View source for Middle East

{{Short description|Transcontinental geopolitical region}}
{{Distinguish|West Asia|Greater Middle East|Middle East and North Africa}}
{{Other uses}}
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{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{refimprove|date=July 2025}}
{{Infobox continent
| title      = Middle East
| image      = [[File:Middle East (orthographic projection).svg|230px|Middle East]]
| image_caption = Map of the Middle East, extending west to [[Egypt]] and east to [[Iran]]
| caption    = {{legend|#346733|Location of the Middle East}}{{legend|#008000|[[Greater Middle East]]}}{{legend|#73ED73|Areas sometimes included}}
| area       = {{convert|7222411|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| population = {{increase}}&nbsp;{{sigfig|487466195|4}} ({{as of|2025|lc=y}})<ref name="IMFAPR2025" /><ref name="Akrotiri and Dhekelia">{{Citation |title=Akrotiri and Dhekelia |date=2024-05-15 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/akrotiri-and-dhekelia/ |access-date=2024-05-25 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref>
| countries  = See: ''[[list of Middle Eastern countries by population|list by population]]''
{{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[Member states of the United Nations|UN members]] (16)
| {{flag|Bahrain}}
| {{flag|Cyprus}}
| {{flag|Egypt}}
| {{flag|Iran}}
| {{flag|Iraq}}
| {{flag|Israel}}
| {{flag|Jordan}}
| {{flag|Kuwait}}
| {{flag|Lebanon}}
| {{flag|Oman}}
| {{flag|Qatar}}
| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
| {{flag|Syria}}
| {{flag|Turkey}}
| {{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
| {{flag|Yemen}}
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[United Nations General Assembly observers#Current non-member observers|UN observer]] (1)
| {{flag|Palestine}}
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[List of states with limited recognition|De facto]] (1)
| {{flag|Northern Cyprus}}
 }}
| dependencies = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[Dependent territory|External]] (1)
| {{Flag|Akrotiri and Dhekelia}} ([[The Crown|United Kingdom]])
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[List of administrative divisions by country|Internal]] (2)
| {{flag|Kurdistan}} ([[Iraq]])
| {{flag|Rojava}} ([[Syria]])
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[List of military occupations|Occupied]] (4)
| {{flagdeco|Palestine}} [[East Jerusalem]]
| {{flag|Gaza Strip}}
| {{flagdeco|Syria}} [[Golan Heights]]
| {{flag|West Bank}}
 }}
 {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[List of territories governed by the United Nations|UN buffers]] (2)
| {{flagdeco|United Nations}} [[United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus|UNBZC]]
| {{flagdeco|United Nations}} [[United Nations Disengagement Observer Force#UNDOF Zone|UNDOF Zone]]
 }}
| languages  = {{collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = 60 languages
| '''Official languages'''
| [[Arabic]]
| [[English Language|English]]
| [[Greek language|Greek]]
| [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
| [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]
| [[Persian language|Persian]]
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
| '''Languages without official status''' (spoken by diaspora or other minorities)
| [[Abaza language|Abaza]]
| [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]]
| [[Albanian language|Albanian]]
| [[Amharic]]
| [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
| [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]
| [[Balochi language|Balochi]]
| [[Bosniak language|Bosniak]]{{Dubious|date=June 2023|reason=Bosnian is a literary standard based on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect of Shtokavian, not a language.}}
| [[Chechen language|Chechen]]
| [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| [[Circassian language|Circassian]]
| [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]]
| [[Coptic language|Coptic]]
| [[Domari language|Domari]]
| [[French Language|French]]
| [[Balkan Gagauz Turkish]]
| [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
| [[Gilaki language|Gilaki]]
| [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
| [[Hindi]]
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
| [[Italian language|Italian]]
| [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
| [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]]
| [[Kurbet language|Kurbet]]
| [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
| [[Judaeo-Spanish|Judæo-Spanish]]
| [[Laz language|Laz]]
| [[Luri language|Luri]]
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| [[Malayalam]]
| [[Mazanderani language|Mazanderani]]
| [[Neo-Aramaic languages|Neo-Aramaic]]
| [[Nobiin language|Nobiin]]
| [[Qashqai language|Qashqai]]
| [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
| [[Russian language|Russian]]
| [[Siwa language|Siwa]]
| [[Somali language|Somali]]
| [[Syriac language|Syriac]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
| [[Talysh language|Talysh]]
| [[Tatar language|Tatar]]
| [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]
| [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]]
| [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| [[Urdu]]
| [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
| [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
| [[Zaza language|Zaza]]
 }}
| time       = [[UTC+02:00|UTC+2]] to [[UTC+04:00|UTC+4]]
| cities     = {{Collapsible list
| titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
| title      = [[List of largest metropolitan areas in the Middle East|10 largest cities in the Middle East]]
|
# {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Cairo]]
# {{flagicon|Iran}} [[Tehran]]
# {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Istanbul]]
# {{flagicon|Iraq}} [[Baghdad]]
# {{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Riyadh]]
# {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Ankara]]
# {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Alexandria]]
# {{flagicon|UAE}} [[Dubai]]
# {{flagicon|Saudi Arabia}} [[Jeddah]]
# {{flagicon|Jordan}} [[Amman]]
 }}
}}

[[File:Middle east.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|Map of the Middle East between North Africa, Southern Europe, Central Asia, and Southern Asia]]
[[File:Middle East map of Köppen climate classification.svg|upright=1.2|thumb|Middle East map of Köppen climate classification]]

The '''Middle East'''{{NoteTag|Translations of this term in some of the region's major languages include: {{langx|ar|الشرق الأوسط|translit=aš-Šarq al-ʾAwsaṭ}}; {{langx|aii|ܡܕܢܚܐ ܡܨܥܝܬܐ|translit=Madnḥā Miṣʿāyā}}; {{langx|he|הַמִּזְרָח הַתִּיכוֹן|ham-Mizrāḥ hat-Tīḵōn}}; {{langx|ku-Latn|Rojhilata Navîn}}; {{langx|fa|خاورمیانه|translit=Xâvar-e-Miyâne}}; {{langx|azb|اوْرتاشرق}}; {{langx|tr|Orta Doğu}}.}} is a geopolitical region encompassing the [[Arabian Peninsula]], [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], the [[Levant]], and [[Turkey]].

The term came into widespread usage by [[Western Europe]]an nations in the early 20th century as a replacement of the term [[Near East]] (both were in contrast  to the [[Far East]]). The term "Middle East" has led to some confusion over its changing definitions.<ref name="dont"/> Since the late 20th century, it has been criticized as being too [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]].<ref name="hanafi"/> The region includes the vast majority of the territories included in the closely associated definition of [[West Asia]], but without the [[South Caucasus]]. It also includes all of Egypt (not just the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai region]]) and all of Turkey (including [[East Thrace]]).

