View source for Menelik II

{{Short description|Emperor of Ethiopia from 1879 to 1923}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Menelik II <br> {{lang|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}}
| title        = [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Negus|Negus]]
| succession   = [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]
| image        = Emperor Menelik II.png
| caption      = Photograph of Emperor Menelik II on the throne in coronation garb
| reign        = 11 March 1889 – 12 December 1913
| coronation   = 3 November 1889
| predecessor  = [[Yohannes IV]]
| successor    = [[Lij Iyasu]] (designated but uncrowned Emperor of Ethiopia)
| spouse       = Altash Tewodros {{small|(1855–1865)}}<br/>[[Bafena|Bafena Wolde Mikael]] {{small|(1865–1882)}}<br/>[[Taytu Betul]] {{small|(1882–1913)}}
| issue        = [[Zewditu I]]<br />Shoa Ragad<br />Wossen Seged
| dynasty      = [[Solomonic dynasty|House of Solomon]] (Shewan Branch)
| full name    = {{Plainlist|
* Sahle Maryam (baptismal name)
* Abba Dagnew (horse name)
}}
| father       = [[Haile Melekot]] ([[Negus|King]] of [[Shewa]])
| mother       = ''Woizero'' Ejigayehu
| birth_date   = {{Birth date|1844|8|17|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Angolalla Tera|Angolalla]], [[Shewa]], [[Ethiopian Empire]]
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1913|12|12|1844|8|17|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Addis Ababa]], Ethiopian Empire<ref>{{Cite web|last=Nielsen|first=Euell A.|date=6 May 2019|title=Emperor Menelik II (Sahle Miriam) (1844-1913) •|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/emperor-menelik-ii-sahle-miriam-1844-1913/|access-date=27 June 2020|language=en-US}}</ref>
| burial_place = [[Mausoleum of Menelik II|Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery]]<br/>{{small|(now Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church)}}<br/>[[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]]
| religion     = [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo]]
}}
{{Infobox manner of address
| name         = Menelik II of Ethiopia
| image        = [[File:Menelik II seal.jpg|200px]]
| reference    = {{ubl|[[Imperial Majesty (style)|His Imperial Majesty]]|{{langx|am|ግርማዊ}}; ''girmāwī''}}
| spoken       = {{ubl|Your Imperial Majesty|{{langx|am|ጃንሆይ}}; ''djānhoi''|lit. ''"O [esteemed] royal"''}}
| alternative  = {{ubl|Our Lord (familiar)|{{langx|am|ጌቶቹ}}; ''getochu''|lit. ''"Our master"'' (pl.)}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Ethiopic}}
'''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}}}; [[horse name]] '''Aba Dagnew''' ([[Amharic]]: አባ ዳኘው ''abba daññäw''); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), baptised as '''Sahle Maryam''' (ሣህለ ማርያም ''sahlä maryam''), was king of [[Shewa]] from 1866 to 1889 and [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]{{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 to his death in 1913. A member of the [[Solomonic dynasty]], Menelik expanded the [[Ethiopian Empire]] to its greatest historical extent and defeated Italian colonial forces at the [[Battle of Adwa]] in 1896. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern Ethiopian state.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 1991">Zewde, Bahru. A history of Ethiopia: 1855–1991. 2nd ed. Eastern African studies. 2001</ref>

A member of the Shewan branch of the [[Solomonic dynasty]], Menelik was born in [[Angolalla Tera|Angolalla]], Shewa, as Sahle Maryam, the son of [[Haile Melekot]] ([[Negus]] of Shewa). Named "Menelik" by his grandfather King [[Sahle Selassie]] after the legendary [[Menelik I]] (son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba), he was imprisoned at age 11 by Emperor [[Tewodros II]] at the fortress of Magdala following his father's death in 1855. He escaped in 1865 amid Tewodros's declining power, returned to Shewa, and was acclaimed as its rightful king. Though harboring imperial ambitions, he avoided challenging northern rivals during the [[British Expedition to Abyssinia]] in 1868 and submitted to Emperor [[Yohannes IV]] in 1878 after failed collaboration with the Egyptians during their [[Egyptian–Ethiopian War|invasion]] (1875–1876).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3 |pages=925}}</ref>

As quasi-independent ruler of [[Shewa]] from 1878 to 1889, Menelik built his power base through direct European diplomacy, securing modern weapons and expertise from advisors like Swiss engineer [[Alfred Ilg]]. He conquered southern territories inhabited by [[Oromo people|Oromo]], [[Welayta people|Wolayta]], and [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]] peoples, exploiting ivory, coffee, gold, and slave trade revenues to fund arms, while establishing fortified ''[[katama]]'' settlements and the ''[[neftenya]]'' land system. The strategic conquest of [[Harar]] in 1887 made it Shewa's trade hub under [[Ras Makonnen]]. Following Yohannes's death at the [[Battle of Metemma]] in 1889, Menelik was crowned emperor at [[Mount Entoto]] on 3 November 1889.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{cite journal |author=John Young |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |year=1998 |page=192 |jstor=3993156 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415}}</ref><ref name="International_Crisis_Group_2009" />{{rp|2}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3 |pages=926}}</ref>

Menelik signed the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with Italy in 1889; the Italian version implied a protectorate, while the Amharic allowed optional use of Italian diplomacy—a deliberate deceit he repudiated by 1891. Mobilising a unified army of over 100,000, he crushed Italian forces at the [[Battle of Adwa]] on 1 March 1896, securing Ethiopia's independence and full European recognition. He defined borders through treaties with Britain, France, and Italy, initiated the [[Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway]], and centralized governance with ministries, schools, and a state bank. After strokes from 1906 left him incapacitated by 1909, Empress [[Taytu Betul]] and later Ras [[Tessema Nadew]] served as regents. He died in 1913 and was succeeded by grandson [[Lij Iyasu]] (later deposed), followed by daughter [[Zewditu]] and Ras Tafari Makonnen (the future [[Haile Selassie]]).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3 |pages=926}}</ref>

Menelik was a controversial figure for much of his reign. Although praised internationally as a symbol of African resistance to colonialism and credited with being the architect of modern Ethiopia, critics among incorporated southern ethnic groups accused him of forced assimilation, land expropriation, and cultural suppression that contributed to later ethnic tensions.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Uhlig |first1=Siegbert |title=Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: Volume 3 |pages=927}}</ref>

==Early life==
Menelik was the son of the Shewan [[Amhara people|Amhara]] king, Negus [[Haile Melekot]], and probably of the palace servant girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> He was born in [[Angolalla Tera|Angolalla]] and baptized to the name Sahle Maryam.<ref name=Menelik1>T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> His father, at the age of 18 before inheriting the throne, impregnated Ejigayehu, then left her;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> and did not realize that Menelik was born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> The boy enjoyed a respected position in the royal household and he received a traditional church education.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref>

In 1855 the Emperor of Ethiopia, [[Tewodros II]], invaded the then semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early in the subsequent campaigns, Haile Malakot died, and Menelik was captured and taken to the emperor's mountain stronghold, [[Amba Mariam|Amba Magdela]]. Still, Tewodros treated the young prince well, even offering him marriage to his daughter Altash Tewodros, which Menelik accepted.

