletsunami]]
* [[Tsunamis in lakes]]
* [[Volcanic tsunami]]

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00101-8 |last1=Day |first1=S.J. |last2=Carracedo |first2=J.C. |last3=Guillou |first3=H. |last4=Gravestock |first4=P. |title=Recent structural evolution of the Cumbre Vieja volcano, La Palma, Canary Islands: volcanic rift zone re-configuration as a precursor to flank instability |journal=J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. |volume=94 |issue= 1–4|pages=135–167 |year=1999 |bibcode = 1999JVGR...94..135D |url=http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~andyf/LaPalma/Rift%20Zone.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.544.8128 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20200701032237/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/340d/2ad7dc7666d4d39fe453268250bf40ead727.pdf Lander, James F. ''Tsunamis Affecting Alaska 1737–1996''. Boulder, Colorado: NOAA National Geophysical Data Center, September 1996.]
* {{cite journal |last=Pararas-Carayannis |first=G. |title=Evaluation of the Threat of Mega Tsunami Generation from Postulated Massive Slope Failure of Island Stratovolcanoes on La Palma, Canary Islands, and on The Island of Hawaii, George |journal=Science of Tsunami Hazards |volume=20 |issue=5 |pages=251–277 |year=2002 |url=http://tsunamisociety.org/STHVol20N5Y2002.pdf }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Voight |first1=B. |last2=Janda |first2=R. |last3=Glicken |first3=H. |author-link3=Harry Glicken|last4=Douglass |first4=P.M. |title=Nature and mechanics of the Mount St Helens rockslide-avalanche of 18 May 190 |journal=Géotechnique |volume=33 |issue=10 |pages=243–273 |year=1983 |doi=10.1680/geot.1983.33.3.243 |bibcode=1983Getq...33..243V }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=S.N. |last2=Day |first2=S. |title=Cumbre Vieja Volcano – Potential collapse and tsunami at La Palma, Canary Islands |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |volume=28 |issue=17 |pages=3397–3400 |year=2001 |doi=10.1029/2001GL013110 |url=http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~ward/papers/La_Palma_grl.pdf |bibcode=2001GeoRL..28.3397W |doi-access=free }}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Bonelli Rubio |first=J.M. |year=1950 |title=Contribucion al estudio de la erupcion del Nambroque o San Juan |location=Madrid |publisher=Inst. Geografico y Catastral}}
* BBC 2 TV; 2000. Transcript "Mega-tsunami; Wave of Destruction", Horizon. First screened 21.30 hrs, Thursday, 12 October 2000.
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1016/0377-0273(94)90053-1 |author=Carracedo, J.C. |title=The Canary Islands: an example of structural control on the growth of large oceanic-island volcanoes |journal=J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. |volume=60 |issue= 3–4|pages=225–241 |year=1994 |bibcode = 1994JVGR...60..225C }}
* {{cite book |last=Carracedo|first=J.C. |chapter=A simple model for the genesis of large gravitational landslide hazards in the Canary Islands |editor1=McGuire, W |editor2=Jones |editor3=Neuberg, J.P. |title=Volcano Instability on the Earth and Other Planets |publisher=Geological Society |location=London |year=1996 |pages=125–135 |volume=110 |series=Special Publication}}
* {{cite journal |author=Carracedo, J.C. |title=Growth, Structure, Instability and Collapse of Canarian Volcanoes and Comparisons with Hawaiian Volcanoes |journal=J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. |volume=94 |issue= 1–4|pages=1–19 |year=1999 |doi= 10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00095-5|bibcode=1999JVGR...94....1C }}
* {{cite book |author=Moore, J.G. |title=Giant Submarine Landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge |publisher=US Geologic Survey |id=Professional Paper 501-D |pages=D95–8 |year=1964 }}
* {{cite journal |author1=Pinter, N. |author2=Ishman, S.E. |title=Impacts, mega-tsunami, and other extraordinary claims |journal=GSA Today |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=37–38 |year=2008 |doi=10.1130/GSAT01801GW.1 |bibcode=2008GSAT...18a..37P |doi-access=free }}
* Rihm, R; Krastel, S. & CD109 Shipboard Scientific Party; 1998. "Volcanoes and landslides in the Canaries". ''National Environment Research Council News''. Summer, 16–17.
* {{cite journal |author=Siebert, L. |title=Large volcanic debris avalanches: characteristics of source areas, deposits and associated eruptions |journal=J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. |volume=22 |issue= 3–4|pages=163–197 |year=1984 |doi= 10.1016/0377-0273(84)90002-7|bibcode=1984JVGR...22..163S }}
* {{cite journal |author=Vallely, G.A. |title=Volcanic edifice instability and tsunami generation: Montaña Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands (Spain) |journal=Journal of the Open University Geological Society |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=53–64 |year=2005 }}
* Sandom, J.G., 2010, [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1452839239/ ''The Wave – A John Decker Thriller''], Cornucopia Press, 2010. A thriller in which a megatsunami is intentionally created when a terrorist detonates a nuclear bomb on La Palma in the Canary Islands.
* Ortiz, J.R., Bonelli Rubio, J.M., 1951. La erupción del Nambroque (junio-agosto de 1949). Madrid: Talleres del Instituto Geográfico y Catastral, 100 p., 1h. pleg.;23&nbsp;cm

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/mega-tsunami-wave-of-destruction Mega Tsunami: history, causes, effects]
*[http://geology.com/records/biggest-tsunami.shtml World's Biggest Tsunami: The largest recorded tsunami with a wave 1720 feet tall in Lituya Bay, Alaska].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045005/http://www.benfieldhrc.org/in_the_news/press_cuttings/Insurance%20Day/why_the_only_certainty.htm Benfield Hazard Research Centre]
*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/mega_tsunami.shtml BBC – Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction] BBC Two program broadcast 12 October 2000
*[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm La Palma threat "over-hyped"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192613/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm |date=24 March 2017 }}, [[BBC News]], 29 October 2004
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110201152423/http://lapalma-tsunami.com/ Mega-hyped Tsunami story] A detailed of analysis demolishing the La Palma Tsunami speculation.

{{physical oceanography}}
{{Natural disasters}}

[[Category:Megatsunami| ]]
[[Category:Water waves]]
[[Category:Geological hazards]]
[[Category:Tsunami]]
[[Category:Oceanographical terminology]]