Most Middle Eastern countries (13 out of 18) are part of the [[Arab world]]. The [[list of Middle Eastern countries by population|three most populous countries in the region]] are Egypt, Iran, and Turkey, while [[Saudi Arabia]] is the largest Middle Eastern country by area. The [[history of the Middle East]] dates back to [[ancient history|ancient times]], and it was long considered the "[[cradle of civilization]]". The geopolitical importance of the region has been recognized and competed for during millennia.<ref>Cairo, Michael F. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_ukBNxLFNxgC&q=middle+east+of+high+importance+since+ancient+times ''The Gulf: The Bush Presidencies and the Middle East''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222230823/https://books.google.nl/books?id=_ukBNxLFNxgC&dq=middle+east+of+high+importance+since+ancient+times&hl=nl&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=22 December 2015 }} University Press of Kentucky, 2012 {{ISBN|978-0-8131-3672-1}} p. xi.</ref><ref>Government Printing Office. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UOgvZdjOsb0C&dq=middle+east+of+high+importance+since+ancient+times&pg=PA177 ''History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense: The formative years, 1947–1950''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222230708/https://books.google.nl/books?id=UOgvZdjOsb0C&pg=PA177&dq=middle+east+of+high+importance+since+ancient+times&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDMQ6AEwA2oVChMIlNGcnPv5yAIVybMUCh2Sag-6 |date=22 December 2015 }} {{ISBN|978-0-16-087640-0}} p. 177</ref><ref>Kahana, Ephraim. Suwaed, Muhammad. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xoftt29B4soC&dq=middle+east+of+crucial+importance+since+ancient+times&pg=PR31 ''Historical Dictionary of Middle Eastern Intelligence''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223002634/https://books.google.nl/books?id=Xoftt29B4soC&pg=PR31&dq=middle+east+of+crucial+importance+since+ancient+times&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFEQ6AEwB2oVChMI-8aUsPr5yAIVxGsUCh3q_wR- |date=23 December 2015 }} Scarecrow Press, 13 April 2009 {{ISBN|978-0-8108-6302-6}} p. xxxi.</ref> The Abrahamic religions ([[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and [[Judaism]]) have their origins in the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Middle East Politics: Continuity, Change, Conflict and Co-operation|first=Benjamin |last=MacQueen|year= 2013| isbn=978-1446289761| page =5|publisher=SAGE|quote=The Middle East is the cradle of the three monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.}}</ref> [[Arabs]] constitute the main ethnic group in the region,<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC&q=main+ethnic+groups+in+the+middle+east&pg=PA16|title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia|access-date=26 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424084425/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=main+ethnic+groups+in+the+middle+east&source=bl&ots=uGb8t7Re3p&sig=wlU7EbnyjrI4FHgw5H2WTeJvePI&hl=nl&sa=X&ei=JHCDU_HgMInHOeCGgLgK&ved=0CDAQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=Turks&f=false|archive-date=24 April 2016|isbn=978-1-59884-362-0|last1=Shoup|first1=John A.|year= 2011|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> followed by [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Persians]], [[Kurds]], [[Jews]], and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]].<ref>{{citation|title=Major ethnic and linguistic groups of the Middle East|url=https://library.fiveable.me/history-middle-east-since-1800/unit-1/major-ethnic-linguistic-groups/study-guide/vDcOqFUSyIcER4ba|access-date=18 June 2025}}</ref>

The Middle East generally has a hot, [[arid]] climate, especially in the Arabian and Egyptian regions. Several major rivers provide [[irrigation]] to support [[agriculture]] in limited areas here, such as the [[Nile Delta]] in Egypt, the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] watersheds of [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Jordan Rift Valley|basin]] of the [[Jordan River]] that spans most of the Levant. These regions are collectively known as the [[Fertile Crescent]], and comprise the core of what historians had long referred to as the cradle of civilization; multiple regions of the world have since been classified as also having developed independent, original civilizations.

Conversely, the Levantine coast and most of Turkey have relatively temperate climates [[Mediterranean climate|typical of the Mediterranean]], with dry summers and cool, wet winters. Most of the countries that border the [[Persian Gulf]] have vast reserves of [[petroleum]]. Monarchs of the Arabian Peninsula in particular have benefitted economically from petroleum exports. Because of the arid climate and dependence  on the fossil fuel industry, the Middle East is both [[climate change in the Middle East and North Africa|a major contributor to climate change]] and a region that is expected to be severely adversely affected by it.

Other concepts of the region exist, including the broader [[Middle East and North Africa]] (MENA), which includes states of the [[Maghreb]] and the [[Sudan]]. The term the "[[Greater Middle East]]" also includes [[Afghanistan]], [[Mauritania]], [[Pakistan]], as well as parts of [[East Africa]], and sometimes [[Central Asia]] and the South Caucasus.

==Terminology==
The term "Middle East" may have originated in the 1850s in the British [[India Office]].{{Sfn | Beaumont | Blake | Wagstaff | 1988 | p = 16}} However, it became more widely known when [[United States]] naval strategist [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]] used the term in 1902<ref>{{cite journal | last =Koppes | first = CR |title = Captain Mahan, General Gordon and the origin of the term "Middle East" |journal=Middle East Studies |volume=12 |pages= 95–98 |year= 1976 |doi = 10.1080/00263207608700307| issn=0026-3206 }}</ref> to "designate the area between Arabia and India".<ref>{{cite book | last = Lewis | first = Bernard | title= The Middle East and the West |year= 1965 |page=9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Fromkin | first = David | author-link = David Fromkin | title = A Peace to end all Peace | year = 1989 | page = [https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea0000from/page/224 224] | isbn = 978-0-8050-0857-9 | title-link = A Peace to End All Peace | publisher = H. Holt }}</ref>

During this time the [[British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires were vying for influence in [[Central Asia]], a rivalry that would become known as the [[Great Game]]. Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Melman | first = Billie | url = http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol052178140x_CCOL052178140XA010 | publisher = Cambridge | title = Companion to Travel Writing | volume = 6 The Middle East/Arabia | series = Collections Online | access-date = 8 January 2006 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725125839/http://cco.cambridge.org/extract?id=ccol052178140x_CCOL052178140XA010 | archive-date = 25 July 2011 | date = November 2002 }}.</ref><ref>Palmer, Michael A. ''Guardians of the Persian Gulf: A History of America's Expanding Role in the Persian Gulf, 1833–1992.'' New York: The Free Press, 1992.  {{ISBN|0-02-923843-9}} pp. 12–13.</ref> He labeled the area surrounding the Persian Gulf as the Middle East. He said that, beyond Egypt's [[Suez Canal]], the Gulf was the most important passage for Britain to control in order to keep the Russians from advancing towards [[British Raj|British India]].<ref>Laciner, Sedat. "[http://www.turkishweekly.net/comments.php?id=2117  Is There a Place Called 'the Middle East'?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070220093342/http://www.turkishweekly.net/comments.php?id=2117 |date=2007-02-20 }}", ''The Journal of Turkish Weekly'', 2 June 2006. Retrieved 10 January 2007.</ref> Mahan first used the term in his article "The Persian Gulf and International Relations", published in September 1902 in the ''[[National Review (London)|National Review]]'', a British journal.
{{Blockquote|The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need [[Malta Protectorate|its Malta]], as well as [[Capture of Gibraltar|its Gibraltar]]; it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf.  Naval force has the quality of mobility which carries with it the privilege of temporary absences; but it needs to find on every scene of operation established bases of refit, of supply, and in case of disaster, of security. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about [[Aden Province|Aden]], India, and the Persian Gulf.{{Sfn | Adelson | 1995 | pp = 22–23}}}}

Mahan's article was reprinted in ''[[The Times]]'' and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled "The Middle Eastern Question", written by Sir [[Ignatius Valentine Chirol]]. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of ''Middle East'' to include "those regions of Asia which extend to the borders of [[India]] or command the approaches to India."{{Sfn | Adelson | 1995 | p = 24}} After the series ended in 1903, ''The Times'' removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term.{{Sfn | Adelson | 1995 | p = 26}}

Until [[World War II]], it was customary to refer to areas centered on [[Turkey]] and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the "[[Near East]]", while the "[[Far East]]" centered on [[China]], [[India]] and [[Japan]].<ref name="davison">{{cite journal | last =Davison | first = Roderic H. |title= Where is the Middle East? |journal= Foreign Affairs | volume = 38 |pages=665–675 |year=1960 |doi=10.2307/20029452 |issue=4| jstor = 20029452 | s2cid = 157454140 }}</ref> The Middle East was then defined as the area from [[Mesopotamia]] to [[Burma]]; namely, the area between the Near East and the Far East.<ref name=wapo2016 /><ref name=UNC /> This area broadly corresponds to [[South Asia]].