Upon Menelik's imprisonment, his uncle, [[Haile Mikael]], was appointed as Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros with the title of [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|Meridazmach]].{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} However, Meridazmach Haile Mikael rebelled against Tewodros, resulting in him being replaced by the non-royal [[Mister (Mr.)|Ato]]{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} [[Bezabeh]] as Shum. Ato Bezabeh in turn rebelled against the emperor and proclaimed himself Negus of Shewa. Although the Shewan royals imprisoned at Magdela had been largely complacent as long as a member of their family ruled over Shewa, this usurpation by a commoner was not acceptable to them. They plotted Menelik's escape from Magdela; with the help of [[Mikael of Wollo|Mohammed Ali]] and Queen [[Worqitu of Wollo]], he escaped from Magdala on the night of 1 July 1865, abandoning his wife, and returned to Shewa. Enraged, Emperor Tewodros slaughtered 29 [[Oromo people|Oromo]] hostages and then had 12 [[Amhara people|Amhara]] notables beaten to death with bamboo rods.<ref>{{cite book |last=Marcus |first=Harold G. |title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913 |year=1995 |publisher=Red Sea Press |location=Lawrenceville |isbn=1-56902-010-8|pages=24ff}}</ref>

==King of Shewa==
[[File:Menelik, king of Shewa 1877.png|thumb|upright|Engraving showing Menelik as king of Shewa, 1877]]
Bezabeh's attempt to raise an army against Menelik failed; thousands of Shewans rallied to the flag of the son of Negus Haile Melekot and even Bezabeh's own soldiers deserted him for the returning prince. Menelik entered [[Ankober]] and proclaimed himself Negus.

While Menelik reclaimed his ancestral Shewan crown, he also laid claim to the imperial throne, as a direct descendant male line of Emperor [[Lebna Dengel]]. However, he made no overt attempt to assert this claim at this time; Author Harold Marcus interprets his lack of decisive action not only to Menelik's lack of confidence and experience but that "he was emotionally incapable of helping to destroy the man who had treated him as a son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|last=Marcus|first=Harold|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> Not wishing to take part in the [[1868 Expedition to Abyssinia]], he allowed his rival [[Yohannes IV|Kassai]] to benefit from gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]]. When Tewodros died by suicide, Menelik arranged for an official celebration of his death even though he was personally saddened by the loss. When a British diplomat asked him why he did this, he replied "to satisfy the passions of the people ... as for me, I should have gone into a forest to weep over ... [his] untimely death ... I have now lost the one who educated me, and toward whom I had always cherished filial and sincere affection."<ref name=":0" />

Afterward other challenges – a revolt amongst the [[Wollo]] to the north, the intrigues of his second wife [[#Wives|Befana]] to replace him with her choice of ruler, military failures against the [[Arsi Oromo]] to the southeast – kept Menelik from directly confronting Kassai until after his rival had brought an [[Abuna]] from [[Egypt]] who crowned him Emperor Yohannes IV.

Menelik was cunning and strategic in building his power base. He organised extravagant three-day feasts for locals to win their favour, liberally built friendships with Muslims (such as Muhammad Ali of Wollo), and struck alliances with the French and Italians who could provide firearms and political leverage against the emperor. In 1876, an Italian expedition set out to Ethiopia led by Marchese [[Orazio Antinori]] who described Menelik as "very friendly, and a fanatic for weapons, about whose mechanism he appears to be most intelligent". Another Italian wrote about Menelik, "he had the curiosity of a boy; the least thing made an impression upon him ... He showed ... great intelligence and great mechanical ability". Menelik spoke with great economy and rapidity. He never became upset, Chiarini adds, "listening calmly, judiciously [and] with good sense ... He is fatalistic and a good soldier, he loves weapons above all else". The visitors also confirmed that he was popular with his subjects, and made himself available to them.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik had political and military acumen and made key engagements that would later prove essential as he expanded his empire.

==Succession==
On 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV was killed in a war with the [[Mahdist State]] during the [[Battle of Gallabat]] (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> With his dying breath, Yohannes declared his natural son, Dejazemach [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes|Mengesha Yohannes]], to be his heir. On 25 March, upon hearing of the death of Yohannes, Menelik immediately proclaimed himself emperor.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref>

Menelik argued that while the family of Yohannes claimed descent from King [[Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]] through females of the dynasty, his claim was based on uninterrupted direct male lineage which made the claims of the House of Shewa equal to those of the elder [[Gondarine period|Gondar]] line of the dynasty. Menelik, and later his daughter [[Zewditu]], would be the last Ethiopian monarchs who could claim uninterrupted direct male descent from King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (both [[Lij Iyasu of Ethiopia|Lij Iyasu]] and Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] were in the female line, Iyasu through his mother Shewarega Menelik, and Haile Selassie through his paternal grandmother, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}

In the end, Menelik was able to obtain the allegiance of a large majority of the Ethiopian nobility. On 3 November 1889, Menelik was consecrated and crowned emperor before a glittering crowd of dignitaries and clergy by Abuna Mattewos, Bishop of Shewa, at the Church of Mary on [[Mount Entoto]].<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> The newly consecrated and crowned Emperor Menelik II quickly toured the north in force. He received the submission of the local officials in [[Lasta]], [[Yejju]], [[Gojjam]], [[Wollo Province|Wollo]], and [[Begemder]].