In the late 1930s, the British established the [[Middle East Command]], which was based in [[Cairo]], for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term "Middle East" gained broader usage in Europe and the United States. Following World War II, for example, the [[Middle East Institute]] was founded in [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1946.<ref>{{cite book | last =Held | first = Colbert C. |title=Middle East Patterns: Places, Peoples, and Politics | url =https://archive.org/details/middleeastpatter00held_0 | url-access =registration |publisher=Westview Press |year=2000 |page=[https://archive.org/details/middleeastpatter00held_0/page/7 7] |isbn= 978-0-8133-8221-0}}</ref>

The corresponding adjective is ''Middle Eastern'' and the derived noun is ''Middle Easterner''.

While non-Eurocentric terms such as "Southwest Asia" or "Swasia" have been sparsely used, the classification of the African country, Egypt, among those counted in the Middle East challenges the usefulness of using such terms.<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=25741178|title=Constructing and naturalizing the Middle Easr|first=Karen|last=Culcasi|journal=[[Geographical Review]]|volume=100|issue=4|year=2010|pages=583–597|doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2010.00059.x|bibcode=2010GeoRv.100..583C |s2cid=154611116}}</ref>

===Usage and criticism===
[[File:Middle East.ogv|thumb|1957 American film about the Middle East]]

The description ''Middle'' has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the [[World War I|First World War]], "Near East" was used in English to refer to the [[Balkans]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], while "Middle East" referred to the [[Caucasus]], [[Persia]], and Arabian lands,<ref name=wapo2016>{{cite news| url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/05/19/the-modern-middle-east-is-actually-only-100-years-old/| title = How the Middle East was invented | newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> and sometimes [[Afghanistan]], [[India]] and others.<ref name=UNC>{{Cite web|url=https://mideast.unc.edu/where/|title=Where Is the Middle East?}}</ref> In contrast, "[[Far East]]" referred to the countries of [[East Asia]] (e.g. [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]]).<ref>Clyde, Paul Hibbert, and Burton F. Beers. ''The Far East: A History of Western Impacts and Eastern Responses, 1830-1975'' (1975). [https://archive.org/details/lccn_0133029687 online]</ref><ref>Norman, Henry. ''The Peoples and Politics of the Far East: Travels and studies in the British, French, Spanish and Portuguese colonies, Siberia, China, Japan, Korea, Siam and Malaya'' (1904) [https://archive.org/details/peoplesandpolit05normgoog online]</ref>

With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, "Near East" largely fell out of common use in English, while "Middle East" came to be applied to the emerging independent countries of the [[Islamic world]]. However, the usage "Near East" was retained by a variety of academic disciplines, including [[archaeology]] and [[ancient history]]. In their usage, the term describes an area identical to the term ''Middle East'', which is not used by these disciplines (see [[ancient Near East]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}

The first official use of the term "Middle East" by the [[Federal government of the United States|United States government]] was in the 1957 [[Eisenhower Doctrine]], which pertained to the [[Suez Crisis]]. Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] defined the Middle East as "the area lying between and including [[Libya]] on the west and [[Pakistan]] on the east, [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] on the North and the Arabian peninsula to the south, plus the [[Sudan]] and [[Ethiopia]]."<ref name="davison"/> In 1958, the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] explained that the terms "Near East" and "Middle East" were interchangeable, and defined the region as including only [[Egypt]], Syria, [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], Iraq, [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bahrain]], and [[Qatar]].<ref>{{cite news |title= 'Near East' is Mideast, Washington Explains |url= http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70E10FC3D59127A93C6A81783D85F4C8585F9&scp=1&sq='Near%20East'%20is%20Mideast,%20Washington%20Explains&st=cse |newspaper= The New York Times |date= 14 August 1958 |access-date= 25 January 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091015044505/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70E10FC3D59127A93C6A81783D85F4C8585F9&scp=1&sq=%27Near%20East%27%20is%20Mideast%2C%20Washington%20Explains&st=cse |archive-date= 15 October 2009 }}{{subscription required}}</ref>

Since the late 20th century, scholars and journalists from the region, such as journalist Louay Khraish and historian [[Hassan Hanafi]] have criticized the use of "Middle East" as a [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] and [[Colonialism|colonialist]] term.<ref name="dont">{{cite web |last=Khraish |first=Louay |date=16 July 2021 |title=Don't Call Me Middle Eastern |publisher=Raseef 22|url=https://raseef22.net/article/1083546-dont-call-me-middle-eastern}}</ref><ref name="hanafi">{{cite web |last=Hanafi |first=Hassan |location=Oslo |year=1998 |title=The Middle East, in whose world? (Primary Reflections) |url=http://www.smi.uib.no/pao/hanafi.html |publisher=Nordic Society for Middle Eastern Studies (The fourth Nordic conference on Middle Eastern Studies: The Middle East in globalizing world Oslo, 13–16 August 1998) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008121436/http://www.smi.uib.no/pao/hanafi.html |archive-date=8 October 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Shohat |first=Ella |title=Redrawing American Cartographies of Asia |url=http://commposite.uqam.ca/videaz/docs/elshen.html |publisher=City University of New York |access-date=12 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312062752/http://commposite.uqam.ca/videaz/docs/elshen.html |archive-date=12 March 2007 }}</ref>

The [[Associated Press]] Stylebook of 2004 says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous. It instructs:

<blockquote>Use ''Middle East'' unless ''Near East'' is used by a source in a story. ''Mideast'' is also acceptable, but ''Middle East'' is preferred.<ref>Goldstein, Norm. ''The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law''. New York: Basic Books, 2004. {{ISBN|0-465-00488-1}} p. 156</ref></blockquote>

===Translations===
European languages have adopted terms similar to ''Near East'' and ''Middle East''. Since these are based on a relative description, the meanings depend on the country and are generally different from the English terms. In [[German language|German]] the term ''[[:de:Naher Osten|Naher Osten]]'' (Near East) is still in common use (nowadays the term ''Mittlerer Osten'' is more and more common in press texts translated from English sources, albeit having a distinct meaning).

In the four Slavic languages, [[Russian language|Russian]] [[:ru:Ближний Восток|Ближний Восток]] or ''Blizhniy Vostok'', [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] [[:bg:Близък Изток|Близкия Изток]], [[Polish language|Polish]] ''[[:pl:Bliski Wschód|Bliski Wschód]]'' or [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ''[[:hr:Bliski istok|Bliski istok]]'' (terms meaning ''Near East'' are the only appropriate ones for the region).

However, some European languages do have "Middle East" equivalents, such as [[French language|French]] [[:fr:Moyen-Orient|Moyen-Orient]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] [[:sv:Mellanöstern|Mellanöstern]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[:es:Oriente Medio|Oriente Medio or Medio Oriente]], [[Greek language|Greek]] is Μέση Ανατολή (''Mesi Anatoli''), and [[Italian language|Italian]] [[:it:Medio Oriente|Medio Oriente]].<ref group="note">In Italian, the expression "Vicino Oriente" (Near East) was widely used to refer to Turkey, and ''Estremo Oriente'' (Far East or Extreme East) to refer to all of Asia east of Middle East</ref>

Perhaps because of the political influence of the United States and Europe, and the prominence of Western press, the Arabic equivalent of ''Middle East'' (Arabic: الشرق الأوسط ''ash-Sharq al-Awsaṭ'') has become standard usage in the mainstream Arabic press. It comprises the same meaning as the term "Middle East" in North American and Western European usage. The designation, ''[[Mashriq]]'', also from the Arabic root for ''East'', also denotes a variously defined region around the [[Levant]], the eastern part of the Arabic-speaking world (as opposed to the ''[[Maghreb]]'', the western part).<ref>{{cite book |author1=Anderson, Ewan W. |author2=William Bayne Fisher |title=The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics |publisher=Routledge |year=2000 |pages=12–13}}</ref> Even though the term originated in the West, countries of the Middle East that use languages other than Arabic also use that term in translation. For instance, the [[Persian language|Persian]] equivalent for Middle East is خاورمیانه (''Khāvar-e miyāneh''), the Hebrew is המזרח התיכון (''hamizrach hatikhon''), and the Turkish is Orta Doğu.<ref>{{citation|title=The Middle East in Turkish|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-turkish/the-middle-east|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|access-date=16 February 2025}}</ref>

== Countries and territory ==
{{Further|List of Middle Eastern countries by population}}

=== Countries and territory usually considered within the Middle East ===
Traditionally included within the Middle East are [[Arabian Peninsula|Arabia]], [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], [[East Thrace]], [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], the [[Levant]], [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Socotra Governorate|Socotra Archipelago]]. The region includes 17 [[UN]]-recognized countries and one [[British Overseas Territories|British Overseas Territory]].

{| class ="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center"
!class="unsortable"| [[Armorial of sovereign states|Arms]]
!class="unsortable"| [[Gallery of sovereign state flags|Flag]]
! [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[List of countries and dependencies by population|Population]]<br />(2025)<ref name="IMFAPR2025">{{cite web |title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?c=419,423,469,429,433,436,439,443,446,449,453,456,463,186,466,487,474,&s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,LP,&sy=2010&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |website=IMF |access-date=29 April 2025 |language=en}}</ref>
! [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|Density]]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[List of national capitals|Capital]]
! [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Nominal<br />GDP]], {{abbr|bn|billions}} (2025)<ref name="IMFAPR2025" />
! [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|GDP per capita]] (2025)<ref name="IMFAPR2025" />
! Currency
! Government
! Official<br />language(s)
!Predominant religion 
|-
| {{Coat of arms|United Kingdom|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Akrotiri and Dhekelia|size=45px}}
| [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 254
| style="text-align:right;"| 18,195 (2020)<ref name="Akrotiri and Dhekelia"/>
| style="text-align:right;"| 72
| [[Episkopi Cantonment|Episkopi]]
| N/A
| N/A
| [[Euro]]
| ''De facto'' [[stratocracy|stratocratic]] [[dependent territory|dependency]] under a [[constitutional monarchy]]
| [[English language|English]]
|[[Christianity]] 
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Bahrain|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Bahrain|size=45px}}
| [[Bahrain]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 778
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,657,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,130
| [[Manama]]
| $47.829
| $28,857
| [[Bahraini dinar]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|[[Islam]] (official)
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Cyprus|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Cyprus|size=45px}}
| [[Cyprus]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 9,251
| style="text-align:right;"| 942,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 102
| [[Nicosia]]
| $38.736
| $41,132
| [[Euro]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Greek language|Greek]],<br />[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|Christianity 
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Egypt|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Egypt|size=45px}}
| [[Egypt]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,001,450
| style="text-align:right;"| 109,450,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 109
| [[Cairo]]
| $347.342
| $3,174
| [[Egyptian pound]]
| [[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Seal|Iran|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Iran|size=45px}}
| [[Iran]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,648,195
| style="text-align:right;"| 87,500,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 53
| [[Tehran]]
| $341.013
| $3,897
| [[Iranian rial]]
| [[Islamic republic]]
| [[Persian language|Persian]]
|Islam (official) 
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Iraq|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Iraq|size=45px}}
| [[Iraq]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 438,317
| style="text-align:right;"| 45,521,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 104
| [[Baghdad]]
| $258.020
| $5,668
| [[Iraqi dinar]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Arabic]],<br />[[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]
|Islam (official, expect in autonomous [[Kurdistan Region]])
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Israel|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Israel|size=45px}}
| [[Israel]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 21,937
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,100,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 460
| [[Jerusalem]]{{ref|israel|a}}
| $583.361
| $57,760
| [[Israeli new shekel|Israeli shekel]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
|[[Judaism]]
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Jordan|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Jordan|size=45px}}
| [[Jordan]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 89,318
| style="text-align:right;"| 11,442,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 128
| [[Amman]]
| $56.102
| $4,903
| [[Jordanian dinar]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Kuwait|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Kuwait|size=45px}}
| [[Kuwait]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 17,818
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,112,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 287
| [[Kuwait City]]
| $153.101
| $29,951
| [[Kuwaiti dinar]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| style="background-color:#c8ccd1; text-align:center;"| <!-- The Lebanese constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
| {{flagicon|Lebanon|size=45px}}
| [[Lebanon]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,452
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,354,000 (2024)
| style="text-align:right;"| 512
| [[Beirut]]
| $28.280 (2024)
| $5,282 (2024)
| [[Lebanese pound]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam, large minority for Christianity 
|-
| {{Seal|Oman|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Oman|size=45px}}
| [[Oman]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 309,500
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,502,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 18
| [[Muscat]]
| $104.351
| $18,966
| [[Omani rial]]
| [[Absolute monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Palestine|size=30px|text=none|link=State of Palestine}}
| {{flagicon|Palestine|size=45px}}
| [[Palestine]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 6,020
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,477,000 (2023)
| style="text-align:right;"| 910
| [[Jerusalem]]<br />[[Ramallah]]{{ref|palestine|a}}
| $17.848 (2023)
| $3,259 (2023)
| [[Israeli new shekel|Israeli shekel]],<br />[[Jordanian dinar]]
| [[Semi-presidential republic|Semi-presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Seal|Qatar|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Qatar|size=45px}}
| [[Qatar]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 11,586
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,109,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 268
| [[Doha]]
| $222.776
| $71,653
| [[Qatari riyal]]
| [[Absolute monarchy|Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Seal|Saudi Arabia|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Saudi Arabia|size=45px}}
| [[Saudi Arabia]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,149,690
| style="text-align:right;"| 36,006,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 17
| [[Riyadh]]
| $1,083.749
| $30,099
| [[Saudi riyal]]
| [[Absolute monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Syria|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Syria|size=45px}}
| [[Syria]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 185,180
| style="text-align:right;"| 21,393,000 (2010)
| style="text-align:right;"| 116
| [[Damascus]]
| $60.043 (2010)
| $2,807 (2010)
| [[Syrian pound]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam 
|-
| style="background-color:#c8ccd1; text-align:center;"| <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
| {{flagicon|Turkey|size=45px}}
| [[Turkey]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 783,562
| style="text-align:right;"| 86,026,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 110
| [[Ankara]]
| $1,437.406
| $16,709
| [[Turkish lira]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|Islam
|-
| {{Coat of arms|United Arab Emirates|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|United Arab Emirates|size=45px}}
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 83,600
| style="text-align:right;"| 11,083,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 133
| [[Abu Dhabi]]
| $548.598
| $49,498
| [[Emirati dirham]]
| [[Federation|Federal]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|-
| {{Coat of arms|Yemen|size=30px|text=none}}
| {{flagicon|Yemen|size=45px}}
| [[Yemen]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 455,503
| style="text-align:right;"| 41,774,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 92
| [[Sanaa]]{{ref|sanaa|b}}<br />[[Aden]] <small>(provisional)</small>
| $17.401
| $417
| [[Yemeni rial]]
| [[Provisional government|Provisional]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Arabic]]
|Islam (official)
|}

:<small>a. {{note|israel}}{{note|palestine}}[[Jerusalem]] is the [[Jerusalem Law|proclaimed capital of Israel]], which is [[status of Jerusalem|disputed]], and the actual location of the [[Knesset]], [[Supreme Court of Israel|Israeli Supreme Court]], and other governmental institutions of Israel. [[Ramallah]] is the actual location of the government of Palestine, whereas the proclaimed capital of Palestine is [[East Jerusalem]], which is [[status of Jerusalem|disputed]].</small>
:<small>b. {{note|sanaa}}Controlled by the [[Houthi movement|Houthis]] due to the [[Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)|ongoing civil war]]. Seat of government moved to Aden.</small>

===Other definitions of the Middle East===
{{Further|Greater Middle East|MENA|Near East}}
{{See also|West Asia|Fertile Crescent|Levant|Syria (region)}}

Various concepts are often paralleled to the Middle East, most notably the [[Near East]], [[Fertile Crescent]], and [[Levant]]. These are geographical concepts, which refer to large sections of the modern-day Middle East, with the Near East being the closest to the Middle East in its geographical meaning. Due to it primarily being Arabic speaking, the [[Maghreb]] region of North Africa is sometimes included.