==Conquest of neighboring states and the defeat of the Italians==

===Conquests===
{{main|Menelik II's conquests}}
[[File:Menelik campaign map 1 3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]]
[[File:Menelik campaign map 2 3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]]
[[File:Menelik campaign map 3 3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]]
Menelik is argued to be the founder of modern Ethiopia.<ref name=A35>By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name=A37>Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik's colonial conquests,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gnamo |first1=Abbas |title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo |date=23 January 2014 |publisher=BRILL |page=151 |isbn=9789004265486 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151}}</ref> Ethiopia and the [[Adal Sultanate]] had been devastated by numerous wars, the most recent of which was fought in the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Jeffrey |title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict |date=27 March 2017 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=270 |isbn=9781610695176 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270}}</ref> In the intervening period, military tactics had not changed much. In the 16th century, the Portuguese Bermudes documented depopulation and widespread atrocities against civilians and combatants (including torture, mass killings, and large-scale slavery) during several successive [[Gadaa]] conquests led by Aba Gedas of territories located north of Genale river ([[Bale Province, Ethiopia|Bali]], [[Amhara Region|Amhara]], Gafat, [[Damot (historical region)|Damot]], [[Adal (historical region)|Adal]]).<ref name=D3-2>Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name=D3-3>J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> Warfare in the region essentially involved acquiring cattle and slaves, winning additional territories, gaining control over trade routes, carrying out ritual requirements, or securing trophies to prove masculinity.<ref name=D7>Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name=D11>W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name=D15>Harold G. Marcus [https://archive.org/details/historyofethiopi00marc/page/55 <!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref>
Menelik's clemency to [[Ras Mengesha Yohannes]], whom he made hereditary prince of his native Tigray, was ill-repaid by a long series of revolts.<ref name=EB1911/> In 1898, Menelik crushed a rebellion by Ras Mengesha Yohannes (who died in 1906).<ref name=EB1911/> After this, Menelik directed his efforts to the consolidation of his authority, and to a degree, to the opening up of his country to outside influences.<ref name=EB1911/> The [[League of Nations]] in 1920 reported that after the invasion of Menelik's forces into non-Abyssinian lands of [[Somalis]], [[Harari people|Harari]], [[Oromo people|Oromo]], [[Sidama]], [[Shanqella]], etc., the inhabitants were enslaved and heavily taxed by the [[Gabbar system]] leading to depopulation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality |date=180 |publisher=League of Nations |pages=2–5 |url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf}}</ref>

Menelik brought together many of the northern territories through political consensus. The exception was Gojjam, which offered tribute to the Shewan Kingdom following its defeat at the [[Battle of Embabo]].<ref name=MenelikA5>Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most of the western and central territories like [[Jimma]], [[Welega Province]] and [[Chebo people|Chebo]] surrendered to Menelik's invading forces with no resistance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hess |first1=Robert |title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA |year=1979 |publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle |page=715 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik}}</ref> Native armed soldiers of [[Gobana Dacche|Ras Gobana Dacche]], [[Mikael of Wollo|Ras Mikael Ali]], [[Habte Giyorgis Dinagde|Habtegyorgis Dinegde]], [[Balcha Safo|Balcha Aba Nefso]] were allied to Menelik's Shewan army which campaigned to the south to incorporate more territories.<ref name=MenelikA6>Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA7>Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA8>Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA9>Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA10>John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name=D16>Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref>

Beginning in the 1870s, Menelik set off from the central province of [[Shewa]] to reunify 'the lands and people of the South, East, and West into an empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 192"/> This period of expansions has been referred to by some as the 'Agar Maqnat' - roughly translating to some type of 'Cultivation' of land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> The people incorporated by Menelik through conquest were the southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta and other groups.<ref name="International_Crisis_Group_2009" />{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas describes the conquest of the [[Emirate of Harar]] by Menelik as "brutal".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jonas |first1=Raymond |title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire |date=15 November 2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |page=76 |isbn=9780674062795 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76}}</ref>

In territories incorporated peacefully like Jimma, Leka, and Wolega the former order was preserved and there was no interference in their self-government; in areas incorporated after war, the appointed new rulers did not violate the peoples' religious beliefs and they treated them lawfully and justly.<ref name=D1>Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name=D1-1>Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html |date=16 December 2017 }} samizdat 1993</ref> However, in the territories incorporated by military conquest, Menelik's army carried out atrocities against civilians and combatants including torture, mass killings, and large scale slavery.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria"/> Large scale atrocities were also committed against the [[Dizi people]] and the people of the [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaficho Kingdom]].<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> Some estimates that the number of people killed as a result of the conquest from war, famine and atrocities go into the millions.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Based on convergent subjugation approaches, cooperation between Menelik and Belgian king [[Leopold II of Belgium|Leopold II]] were attempted more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref>

===Foundation of Addis Ababa===
[[File:Emperor Menelik II's Humble Palace, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|The [[Menelik Palace]] in [[Addis Ababa]]]]
For a period, Ethiopia lacked a permanent capital; instead, the royal encampment served as a roving capital. For a time Menelik's camp was on [[Mount Entoto]], but in 1886, while Menelik was campaigning in [[Harar]], Empress [[Taytu Betul]] camped at a hot spring to the south of Mount Entoto. She decided to build a house there and from 1887 this was her permanent base, which she named [[Addis Ababa]] (new flower). Menelik's generals were all allocated land nearby to build their own houses, and in 1889 work began on a new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> The city grew rapidly, and by 1910 the city had around 70,000 permanent inhabitants, with up to 50,000 more on a temporary basis.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture,  New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Only in 1917, after Menelik's death, was the city reached by the railway from Djibouti.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref>

=== The Great Famine (1888–1892) ===
During Menelik's reign, the [[Famines in Ethiopia|great famine of 1888 to 1892]], which was the worst famine in the region's history, killed a third of the total population which was then estimated at 12 million.<ref name=E1>Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> The famine was caused by [[rinderpest]], an infectious viral cattle disease which wiped out most of the national livestock, killing over 90% of the [[Arado cattle|cattle]]. The native cattle population had no prior exposure and were unable to fight off the disease.<ref name=E2>Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref>

===Wuchale Treaty===
{{main|Treaty of Wuchale}}

[[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in an 1891 map, showing national borders before the [[Battle of Adwa]]]]
Menelik and the Italian envoy Count [[Pietro Antonelli]] had many interactions and had come to an agreement for a Friendship treaty between [[Shewa]] and [[Italy]]. The agreement was that Italy would help Menelik become the King of Abyssinia however, he shall not contest the [[Eritrea]] historical territories of [[Bogos]], [[Akele Guzay]], and [[Hamasien]] with the Mareb, Belessa, and Mai Muna rivers as the frontier of the country [[Eritrea]] to become an Italian territory.<ref>"Modern Abyssinia"
By Augustus Blandy Wylde, 1900, page 50</ref>  Menelik did not care about the Italians taking over [[Eritrea]] including [[Assab]] and [[Hamasien]] as he was receiving ammunition and modern armanents to secure his ambitions to the throne in Abyssinia.<ref>"Modern Abyssinia" By Augustus Blandy Wylde, 1900, page 48-59 </ref> 

On 2 May 1889, while claiming the throne against Ras [[Mengesha Yohannes]], the natural son of [[Yohannes IV|Emperor Yohannes IV]], Menelik concluded a treaty with [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] at [[Wuchale]] (Uccialli in Italian) in Wollo province. On the signing of the treaty, Menelik said "The territories north of the [[Medri Bahri|Merab Milesh]] (i.e. [[Eritrea]]) do not belong to Abyssinia nor are under my rule. I am the Emperor of [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]]. The land referred to as [[Italian Eritrea|Eritrea]] is not peopled by Abyssinians – they are [[Afar people|Adals]], [[Beja people|Bejaa]], and [[Tigre people|Tigres]]. Abyssinia will defend his territories but will not fight for foreign lands, which Eritrea is to my knowledge."<ref>Man, Know Thyself: Volume 1 Corrective Knowledge of Our Notable Ancestors by Rick Duncan, p. 328</ref> Under the treaty, Ethiopia and Italy agreed to define the boundary between Eritrea and Ethiopia. For example, both Ethiopia and Italy agreed that Arafali, Halai, [[Segeneiti]], and [[Asmara]] were villages within the Italian border. Also, the Italians agreed not to harass Ethiopian traders and to allow safe passage for Ethiopian goods, particularly military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> The treaty also guaranteed that the Ethiopian government would have ownership of the Monastery of [[Debre Bizen]] but would not use it for military purposes.

However, there were two versions of the treaty, one in Italian and another in Amharic. Unbeknownst to Menelik the Italian version gave Italy more power than the two had agreed to. The Italians believed they had tricked Menelik into giving allegiance to Italy. To their surprise, upon learning about the alteration, Menelik  rejected the treaty. The Italians attempted to bribe him with two million rounds of ammunition but he refused. Then the Italians approached Ras Mengesha of Tigray in an attempt to create a civil war, however, Ras Mengesha, understanding that Ethiopia's independence was at stake, refused to be a puppet for the Italians. The Italians, therefore, prepared to attack Ethiopia with an army led by [[Oreste Baratieri]]. Subsequently, the Italians declared war and launched an invasion of Ethiopia.

===Italo-Ethiopian War===
{{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}

Menelik's disagreement with Article 17 of the treaty led to the [[Battle of Adwa]]. Before the Italians could launch the invasion, Eritreans rebelled in an attempt to push the Italians out of Eritrea and prevent their invasion of Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> The rebellion was unsuccessful. However, some Eritreans managed to make their way to the Ethiopian camp and jointly fought the Italians at Adwa.

On 17 September 1895, Menelik ordered all of the Ethiopian nobility to call out their banners and raise their feudal hosts, stating: "An enemy has come across the sea. He has broken through our frontiers to destroy our fatherland and our faith. I allowed him to seize my possessions and I entered upon lengthy negotiations with him in hopes of obtaining justice without bloodshed. But the enemy refuses to listen. He undermines our territories and our people like a mole. Enough! With the help of God, I will defend the inheritance of my forefathers and drive back the invader by force of arms. Let every man who has sufficient strength accompany me. And he who has not, let him pray for us".<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Menelik's opponent, General [[Oreste Baratieri]], underestimated the size of the Ethiopian force, predicting that Menelik could only field 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref>
[[File:Musée national d'Ethiopie-Canon de la bataille d'Adwa (1).jpg|thumb|A cannon used by Menelik at the [[Battle of Adwa]] on display at the [[National Museum of Ethiopia]]]]
Despite the dismissive Italian claim that Ethiopia was a barbaric African nation whose men were no match for white troops, the Ethiopians were better armed, being equipped with thousands of modern rifles and [[Hotchkiss gun]]s together with ammunition and shells which were superior to the Italian rifles and artillery.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Menelik had ensured that his infantry and artillerymen were properly trained in their use, giving the Ethiopians a crucial advantage as the Hotchkiss artillery could fire more rapidly than the Italian artillery. In 1887 a British diplomat, Gerald Portal, wrote after seeing the Ethiopian feudal hosts parade before him, the Ethiopians were "...redeemed by the possession of unbounded courage, by a disregard of death, and by a national pride, which leads them to look down on every human being who has not had the good fortune to be born an Abyssinian [Ethiopian]".<ref name="ReferenceC"/> 

The emperor personally led his army to attack an Italian force led by Major Toselli on 7 December 1895 at Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies"/> The Ethiopians attacked a force of 350 Eritrean irregulars on the left flank, who collapsed under the Ethiopian assault, causing Toselli to send two companies of Italian infantry who halted the Ethiopian advance.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli was rejoicing in his apparent victory, the main Ethiopian assault came down on his right flank, causing Toselli to order a retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD"/> The emperor's best general, [[Ras Makonnen]], had occupied the road leading back to Eritrea, and launched a surprise attack, which routed the Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD"/> The [[Battle of Amba Alagi (1895)|Battle of Amba Alagi]] ended with an Italian force of 2,150 men losing 1,000 men and 20 officers killed.<ref name="ReferenceD"/>

[[Ras Makonnen]] followed up that victory by defeating General Arimondi and forcing the Italians to retreat to the fort at Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen laid siege to the fort, and on the morning of 7 January 1896, the defenders of the fort spotted a huge red tent among the besiegers, showing that the emperor had arrived.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, the emperor's elite Shoan infantry captured the fort's well, and then beat off desperate Italian attempts to retake the well.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> On 19 January 1896, the fort's commander, Major Galliano, whose men were dying of dehydration, raised the white flag of surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> Major Galliano and his men were allowed to march out, surrender their arms, and go free.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> Menelik stated he allowed the Italians to go free "to give proof of my Christian faith," saying his quarrel was with the Italian government of Prime Minister [[Francesco Crispi]] that was trying to conquer his nation, not the ordinary Italian soldiers who been conscripted against their will to fight in the war.<ref name="ReferenceE"/> Menelik's magnanimity to the defenders of Fort Mekele may have been an act of psychological warfare. Menelik knew from talking to French and Russian diplomats that the war and Crispi himself were unpopular in Italy, and one of the main points of Crispi's propaganda was allegations of atrocities against Italian POWs. From Menelik's viewpoint allowing the Italian POWs to go free and unharmed was the best way of rebutting this propaganda and undermining public support for Crispi.    
[[File:Menelik - Adoua-2 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Emperor Menelik II at the [[Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[Le Petit Journal (newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]]
Crispi sent another 15,000 men to the Horn of Africa and ordered the main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, to finish off the "barbarians".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dithered, Menelik was forced to pull back on 17 February 1896 as his huge host was running out of food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi sent an insulting telegram accusing Baratieri of cowardice, on 28 February 1896 the Italians decided to seek battle with Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, the two armies met at Adwa. The Ethiopians came out victorious.

With victory at Adwa and the Italian colonial army destroyed, Eritrea was Menelik's for the taking but no order to occupy was given. It seemed that Menelik was wiser than the Europeans had given him credit for. Realising that the Italians would bring all their force to bear on his country if he attacked,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=London|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1}}</ref> he instead sought to restore the peace that had been broken by the Italians and their treaty manipulation seven years before. In signing the treaty, Menelik again proved his adeptness at politics as he promised each nation something for what they gave and made sure each would benefit his country and not another nation. Subsequently, the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] was reached between the two nations. Italy was forced to recognise the absolute independence of Ethiopia, as described in Article 3 of the treaty. France and Britain also signed the treaty. And if one of the nations tried to reject the treaty, the other two would stop it, because no country wanted the other one to gain more power.