"[[Greater Middle East]]" is a [[political geography|political]] term coined by the [[presidency of George W. Bush|second Bush administration]] in the first decade of the 21st century<ref name=haeri>{{Cite news|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FC04Ak06.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040407112015/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FC04Ak06.html|url-status=dead |archive-date=7 April 2004|access-date=21 August 2008|title=Concocting a 'Greater Middle East' brew|work=[[Asia Times]]|date=3 March 2004|first=Safa|last=Haeri}}</ref> to denote various countries, pertaining to the [[Muslim world]], specifically [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkey]].<ref>Ottaway, Marina & Carothers, Thomas (29 March 2004), [https://web.archive.org/web/20040915010150/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=1480 The Greater Middle East Initiative: Off to a False Start], Policy Brief, ''Carnegie Endowment for International Peace'', 29, pp. 1–7</ref> Various [[Central Asia]]n countries are sometimes also included.<ref>[http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/me.htm Middle East] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160415014006/http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/me.htm |date=15 April 2016 }} What Is The Middle East And What Countries Are Part of It? worldatlas.com. Retrieved 16 April 2016.</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of the Middle East}}
{{for timeline|Timeline of Middle Eastern history}}
{{further|Neolithic#Western Asia|Ancient Near East|Mesopotamia|Uruk period|Kish civilization|Ancient Egypt|History of the ancient Levant|History of Anatolia|History of Iran|Middle Eastern Empires|Pre-Islamic Arabia|List of modern conflicts in the Middle East}}
[[File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg|alt=All Gizah Pyramids|thumb|[[Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramid complex]] in [[Egypt]]. Built during the [[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt|Fourth Dynasty]] of the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] of [[ancient Egypt]], between <abbr>c.</abbr> 2600 – c. 2500 BC. ]]
[[File:Göbekli Tepe, Urfa.jpg|thumb|Some [[henge]]s at [[Göbekli Tepe]] were erected as far back as [[Göbekli Tepe#Layer III|9600 BC]], predating those of [[Stonehenge]], England, by over seven millennia. The site of the oldest known religious structure created by humans.<ref name="ArchMag">{{cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0811/abstracts/turkey.html|title=The World's First Temple|work= Archaeology magazine |date=November–December 2008|page=23}}</ref>]]
[[File:Westernwall2.jpg|thumb|[[Western Wall]] and [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]]]
[[File:Jerusalem-Grabeskirche-14-vom Erloeserkirchturm-2010-gje.jpg|thumb|[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in [[Jerusalem]]]]
[[File:Kaaba mirror edit jj.jpg|thumb|The [[Kaaba]], located in [[Mecca]], [[Saudi Arabia]]]]

The Middle East lies at the juncture of [[Africa]] and [[Eurasia]] and of the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (see also: [[Indo-Mediterranean]]). It is the birthplace and [[spirituality|spiritual]] center of religions such as [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Judaism]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Yezidi]], [[Druze]], [[Yarsan]], and [[Mandeanism]], and in Iran, [[Mithraism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Manicheanism]], and the [[Baháʼí Faith]]. Throughout its history the Middle East has been a major center of world affairs; a strategically, economically, politically, culturally, and religiously sensitive area. The region is one of the regions where [[Origins of agriculture in West Asia|agriculture was independently discovered]], and from the Middle East it was spread, during the Neolithic, to different regions of the world such as Europe, the Indus Valley and Eastern Africa.

Prior to the formation of civilizations, advanced cultures formed all over the Middle East during the [[Stone Age]]. The search for agricultural lands by agriculturalists, and pastoral lands by herdsmen meant different migrations took place within the region and shaped its ethnic and demographic makeup.

The Middle East is widely and most famously known as the [[cradle of civilization]]. The world's earliest civilizations, [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Sumer]], [[Akkadian Empire|Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]]), [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Kish civilization|Kish]] in the Levant, all originated in the Fertile Crescent and [[Nile]] Valley regions of the ancient Near East. These were followed by the [[Hittites|Hittite]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] and [[Urartian]] civilisations of [[Asia Minor]]; [[Elam]], [[History of Iran|Persia]] and [[Medes|Median]] civilizations in [[Iran]], as well as the civilizations of the [[History of the Levant|Levant]] (such as [[Ebla]], [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Tell Brak|Nagar]], [[Ugarit]], [[Canaan]], [[Aramea]], [[Mitanni]], [[Phoenicia]] and [[Ancient Israel|Israel]]) and the [[Arabian Peninsula]] ([[Majan (civilization)|Magan]], [[Sheba]], [[Atlantis of the Sands|Ubar]]). The Near East was first largely unified under the [[Neo Assyrian Empire]], then the [[Achaemenid Empire]] followed later by the [[Macedonian Empire]] and after this to some degree by the [[History of Iran|Iranian empires]] (namely the [[Arsacid Empire|Parthian]] and [[Sassanid Empire]]s), the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Byzantine Empire]]. The region served as the intellectual and economic center of the Roman Empire and played an exceptionally important role due to its periphery on the [[Sassanid Empire]]. Thus, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] stationed up to five or six of their legions in the region for the sole purpose of defending it from Sassanid and Bedouin raids and invasions.

From the 4th century CE onwards, the Middle East became the center of the two main powers at the time, the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the [[Sassanid Empire]]. However, it would be the later [[Caliphate|Islamic Caliphates]] of the [[Middle Ages]], or [[Islamic Golden Age]] which began with the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquest]] of the region in the 7th century AD, that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant [[Islam]]ic [[Arab]] ethnic identity that largely (but not exclusively) persists today. The 4 caliphates that dominated the Middle East for more than 600 years were the [[Rashidun Caliphate]], the [[Umayyad caliphate]], the [[Abbasid caliphate]] and the [[Fatimid caliphate]]. Additionally, the [[Mongols]] would come to dominate the region, the [[Kingdom of Armenia (Antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]] would incorporate parts of the region to their domain, the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] would rule the region and spread Turko-Persian culture, and the [[Franks]] would found the [[Crusader states]] that would stand for roughly two centuries. Josiah Russell estimates the population of what he calls "Islamic territory" as roughly 12.5 million in 1000 – [[Anatolia]] 8 million, [[Syria (region)|Syria]] 2 million, and [[Egypt]] 1.5 million.<ref>{{Setton-A History of the Crusades|last=Russell|first=Josiah C.|chapter=The Population of the Crusader States|pages=295–314|volume=5|p=298}}</ref>
From the 16th century onward, the Middle East came to be dominated, once again, by two main powers: the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the [[Safavid dynasty]].

The modern Middle East began after [[World War I]], when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with the [[Central Powers]], was defeated by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and [[partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]] into a number of separate nations, initially under [[Mandatory Palestine|British]] and [[French Mandate]]s. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notably [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]] by the end of the 1960s. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.

In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks of [[crude oil]] gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and the [[United Arab Emirates]] having large quantities of oil.<ref>Goldschmidt (1999), p. 8</ref> Estimated [[Oil reserves#Estimated reserves by country|oil reserves]], especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartel [[OPEC]] is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.

During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological struggle between the two superpowers and their allies: [[NATO]] and the United States on one side, and the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Warsaw Pact]] on the other, as they competed to influence regional allies. Besides the political reasons there was also the "ideological conflict" between the two systems. Moreover, as [[Louise Fawcett]] argues, among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately of anxiety, were, first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region, second, the fact that the region contained some two-thirds of the world's oil reserves in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world [...]<ref>Louise, Fawcett. ''International Relations of the Middle East''. (Oxford University Press, New York, 2005)</ref> Within this contextual framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence. Throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict particularly between [[Sunni]]s and [[Shiite]]s.