==Developments during Menelik's reign==
===Foreign policy===
[[File:Africa 1909, Edward Hertslet (Map of Africa by treaty, 3rd edition).jpg|thumb|right|After the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] was signed in 1896, Europeans recognised the sovereignty of Ethiopia. Menelik then finalised signing treaties with Europeans to demarcate the border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]]
Following Menelik's victory in the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]], the European powers moved rapidly to adjust relations with the Ethiopian Empire. Delegations from the United Kingdom and France—whose colonial possessions lay next to Ethiopia—soon arrived in the Ethiopian capital to negotiate their own treaties with this newly proven power. Quickly taking advantage of the Italian defeat, French influence increased markedly and France became one of the most influential European powers in Menelik's court.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 41965700|title = A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896|journal = Journal of Ethiopian Studies|volume = 1|issue = 2|pages = 121–132|last1 = Marcus|first1 = Harold G.|year = 1963}}</ref> In December 1896, a French diplomatic mission in Addis Ababa arrived and on 20 March 1897 signed a treaty that was described as "''véritable traité d'alliance''.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 41965700|title = A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896|journal = Journal of Ethiopian Studies|volume = 1|issue = 2|pages = 121–132|last1 = Marcus|first1 = Harold G.|year = 1963}}</ref> In turn, the increase in French influence in Ethiopia led to fears in London that the French would gain control of the Blue Nile and would be able to "lever" the British out of Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 41965700|title = A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896|journal = Journal of Ethiopian Studies|volume = 1|issue = 2|pages = 121–132|last1 = Marcus|first1 = Harold G.|year = 1963}}</ref>

On the eve of the Battle of Adwa, two Sudanese envoys from the [[Mahdist State|''Mahdiyya'' state]] arrived at Menelik's camp in Adwa to discuss concentrated action against the Italians. In July 1896 an Ethiopian envoy was present at [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]]'s court in [[Omdurman]]. The British, fearing that Menelik would support the Mahdist revolt, sent a diplomatic mission to Ethiopia and on 14 May 1897 signed the [[Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1897]]. Menelik assured the British that he would not support the Mahdists and declared them as the enemy of his country in exchange for cession of the northeastern part of the [[Haud]] region, a traditional Somali grazing area, to Ethiopia. In December 1897, [[Ras Makonnen]] led an expedition against the Mahdists to seize the gold producing region of [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region|Benishangul-Gumuz]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Oliver |first1=Ronald |title=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 6 |page=663 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Milkias |first1=Paulos |title=The Battle of Adwa Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism |date=2005 |publisher=B&T Database Management |pages=121 |isbn=9780875864150 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f71M3BC6TtIC&q=pg=PA118}}</ref>

===Introducing new technology===
[[File:Dire Dawa-Djibouti train leaving, c. 1912..jpg|thumb|left|In 1894, Menelik granted a concession for building the [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways]]]]
Menelik was fascinated by modernity, and like Tewodros II before him, he had a keen ambition to introduce Western technological and administrative advances into Ethiopia. Following the rush by the major powers to establish diplomatic relations following the Ethiopian victory at Adwa, more and more Westerners began to travel to Ethiopia looking for trade, farming, hunting, and mineral exploration concessions.<ref>See: Mikael Muehlbauer,“The Rhinoceros Horn Beakers of Menelik II of Ethiopia: Materiality, Ritual 	and Kingship,” ''West 86th'' 26 no. 1, 61-79.https://www.academia.edu/38449640/_The_Rhinoceros_Horn_Beakers_of_Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia_Materiality_Ritual_and_Kingship_</ref> Menelik founded the first modern bank in Ethiopia, the Bank of Abyssinia, introduced the first modern postal system, signed the agreement and initiated work that established the Addis Ababa –Djibouti railway with the French, introduced electricity to Addis Ababa, as well as the telephone, telegraph, the motor car, and modern plumbing. He attempted unsuccessfully to introduce coinage to replace the [[Maria Theresa thaler]].

In 1894, Menelik granted a concession for the building of a [[Ethio-Djibouti Railways|railway]] to his capital from the French port of [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] but, alarmed by a claim made by France in 1902 to control of the line in Ethiopian territory, he ordered a stop for four years on the extension of the railway beyond [[Dire Dawa]]. In 1906 when France, the United Kingdom, and Italy agreed on the subject, granting control to a joint venture corporation, Menelik officially reaffirmed his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire.

According to one persistent tale, Menelik heard about the modern method of executing criminals using [[electric chair]]s during the 1890s and ordered 3 for his kingdom. When the chairs arrived, Menelik learned they would not work, as Ethiopia did not yet have an [[electric power industry]]. Rather than waste his investment, Menelik used one of the chairs as his throne, sending another to his second ([[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles#Important offices of the Imperial Court|Lique Mekwas]]) or [[Abate Ba-Yalew]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Paassen |first1=Pierre |title=Days of Our Years |date=1939 |publisher=London: Heinemann |page=315 |quote=We did stumble on another curiosity: the local Dedjaz, or chief of the village, at the foot of the St Abo mountain was the proud possessor of an electric chair. This deadly instrument, quite harmless in that rural Ethiopian environment, was one of the famous trio imported by Emperor Menelik from America. Another specimen stands in the old Guebi [palace] in Addis Ababa, and a third lies somewhere in the desert near Awash, where it is said to be venerated with superstitious awe by the Danakil tribesmen. Menelik ordered three metal chairs from America when he heard that his method of executing criminals (he had them ripped apart by letting two saplings to which their legs were attached suddenly spring back in opposite directions) was decried as un-Christian by his missionary friends. It was found impossible to make the chairs do the work for which they were intended without an electric current, and as this was not available in Menelik’s days, the great Negus [Emperor] used one of them as a throne, the second he gave away, and the third never reached him, for the vehicle in which it was conveyed across the Danakil desert was wrecked two hundred miles from home.}}</ref> Recent research, however, has cast significant doubt on this story and suggested it was invented by a Canadian journalist during the 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mikedashhistory.com/2010/09/09/the-emperors-electric-chair/|title=The Emperor's electric chair|date=9 September 2010|website=mikedashhistory.com|access-date=28 March 2018}}</ref>

==Personal life and death==
The British journalist Augustus B. Wylde wrote after meeting Menelik: "I had found him a man of great kindness, a remarkably shrewd and clever man and very well informed on most things except on England and her resources; his information on our country evidently having been obtained from persons entirely unfriendly to us; and who did not want Englishmen to have any diplomatic or commercial transactions whatever with Abyssinia [Ethiopia]".<ref>Hassan, Ahmed "Revisiting Emperor Menelik: A Historical Essay in Reinterpretation, ca.1855-1906" ''The Journal of Ethiopian Studies'', Vol. 49, December 2016, p.86-87</ref>

After meeting him, [[Lord Edward Gleichen|Count Gleichen]] wrote: "Menelik's manners are pleasant and dignified; he is courteous and kindly, and at the same time simple in manner, giving one the impression of a man who wishes to get at the root of a matter at once, without wasting time in compliments and beating about the bush, so often the characteristics of Oriental potentates...He also aims at being a popular sovereign, accessible to his people at all hours, and ready to listen to their complaints. In this, he appears to be quite successful, for one and all of his subjects seem to bear for him a real affection."<ref>[[Lord Edward Gleichen|Count Gleichen]], ''With the Mission to Menelik, 1897'', Edward Arnold, 1898, pp. 192–193</ref><ref>Hassan, Ahmed "Revisiting Emperor Menelik: A Historical Essay in Reinterpretation, ca.1855-1906" ''The Journal of Ethiopian Studies'', Vol. 49, December 2016, p.92-93</ref>

===Wives===
[[File:Taitu Betul v d.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Taytu Betul, the third wife of Menelik]]
Menelik married three times but he did not have any legitimate children with any of his wives. However, he is reputed to have fathered several children with women who were not his wives, and he recognized three of those children as being his progeny.

In 1864, Menelik married Woizero Altash Tewodros, whom he divorced in 1865; the marriage produced no children. Altash Tewodros was a daughter of Emperor Tewodros II. She and Menelik were married during the time that Menelik was held captive by Tewodros. The marriage ended when Menelik escaped captivity, abandoning her. She was subsequently remarried to Dejazmatch Bariaw Paulos of Adwa.

In 1865, the same year he divorced his first wife, Menelik married the much older noblewoman ''Woizero'' [[Bafena]] Wolde Michael. This marriage was also childless, and they were married for seventeen years before being divorced in 1882. Menelik was very fond of his wife, but she apparently did not have a sincere affection for him. Woizero Befana had several children from previous marriages and was more interested in securing their welfare than in the welfare of her present husband. For many years, she was widely suspected of being secretly in touch with Emperor Yohannes IV in her ambition to replace her husband on the throne of Shewa with one of her sons from a previous marriage. Finally, she was implicated in a plot to overthrow Menelik when he was King of Shewa. With the failure of her plot, Woizero Befana was separated from Menelik, but Menelik apparently was still deeply attached to her. An attempt at reconciliation failed, but when his relatives and courtiers suggested new young wives to the king, he would sadly say "You ask me to look at these women with the same eyes that once gazed upon Befana?", paying tribute both to his ex-wife's beauty and his own continuous attachment to her.

Finally, Menelik divorced his treasonous wife in 1882, and in 1883, he married [[Taytu Betul]]. Menelik's new wife had been married four times previously, and he became her fifth husband. They were married in a full communion church service and the marriage was thus fully canonical and indissoluble, which had not been the case with either of Menelik's previous wives. The marriage, which proved childless, would last until his death. Taytu Betul would become empress consort upon her husband's succession, and would become the most powerful consort of an Ethiopian monarch since Empress [[Mentewab]]. She enjoyed considerable influence on Menelik and his court until the end, something which was aided by her own family background. Empress [[Taytu Betul]] was a noblewoman of imperial blood and a member of one of the leading families of the regions of [[Semien province|Semien]], [[Yejju Oromo tribe|Yejju]] in modern Wollo, and [[Begemder]]. Her paternal uncle, Dejazmatch [[Wube Haile Maryam]] of Semien, had been the ruler of [[Tigray Province|Tigray]] and much of northern Ethiopia. She and her uncle Ras Wube were two of the most powerful people among descendants of Ras Gugsa Mursa, a ruler of Oromo descent from the house of was Sheik of Wollo. Emperor Yohannes was able to broaden his power base in northern Ethiopia through Taytu's family connections in Begemider, Semien and Yejju; she also served him as his close adviser, and went to the Battle of Adwa with 5,000 troops of her own.<ref name=MenelikA3>Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=8bItAQAAIAAJ&q=%22emperor+Yohannes+and+the+broadening+of+his+power+base%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883-1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 25 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA21>Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=8bItAQAAIAAJ&q=her+cannoneers Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) pp. 156–57 Google Books</ref> From 1906, for all intents and purposes, Taytu Betul ruled in Menelik's stead during his infirmity. Menelik and Taytu Betul personally owned 70,000 slaves.<ref name="EAME">{{cite book |last=Stokes |first=Jamie |title=Encyclopedia of the peoples of Africa and the Middle East |author2=Gorman |author3=Anthony |last4=Newman |first4=Andrew |publisher=Facts On File |year=2008 |isbn=978-1438126760 |location=New York |page=516}}</ref> Abba Jifar II is also said to have had more than 10,000 slaves and allowed his armies to enslave the captives during a battle with all his neighboring clans.<ref name=MenelikA22>Saïd Amir Arjomand [https://books.google.com/books?id=VTSlAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+owned+some+ten+thousand+slaves%22+%E2%80%9CWhen+his+armies+conquered+a+population%2C+he+had+rights+to+enslave+the+captives%E2%80%9D&pg=PA242 Social Theory and Regional Studies in the Global Age] (2014) p. 242 Google Books</ref> This practice was common between various tribes and clans of Ethiopia for thousands of years.<ref name="MenelikA13"/><ref name="MenelikA14">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Galla%27s+most+esteemed+adversaries+in+war+have+in+fact+been+other+Gallinya-speaking+communities%22&pg=PA136 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 136 Google Books</ref><ref name=MenelikA15>Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Galla+captives+being+sold+by+other+Galla%22&pg=PA156 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 156 Google Books</ref>

Taytu arranged political marriages between her Yejju and Semien relatives and key Shewan aristocrates like [[Ras Woldegyorgis Aboye]], who was Governor of Kaffa, Ras Mekonen who was governor of Harar, and Menelik's eldest daughter [[Zewditu|Zewditu Menelik]] who became Nigeste Negestat of the empire after the overthrow of Lij Iyasu.<ref name=MenelikA4>Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=8bItAQAAIAAJ&q=%22yejju%2C+ras+gugsa+wele%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 219 Google Books</ref> Taytu's step daughter, Zewditu, was married to her nephew [[Gugsa Welle|Ras Gugsa Welle]] who administered Begemider up to the 1930s.<ref name=MenelikA4 />