==Geography==
===Climate change===
{{Excerpt|Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa}}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of the Middle East|Middle East economic integration}}
[[File:Oil and Gas Infrastructure Persian Gulf (large).gif|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Petroleum|Oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] pipelines in the Middle-East]]

Middle Eastern economies range from being very poor (such as Gaza and Yemen) to extremely wealthy nations (such as Qatar and UAE). According to the [[International Monetary Fund]],<ref name=":5">{{cite web |author=International Monetary Fund |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref> the three largest Middle Eastern economies in nominal GDP in 2023 were Saudi Arabia ($1.06 trillion), Turkey ($1.03 trillion), and Israel ($0.54 trillion). For nominal GDP per person, the highest ranking countries are Qatar ($83,891), Israel ($55,535), the United Arab Emirates ($49,451) and Cyprus ($33,807).<ref name=":5" /> Turkey ($3.6 trillion), Saudi Arabia ($2.3 trillion), and Iran ($1.7 trillion) had the largest economies in terms of [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|GDP PPP]].<ref name=":5" /> For GDP PPP per person, the highest-ranking countries are Qatar ($124,834), the United Arab Emirates ($88,221), Saudi Arabia ($64,836), Bahrain ($60,596) and Israel ($54,997). The lowest-ranking country in the Middle East, in terms of GDP nominal per capita, is Yemen ($573).<ref name=":5" />

The economic structure of Middle Eastern nations are different because while some are heavily dependent on export of only oil and oil-related products (Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait), others have a highly diverse economic base (such as Cyprus, Israel, Turkey and Egypt). Industries of the Middle Eastern region include oil and oil-related products, agriculture, cotton, cattle, dairy, textiles, leather products, surgical instruments, defence equipment (guns, ammunition, tanks, submarines, fighter jets, UAVs, and missiles). Banking is an important sector, especially for UAE and Bahrain.

With the exception of Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, Lebanon and Israel, tourism has been a relatively undeveloped area of the economy, in part because of the socially conservative nature of the region as well as political turmoil in certain regions. Since the end of the COVID pandemic however, countries such as the UAE,<ref>{{cite web | title=Saudi Arabia is Beating the UAE, Egypt, Qatar, Oman, Jordan, and Cyprus in a Middle East Tourism Boom Fueled by Massive Hotel Growth, Sky-High Arrivals, and Route Expansions | website=Travel And Tour World | date=2025-05-24 | url=https://www.travelandtourworld.com/news/article/saudi-arabia-is-beating-the-uae-egypt-qatar-oman-jordan-and-cyprus-in-a-middle-east-tourism-boom-fueled-by-massive-hotel-growth-sky-high-arrivals-and-route-expansions}}</ref> Bahrain,<ref>{{cite web | last=Canales | first=Eddie | title=Tourism, from The Report: Bahrain 2024 | website=Oxford Business Group | date=2024-12-26 | url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/bahrain/2024-report/tourism-chapter/ | access-date=2025-05-30}}</ref> and Jordan<ref>{{cite web | title=Development of tourism in Jordan | website=Worlddata.info | url=https://www.worlddata.info/asia/jordan/tourism.php | access-date=2025-05-30}}</ref> have begun attracting greater numbers of tourists because of improving tourist facilities and the relaxing of tourism-related restrictive policies.<ref>{{cite web | title=Travel & Tourism Development Index 2024 | url=https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Travel_and_Tourism_Development_Index_2024.pdf | access-date=2025-05-30}}</ref>

Unemployment is high in the Middle East and North Africa region, particularly among people aged 15–29, a demographic representing 30% of the region's population. The total regional unemployment rate in 2025 is 10.8%,<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1925605118889676830 |user=ACMideast |title=The MENA faces some of the highest unemployment rates in the world, with an average rate of 10.8%, excluding GCC countries. Still, the youth unemployment rate remains far higher than that. |author=Atlantic Council Middle East Programs |date=2025-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250707205235/https://x.com/ACMideast/status/1925605118889676830 |archive-date=2025-07-07}}</ref> and among youth is as high as 28%.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20240812-youth-unemployment-in-arab-states-worse-than-pre-covid-years-report-reveals/#:~:text=Youth%20unemployment%20in%20Arab%20states%20worse%20than,years%2C%20report%20reveals%20%E2%80%93%20Middle%20East%20Monitor.&text=While%20that%20unemployment%20rate%20was%20numbered%20at,global%20total%20unemployed%20population%20of%2064.9%20million. | title=Youth unemployment in Arab states worse than pre-Covid years, report reveals | date=12 August 2024 }}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of the Middle East}}
{{See also|Largest metropolitan areas of the Middle East}}

[[File:Maunsell's map, Pre-World War I British Ethnographical Map of eastern Turkey in Asia, Syria and western Persia 01.jpg|thumb|Maunsell's map, a Pre-World War I British Ethnographical Map of the Middle East]]

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in the Middle East}}

[[Arabs]] constitute the largest ethnic group in the Middle East, followed by various [[Iranian peoples]] and then by [[Turkic people]]s ([[Turkish people|Turkish]], [[Azeris]], [[Syrian Turkmen]], and [[Iraqi Turkmen]]). Native ethnic groups of the region include, in addition to Arabs, [[Arameans in Syria|Arameans]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Baloch peoples|Baloch]], [[Berbers]], [[Copts]], [[Druze]], [[Greek Cypriots]], [[Jews]], [[Kurds]], [[Lurs]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Samaritans]], [[Shabak people|Shabaks]], [[Tat people (Iran)|Tats]], and [[Zazas]]. European ethnic groups that form a diaspora in the region include [[Albanians]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Circassians]] (including [[Kabardians]]), [[Crimean Tatars]], [[Greeks]], [[Levantines (Latin Christians)|Franco-Levantines]], [[Levantines (Latin Christians)#Italian Levantines|Italo-Levantines]], and [[Iraqi Turkmens]]. Among other migrant populations are [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], [[Filipinos in Saudi Arabia|Filipinos]], [[Indians in Saudi Arabia|Indians]], [[Indonesians in Saudi Arabia|Indonesians]], [[Pakistanis]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Romani people|Romani]], and [[Afro-Arab]]s.

===Migration===
"Migration has always provided an important vent for labor market pressures in the Middle East. For the period between the 1970s and 1990s, the Arab states of the Persian Gulf in particular provided a rich source of employment for workers from Egypt, Yemen and the countries of the Levant, while Europe had attracted young workers from North African countries due both to proximity and the legacy of colonial ties between France and the majority of North African states."<ref name="Hassan and Dyer">{{cite journal|last1=Hassan|first1=Islam|last2=Dyer|first2=Paul|title=The State of Middle Eastern Youth.|journal=The Muslim World|date=2017|volume=107|issue=1|pages=3–12|url=https://www.academia.edu/31029084|hdl=10822/1042998|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403002800/http://www.academia.edu/31029084/The_Muslim_World_CIRS_Special_Issue_The_State_of_Middle_Eastern_Youth|archive-date=3 April 2017|doi=10.1111/muwo.12175}}</ref>

According to the [[International Organization for Migration]], there are 13&nbsp;million first-generation migrants from [[Arab nations]] in the world, of which 5.8 reside in other Arab countries. Expatriates from Arab countries contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009 Arab countries received a total of US$35.1&nbsp;billion in [[remittance]] in-flows and remittances sent to [[Jordan]], [[Egypt]] and [[Lebanon]] from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20(English).pdf |title=IOM Intra regional labour mobility in Arab region Facts and Figures (English) |access-date=31 October 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430010601/http://www.egypt.iom.int/Doc/IOM%20Intra%20regional%20labour%20mobility%20in%20Arab%20region%20Facts%20and%20Figures%20%28English%29.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2011 }}</ref> In [[Somalia]], the [[Somali Civil War]] has greatly increased the size of the [[Somali diaspora]], as many of the best educated Somalis left for Middle Eastern countries as well as [[Europe]] and [[North America]].

Non-Arab Middle Eastern countries such as [[Turkey]], [[Israel]] and [[Iran]] are also subject to important migration dynamics.