===Natural children===
[[File:Emperor of Abyssinia Vanity Fair 1897-07-29.jpg|thumb|upright|Menelik caricatured by ''Glick'' for ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'', 1897]]
Previous to his marriage to Taytu Betul, Menelik fathered several [[Legitimacy (family law)|natural]] children. Among them, he chose to recognise three specific children (two daughters and one son) as being his progeny. These were:
#A daughter, Woizero [[Shoaregga Menelik]], born 1867.{{#tag:ref|Also spelled "Shoaregga" and "Shewa Regga".|group=nb}} She would marry twice and become the mother of:
#*A son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, born of the first marriage; never considered for the succession due to dwarfism
#*A daughter, Woizero Zenebework Mikael, who was married at age twelve and died in childbirth one year later
#*A son, the purported Emperor [[Iyasu V]]. He nominally succeeded upon Menelik's death in 1913, but was never crowned; he was deposed in 1916 by powerful nobles.
#A daughter, Woizero (later Empress) [[Zewditu|Zewditu Menelik]], born 1876, died 1930.{{#tag:ref|Eventually Empress of Ethiopia.|group=nb}} She married four times and had some children, but none of them survived to adulthood. She was proclaimed Empress in her own right in 1916, but was a figurehead, with ruling power in the hands of regent [[Haile Selassie|Ras Tafari Makonnen]], who succeeded her in 1930 as Emperor [[Haile Selassie]].
#A son, Abeto [[Asfa Wossen Menelik]], born 1873. He died unwed and childless when he was about fifteen years of age.

Menelik's only recognised son, Abeto Asfa Wossen Menelik, died unwed and childless when he was about fifteen years of age, leaving him with only two daughters. The elder daughter, Woizero Shoaregga, was first married to Dejazmatch Wodajo Gobena, the son of Ras Gobena Dachi. They had a son, Abeto Wossen Seged Wodajo, but this grandson of Menelik was eliminated from the succession due to dwarfism. In 1892, twenty-five-year-old Woizero Shoaregga was married for a second time to forty-two-year-old Ras Mikael of Wollo. They had two children, namely a daughter, Woizero Zenebework Mikael, who would be married at the age of twelve to the much older Ras Bezabih Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, and would die in childbirth a year later; and a son, [[Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles|Lij]]{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Child.|group=nb}} [[Iyasu V|Iyasu]], who would nominally succeed as emperor after Menelik's death in 1913, but would never be crowned, and would be deposed by powerful nobles in favour of Menelik's younger daughter Zewditu in 1916.

Menelik's younger daughter, [[Zewditu|Zewditu Menelik]], had a long and chequered life. She was married four times, and eventually became empress in her own right, the first woman to hold that position in Ethiopia since the [[Queen of Sheba]]. She was only ten years old when Menelik got her married to Ras [[Araya Selassie Yohannes]], the fifteen-year-old son of Emperor Yohannes IV, in 1886. In May 1888, Ras Araya Selassie died and Zewditu became a widow at age twelve. She was married two more times for brief periods to Gwangul Zegeye and Wube Atnaf Seged before marrying Gugsa Welle in 1900. Gugsa Welle was the nephew of Empress [[Taytu Betul]], Menelik's third wife. Zewditu had some children, but none of them survived to adulthood. Menelik died in 1913, and his grandson [[Iyasu V|Iyasu]] claimed the throne on principle of seniority. However, it was suspected that [[Iyasu V|Iyasu]] was a secret convert to Islam, which was the religion of his paternal ancestors, and having a Muslim on the throne would have grave implications for Ethiopia in future generations. Therefore, [[Iyasu V|Iyasu]] was never crowned; he was deposed by nobles in 1916, in favour of his aunt, Zewditu. However, Zewditu (aged 40 at that time) had no surviving children (all her children had died young) and the nobles did not want her husband and his family to exercise power and eventually occupy the throne. Therefore, Zewditu's cousin [[Haile Selassie|Ras Tafari Makonnen]] was named both heir to the throne and regent of the empire. Zewditu had ceremonial duties to perform and wielded powers of arbitration and moral influence, but ruling power was vested in the hands of regent [[Haile Selassie|Ras Tafari Makonnen]], who succeeded her as Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] in 1930.

Apart from the three recognised natural children, Menelik was rumoured to be the father of some other children also. These include ''Ras'' [[Birru Wolde Gabriel]]<ref>British Documents on Foreign Affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. Part II, from the First to the Second World War. Series G, Africa, University Publications of America 1997 p. 249</ref><ref>David Shireff, Bare Feet and Bandoliers, Pen and Sword Military 2009, p. 293</ref> and ''Dejazmach'' [[Kebede Tessema]].<ref name="auto">Paul B. Henze, Ethiopia in Mengistu's Final Years: Until the Last Bullet, Shama Books, 2007 p. 84</ref> The latter, in turn, was later rumoured to be the natural grandfather of Colonel [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]],<ref>Stephen Spector, Operation Solomon: The Daring Rescue of the Ethiopian Jews, OUP 2005 p. 32</ref><ref name="auto"/> the [[communism|communist]] leader of the [[Derg]], who eventually deposed the monarchy and assumed power in Ethiopia from 1977 to 1991.

===Illness, death and succession===
[[File:Menelik II Mausoleum.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mausoleum of Menelik II|Menelik's Mausoleum]]{{#tag:ref|The [[crypt]]s of Menilek (''center''), Taytu Betul (''left''), and Zewditu (''right'').|group=nb}}]]
On 27 October 1909, Menelik suffered a massive stroke and his "mind and spirit died". After that, Menelik was no longer able to reign, and the office was taken over by Empress Taytu,<ref name="Chris Prouty 1986">( Chris Prouty, 1986, Empress Taytu and Menelik II)</ref> as de facto ruler, until Ras Bitwaddad Tesemma was publicly appointed regent.<ref>Marcus, ''Menelik II'', p. 241.</ref> However, he died within a year, and a council of regency – from which the empress was excluded – was formed in March 1910.

In the early morning hours of 12 December 1913, Menelik died. He was buried quickly without announcement or ceremony<ref name = "Chris Prouty 1986" /> at the Se'el Bet Kidane Meheret Church, on the grounds of the Imperial Palace. In 1916, Menelik was reburied in the specially built church at [[Menelik Palace|Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery]] in [[Addis Ababa]].

After the death of Menelik, the council of regency continued to rule Ethiopia. [[Lij Iyasu]] was never crowned Emperor of Ethiopia, and eventually, Empress [[Zewditu]] succeeded Menelik on 27 September 1916.

==Legacy==
[[File:Emperor Menelik II (2141756150).jpg|thumb|Equestrian [[Statue of Menelik II|statue of Emperor Menelik II]], the victor of [[Adwa]]. The statue was erected by Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] and dedicated on the day before his coronation in 1930, in memory of his predecessor.]]
The [[Adwa Victory Day]] is celebrated in March annually, and it would also inspire [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-African]] movements around the globe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Legacy of the Battle of Adwa|url=https://www.ezega.com/News/NewsDetails/3232/The-Legacy-of-the-Battle-of-Adwa|access-date=7 October 2021|website=www.ezega.com|language=en}}</ref>

Despite being generally considered the founder of modern Ethiopia, Menelik's legacy also garnered controversies due to the atrocities committed by his army against civilians and combatants during the annexation of territories into his empire,<ref name=Allo>{{cite web |url= https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2019/3/1/how-a-major-anti-colonial-victory-divided-ethiopia |title=How a major anti-colonial victory divided Ethiopia |author=[[Awol Allo]] |date=1 March 2019 |website=Aljazeera.com}}</ref> which are considered by many historians as constituting [[genocide]].<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Bearak |first1=Max |title='A place of ghosts:' Ethiopia opens controversial palace to a divided public |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/a-place-of-ghosts-ethiopia-opens-controversial-palace-to-a-divided-public/2019/10/11/4ddd2d9c-ead5-11e9-a329-7378fbfa1b63_story.html |agency=The Washington Post}}</ref><ref name=mekuria>Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> According to [[Awol Allo]]:
{{blockquote|The historical figure that masterminded the victory at Adwa, Emperor Menelik II, also presided over some of the most brutal atrocities committed against the various groups in the southern part of the country, particularly the [[Oromos]], as they resisted his southward expansion. For Oromos, Menelik II is devil incarnate and is beyond redemption. Perhaps, the association of Adwa with Menelik II is the single most important reason behind Oromo ambivalence towards this historical event.<ref name=Allo/>}}

A desire to share in the glamor Menelik enjoyed after his victory over Italy may explain an improbable [[Serbs|Serb]] legend, recounted by English anthropologist [[Edith Durham|Mary E. Durham]], portraying Menelik and the Serb king of Montenegro as kinsmen, based on little more than the similarity between the Ethiopian honorific ''[[Negus]]'' and the name of the [[Herzegovina|Herzegovinian]] village, Njegushi, from which the Montenegrin royal family originated:<blockquote>When these Herzegovinese migrated to Montenegro, a large body of them went yet farther afield and settled in the mountains of Abyssinia, among them a branch of the family of [[Petrović-Njegoš dynasty|Petrovich of Njegushi]], from which is directly descended Menelik, who preserves the title of ''Negus'' and is a distant cousin of [[Nicholas I of Montenegro|Prince Nikola]] of Montenegro, and to this large admixture of Slav blood the Abyssinians owe their fine stature and their high standard of civilisation, as compared with the neighbouring African tribes.<ref name=Durham>[https://www.gutenberg.org/files/41499/41499-h/41499-h.htm Durham, Mary Edith, ''Through the Lands of the Serb'', Ch.1.]</ref></blockquote> Menelik is featured as the leader of the Ethiopian civilization in the ''New Frontier'' season pass of the [[4X]] video game ''[[Civilization VI]]'' and the inspiration for Menelek XIV, fictional Emperor of Abyssinia in the novel ''[[Beyond Thirty]]'' by Edgar Rice Burroughs.

==See also==
* [[Ilemi Triangle]]
* [[Paul Merab]]
* [[1890s African rinderpest epizootic]]
* [[First Italo-Ethiopian War]]

== Notes ==
'''Footnotes'''
{{reflist|group=nb}}

'''Citations'''
<references>
<ref name="International_Crisis_Group_2009">{{cite web | title= Ethiopia: ethnic federalism and its discontents | website= [[International Crisis Group]] |date = 4 September 2009 | url = https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/153-ethiopia-ethnic-federalism-and-its-discontents.pdf | access-date = 17 October 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210528100056/https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/153-ethiopia-ethnic-federalism-and-its-discontents.pdf |archive-date= 28 May 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>
</references>

==References==
* {{cite book| first=David Levering | last=Lewis | title=The Race to Fashoda: Pawns of Pawns | url=https://archive.org/details/racetofashodaeur0000lewi | url-access=registration | publisher=Weidenfeld and Nicolson | year=1987 |location=New York |isbn=1-55584-058-2 }}
* {{cite book |last= Henze
     |first= Paul B.
     |title= Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia
     |year= 2000
     |publisher= Palgrave
     |location= New York
     |isbn=0-312-22719-1|chapter=Yohannes IV and Menelik II: The Empire Restored, Expanded, and Defended}}
* {{cite book|first=Anthony |last=Mockler|title=Haile Sellassie's War|publisher=Olive Branch Press|year=2002|location=New York|isbn=978-1-56656-473-1}}
* Chris Prouty. ''Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia 1883–1910''. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986. {{ISBN|0-932415-11-3}}
* [[A. K. Bulatovich]] ''Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898'', translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000
* With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com A.K. Bulatovich ''With the Armies of Menelik II'' translated by Richard Seltzer
* {{cite book|author=Harold G. Marcus|title=The life and times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TAUwAQAAIAAJ&q=menelik+II+of+ethiopia|date=January 1995|publisher=Red Sea Press|isbn=978-1-56902-009-8}}
*{{cite book|first=Teshale |last=Tibebu | title=The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974|publisher=The Red Sea Press|year=1995|location=New Jersey|isbn=978-1569020012}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Menelik II of Ethiopia}}
* [https://www.angelfire.com/ny/ethiocrown/menelik.html Imperial Ethiopia Homepages – Emperor Menelik II the Early Years]
* [https://www.angelfire.com/ny/ethiocrown/menelikII.html Imperial Ethiopia Homepages – Emperor Menelik II the Later Years]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131002072821/http://www.ethiopiantreasures.toucansurf.com/pages/menelik.htm Ethiopian Treasures – Emperor Menelik II]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101023192813/http://blogs.forteana.org/node/123 'The Emperor's electric chair' – Critical re-examination of a popular legend concerning Menelik II]
* {{YouTube|7qV27-OT5IE|A recorded message from Menelik II to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom}} (In Amharic, from 4 June 1899; [http://cadensa.bl.uk/uhtbin/cgisirsi/x/x/0/49/%20;%20charset=UTF-8 The British Library (search phrase "Menelik II")]).
* {{PM20|FID=pe/019783}}

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{{s-bef|before=[[Yohannes IV]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Emperor of Ethiopia]]|years=1889–1913|regent1=[[Taytu Betul]]|years1=1906–1913}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Lij Iyasu|Iyasu V]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Haile Melekot]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of rulers of Shewa|King of Shewa]]|years=1855–1856}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Haile Mikael]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Bezabeh]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of rulers of Shewa|King of Shewa]]|years=1865–1889}}
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{{Portal bar|Ethiopia|Monarchy|Biography|5=History}}
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[[Category:19th-century emperors of Ethiopia]]
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[[Category:Genocide perpetrators]]
[[Category:Solomonic dynasty]]
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[[Category:Ethiopian Oriental Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Orthodox Christians]]
[[Category:People of the First Italo-Ethiopian War]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary]]
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