A fair proportion of those migrating from Arab nations are from ethnic and religious minorities facing persecution and are not necessarily ethnic Arabs, Iranians or Turks.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} Large numbers of [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], [[Jewish people|Jews]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Greek people|Greeks]] and [[Armenian people|Armenians]] as well as many [[Mandaeans|Mandean]]s have left nations such as Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey for these reasons during the last century. In Iran, many religious minorities such as [[Christians]], [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], [[Jews]] and [[Zoroastrians]] have left since the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution of 1979]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity| first=Christoph |last=Baumer|year= 2016| isbn=  978-1838609344| page =276|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|quote= Although the Christians of Iran, unlike their Iraqi brothers, were not called up for military service in the Iran–Iraq War ... was so radical that a genuine exodus took place – more than half the 250,000 Christians left Iran after 1979.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Iranian Jews in Israel: Between Persian Cultural Identity and Israeli Nationalism| first=Alessandra |last=Cecolin|year= 2015| isbn= 978-0857727886| page =138|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|quote= }}</ref>

===Religions===
{{Main|Religion in the Middle East}}
[[File:Mosque.jpg|thumb|Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are [[prostration|prostrating]] during prayer in a mosque.]]

The Middle East is very diverse when it comes to [[Major religious groups|religions]], many of which originated there. [[Islam]] is the largest religion in the Middle East, but other faiths that originated there, such as [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East|first=Philip |last=Jenkins|year= 2020| isbn=978-1538124185| page =xlviii |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|quote=The Middle East still stands at the heart of the Christian world. After all, it is the birthplace, and the death place, of Christ, and the cradle of the Christian tradition.}}</ref> are also well represented. [[Christianity in the Middle East|Christian communities]] have [[Role of Christianity in civilization|played a vital role]] in the Middle East,<ref>{{cite book|title=Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East|first=Michael |last=Curtis|year= 2017| isbn=978-1351510721| page =173|publisher=Routledge|quote=Christian communities and individuals have played a vital role in the Middle East, the cradle of Christianity as of other religions.}}</ref> and they represent 78% of [[Cyprus]] population,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Population: demographic situation, languages and religions |url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/cyprus/population-demographic-situation-languages-and-religions |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu}}</ref> and 40.5% of [[Lebanon]], where the [[President of Lebanon|Lebanese president]], half of the cabinet, and half of the parliament follow one of the various Lebanese Christian rites. There are also important minority religions like the [[Baháʼí Faith]], [[Yarsanism]], [[Yazidis]]m,<ref name="Fuccaro" >{{cite book |author1=Nelida Fuccaro |title=The Other Kurds: Yazidis in Colonial Iraq |date=1999 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |location=London & New York |isbn=1860641709 |page=9}}</ref> [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Mandaeism]], [[Druze]],<ref>{{cite book|title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics| first=Colbert|last=  C. Held|year= 2008| isbn= 978-0429962004| page =109|publisher=Routledge|quote= Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora.}}</ref> and [[Shabak people#Religious beliefs|Shabakism]], and in ancient times the region was home to [[ancient Mesopotamian religion|Mesopotamian religions]], [[ancient Canaanite religion|Canaanite religions]], [[Manichaeism]], [[Mithraic mysteries|Mithraism]] and various [[monotheist]] [[gnostic]] sects.

===Languages===
The six top languages, in terms of numbers of speakers, are [[Arabic dialects|Arabic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Hebrew languages|Modern Hebrew]] and [[Modern Greek|Greek]]. About 20 minority languages are also spoken in the Middle East.

Arabic, with all its dialects, is the most widely spoken language in the Middle East, with [[Modern Standard Arabic|Literary Arabic]] being official in all North African and in most West Asian countries. Arabic dialects are also spoken in some adjacent areas in neighbouring Middle Eastern non-Arab countries. It is a member of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic branch]] of the Afro-Asiatic languages. Several [[Modern South Arabian languages]] such as [[Mehri language|Mehri]] and [[Soqotri language|Soqotri]] are also spoken in Yemen and Oman. Another Semitic language is [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and its dialects are spoken mainly by [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Mandaeans]], with [[Western Neo-Aramaic|Western Aramaic]] still spoken in two villages near Damascus, Syria. There is also an [[Berber languages|Oasis Berber]]-speaking community in Egypt where the language is also known as [[Siwa language|Siwa]]. It is a non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic sister language.

[[Persian language|Persian]] is the second most spoken language. While it is primarily spoken in [[Iran]] and some border areas in neighbouring countries, the country is one of the region's largest and most populous. It belongs to the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian branch]] of the family of [[Indo-European languages]]. Other Western Iranic languages spoken in the region include [[Achomi language|Achomi]], [[Daylami language|Daylami]], [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] dialects, [[Semnani language|Semmani]], [[Luri language|Lurish]], amongst many others.

The close third-most widely spoken language, [[Turkish language|Turkish]], is largely confined to Turkey, which is also one of the region's largest and most populous countries, but it is present in areas in neighboring countries. It is a member of the [[Turkic languages]], which have their origins in East Asia. Another Turkic language, [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], is spoken by Azerbaijanis in Iran.

The fourth-most widely spoken language, [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], is spoken in the countries of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey, [[Sorani|Sorani Kurdish]] is the second official language in Iraq (instated after the 2005 constitution) after Arabic.

[[Hebrew languages|Hebrew]] is the official language of [[Israel]], with Arabic given a special status after the [[Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People|2018 Basic law]] lowered its status from an official language prior to 2018. Hebrew is spoken and used by over 80% of Israel's population, the other 20% using Arabic. Modern Hebrew only began being spoken in the 20th century after being [[Revival of the Hebrew language|revived]] in the late 19th century by Elizer Ben-Yehuda (Elizer Perlman) and [[Ashkenazi Jews|European Jewish]] settlers, with the [[Itamar Ben-Avi|first native Hebrew speaker]] being born in 1882.

[[Modern Greek|Greek]] is one of the two official languages of [[Cyprus]], and the country's main language. Small communities of Greek speakers exist all around the Middle East; until the 20th century it was also widely spoken in Asia Minor (being the second most spoken language there, after Turkish) and Egypt. During the antiquity, [[Ancient Greek]] was the [[lingua franca]] for many areas of the western Middle East and until the Muslim expansion it was widely spoken there as well. Until the late 11th century, it was also the main spoken language in [[Asia Minor]]; after that it was gradually replaced by the Turkish language as the Anatolian Turks expanded and the local Greeks were assimilated, especially in the interior.

[[File:1911 Ottoman Calendar.jpg|thumb|upright|1911 Ottoman calendar shown in several different languages such as: Ottoman Turkish (in Arabic script), Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Bulgarian, and French.]]

[[English language|English]] is one of the official languages of Akrotiri and Dhekelia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Europe :: Akrotiri – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/akrotiri/ |publisher=CIA |date=25 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Europe :: Dhekelia – The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dhekelia/ |publisher=CIA |date=25 October 2021 }}</ref> It is also commonly taught and used as a foreign second language, in countries such as [[Egypt]], [[Jordan]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Qatar]], [[Bahrain]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Kuwait]].<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/jordan/ |title= World Factbook – Jordan |date= 20 October 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kuwait/|title=Kuwait|date=19 October 2021|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|via=CIA.gov}}</ref> It is also a main language in some Emirates of the United Arab Emirates. It is also spoken as native language by Jewish immigrants from Anglophone countries (UK, US, Australia) in Israel and understood widely as second language there.

[[French language|French]] is taught and used in many government facilities and media in [[Lebanon]], and is taught in some primary and secondary schools of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]]. [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a Semitic language mainly spoken in Europe, is used by the [[Maltese in Egypt|Franco-Maltese diaspora]] in Egypt. Due to widespread immigration of [[French Jews]] to [[French Jews in Israel|Israel]], it is the native language of approximately 200,000 Jews in Israel.

[[Armenian language|Armenian]] speakers are to be found in the region. [[Georgian language|Georgian]] is spoken by the Georgian diaspora.

[[Russian language|Russian]] is spoken by a large portion of the Israeli population, because of [[Aliyah from the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s|emigration in the late 1990s]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dowty|first=Alan|title=Critical issues in Israeli society|year=2004|publisher=Praeger|location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=9780275973209|page=95}}</ref> Russian today is a popular unofficial language in use in [[Israel]]; news, radio and sign boards can be found in Russian around the country after Hebrew and Arabic. [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Circassian]] is also spoken by the diaspora in the region and by almost all Circassians in Israel who speak Hebrew and English as well.

The largest [[Romanian language|Romanian]]-speaking community in the Middle East is found in [[Israel]], where {{as of|1995|lc=on}} Romanian is spoken by 5% of the population.<ref group="note">According to the 1993 ''Statistical Abstract of Israel'' there were 250,000 Romanian speakers in Israel, at a population of 5,548,523 (census 1995).</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=110 |title=Reports of about 300,000 Jews that left the country after WW2 |website=Eurojewcong.org |access-date=7 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813205116/http://www.eurojewcong.org/ejc/news.php?id_article=110 |archive-date=13 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evz.ro/article.php?artid=185041 |title=Evenimentul Zilei |website=Evz.ro |access-date=7 July 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071224113558/http://www.evz.ro/article.php?artid=185041 |archive-date=24 December 2007 }}</ref>

[[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]] are widely spoken by migrant communities in many Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia (where 20–25% of the population is South Asian), the United Arab Emirates (where 50–55% of the population is South Asian), and Qatar, which have large numbers of [[Pakistan]]i, [[Bangladesh]]i and [[India]]n immigrants.

== Culture ==

=== Sport ===
{{See also|Muscular Islam}}
The Middle East has recently become more prominent in hosting global sport events due to its wealth and desire to diversify its economy.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-22 |title=How the Middle East became the sports industry's go-to destination |url=https://gis.sport/news/how-the-middle-east-became-the-sports-industrys-go-to-destination/ |access-date=2024-10-23 |website=gis.sport |language=en}}</ref>

The [[South Asian diaspora]] is a major backer of [[cricket]] in the region.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kanchana |first=Radhika |date=2020-06-29 |title=Cricket, an oddity in the Arab-Gulf lands or a mirror of an enduring South Asian diaspora? |url=https://revistas.uam.es/reim/article/view/reim2020_28_007 |journal=Revista de Estudios Internacionales Mediterráneos |language=en |issue=28 |pages=121–135 |doi=10.15366/reim2020.28.007 |issn=1887-4460|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|Asia}}<!-- alphabetical order please [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
<!-- please add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]], via {{subst:AnnotatedListOfLinks}} or {{Annotated link}} -->
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{Annotated link |Cinema of the Middle East}}
* {{Annotated link |Etiquette in the Middle East}}
* {{Annotated link |Mental health in the Middle East}}
* {{Annotated link |Middle East Studies Association of North America}}
* {{Annotated link |Middle Eastern cuisine}}
* {{Annotated link |Middle Eastern music}}
* {{Annotated link |Orientalism}}
* {{Annotated link |Russia and the Middle East}}
* {{Section link|State feminism|Middle East}}
{{div col end}}
<!-- alphabetical order please [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->

==Notes==
{{reflist |group="note"}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book | last = Adelson | first = Roger | title = London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power, and War, 1902–1922. | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 1995 | isbn = 978-0-300-06094-2 | url = https://archive.org/details/londoninventiono00adel }}
* {{cite book | last1 =Beaumont | first1 = Peter | first2 = Gerald H | last2 = Blake | first3 = J. Malcolm | last3 = Wagstaff |title=The Middle East: A Geographical Study |publisher=David Fulton |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-470-21040-6 }}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | last1 =Anderson | first1 = R | last2 = Seibert | first2 = R | last3 = Wagner | first3 = J. | title = Politics and Change in the Middle East |edition = 8th | publisher = Prentice-Hall |year= 2006}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Barzilai | first1 = Gad|author2-link=Aaron Klieman | first2 = Klieman | last2 = Aharon | first3 = Shidlo | last3 = Gil | title = The Gulf Crisis and its Global Aftermath | publisher = Routledge | year = 1993 | isbn = 978-0-415-08002-6 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/gulfcrisisitsglo0000unse }}
* {{cite book | last = Barzilai | first = Gad | title = Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order|publisher= State University of New York Press |year=1996 |isbn = 978-0-7914-2943-3}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bishku |first1=Michael B. |title=Is the South Caucasus Region a Part of the Middle East? |journal=Journal of Third World Studies |date=2015 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=83–102|jstor=45178576 }}
* Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton. ''A History Of The Modern Middle East'' (6th ed. 2018 [https://archive.org/details/WilliamLClevelandMartinBuntonAHistoryOfTheModernMiddleEastFourthEdition/page/n3/mode/2up 4th ed. online]
* Cressey, George B. (1960). ''Crossroads: Land and Life in Southwest Asia''. Chicago, IL: J.B. Lippincott Co. xiv, 593 pp. ill. with maps and b&w photos.
* Fischbach, ed. Michael R. ''Biographical encyclopedia of the modern Middle East and North Africa'' (Gale Group, 2008).
* Freedman, Robert O. (1991). ''The Middle East from the Iran-Contra Affair to the Intifada'', in series, ''Contemporary Issues in the Middle East''. 1st ed. Syracuse University Press. x, 441 pp. {{ISBN|0-8156-2502-2}} pbk.
* {{cite book |title=A Concise History of the Middle East | last =Goldschmidt | first = Arthur Jr |publisher=Westview Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8133-0471-7}}
* Halpern, Manfred. ''Politics of Social Change: In the Middle East and North Africa'' (Princeton University Press, 2015).
* Ismael, Jacqueline S., Tareq Y. Ismael, and Glenn Perry. ''Government and politics of the contemporary Middle East: Continuity and change'' (Routledge, 2015).
* Lynch, Marc, ed. ''The Arab Uprisings Explained: New Contentious Politics in the Middle East'' (Columbia University Press, 2014). p.&nbsp;352.
* Lynch, Marc (2025). ''What is the Middle East? The Theory and Practice of Regions''. Cambridge University Press. 
* {{cite book|last= Palmer|first= Michael A.|title= Guardians of the Persian Gulf: A History of America's Expanding Role in the Persian Gulf, 1833–1992|location= New York|publisher= The Free Press|date= 1992|isbn= 978-0-02-923843-1|url= https://archive.org/details/guardiansofgulfh00palm}}
* Reich, Bernard. ''Political leaders of the contemporary Middle East and North Africa: a biographical dictionary'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1990).
* Vasiliev, Alexey. ''Russia's Middle East Policy: From Lenin to Putin'' (Routledge, 2018).
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Middle East}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Wikipedia_-_Middle_East.ogg|date=28 March 2008}}
* [http://www.cfr.org/region/397/middle_east.html "Middle East – Articles by Region"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209155728/http://www.cfr.org/region/397/middle_east.html |date=9 February 2014 }} – [[Council on Foreign Relations]]: "A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis"
* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/?cid=080416a "Middle East – Interactive Crisis Guide"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091130145259/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13850/?cid=080416a |date=30 November 2009 }} – [[Council on Foreign Relations]]: "A Resource for Nonpartisan Research and Analysis"
* [https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/mideast/ Middle East Department] [[University of Chicago]] Library
* ''[http://www.meed.com/ Middle East Business Intelligence since 1957]'': "The leading information source on business in the Middle East" – meed.com
* [http://www.carboun.com/ Carboun] – advocacy for sustainability and environmental conservation in the Middle East
* [https://news.yahoo.com/i/736 Middle East News] from Yahoo! News
* [http://www.arabianbusiness.com/ Middle East Business, Financial & Industry News] – ''ArabianBusiness.com''

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