View source for Middle Kingdom of Egypt

{{short description|Reunified ancient Egypt (c. 2000-1700 BC)}}
{{Other uses|Middle Kingdom (disambiguation){{!}}Middle Kingdom}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 
| conventional_long_name = Middle Kingdom of Egypt
| common_name            = Middle Kingdom of Egypt
| era                    = 
| government_type        = [[Imperial cult|Divine]], [[absolute monarchy]]
| year_start             = {{Circa|2055 BC}}
| year_end               = {{Circa|1650 BC}}
| event_pre              = 
| date_pre               = 
| event_start            = Began
| date_start             = 
| event_end              = Ended
| date_end               = 
| image_flag             = 
| image_coat             = 
| image_map              = Ancient Egyptian old and middle kingdom.svg
| image_map_caption      = 
| p1                     = First Intermediate Period of Egypt
| s1                     = Second Intermediate Period of Egypt
| capital                = [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], [[Itjtawy]]
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| common_languages       = [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
| religion               = [[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
| currency               = 
| leader1                = [[Mentuhotep II]] (first)
| year_leader1           = {{Circa|2061}} – 2010 BC
| leader2                = [[Merneferre Ay]] or last king of the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt]]
| year_leader2           = {{Circa|1650 BC}}
| title_leader           = [[List of pharaohs|Pharaoh]]
| today                  = [[Egypt]]<br>[[Sudan]]
| demonym                = 
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}
{{History of Egypt}}
{{Egyptian Dynasty list}}
The '''Middle Kingdom of Egypt''' (also known as '''The Period of Reunification''') is the period in the history of [[ancient Egypt]] following a period of political division known as the [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]. The Middle Kingdom lasted from approximately 2040 to 1782 BC, stretching from the reunification of Egypt under the reign of [[Mentuhotep II]] in the [[Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt|Eleventh Dynasty]] to the end of the [[Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]]. The kings of the Eleventh Dynasty ruled from [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] and the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty ruled from [[Lisht|el-Lisht]].

The [[Periodization of ancient Egypt|concept of the Middle Kingdom as one of three golden ages]] was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist [[Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen|Baron von Bunsen]], and its definition evolved significantly throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schneider|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Schneider (Egyptologist)|editor=Klaus-Peter Adam|title=Historiographie in der Antike|pages=181–197|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTMAu2LRbVUC&pg=PA182|date=27 August 2008|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-020672-2|chapter=Periodizing Egyptian History: Manetho, Convention, and Beyond}}</ref> Some scholars also include the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt]] wholly into this period, in which case the Middle Kingdom would end around 1650 BC, while others only include it until [[Merneferre Ay]] around 1700 BC, last king of this dynasty to be attested in both Upper and Lower Egypt. During the Middle Kingdom period, [[Osiris]] became the most important deity in [[ancient Egyptian religion#Popular religion|popular religion]].<ref>David, Rosalie (2002). ''Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt''. Penguin Books. p. 156</ref> The Middle Kingdom was followed by the [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt]], another period of division that involved foreign rule of Lower Egypt by the [[Hyksos]] of West Asia.

==Political history==
===Periods of ancient Egypt===
{{Ancient Egypt graphical timeline}}

===Reunification under the Eleventh Dynasty===
{{further|Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt}}
[[File:MentuhotepII.jpg|thumb|left|400px|A painted relief depicting pharaoh [[Mentuhotep II]], from his mortuary temple at [[Deir el-Bahari]]]]
[[File: Mentuhotep Seated edit.jpg|thumb|left|150px|An [[Osiris|Osiride]] statue of the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep II]]
After the collapse of the [[Old Kingdom]], Egypt entered a period of weak pharaonic power and decentralization called the [[First Intermediate Period]].<ref name=" Grimal 156">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 156</ref> Towards the end of this period, two rival dynasties, known in Egyptology as the Tenth and Eleventh, fought for control of the entire country. The Theban Eleventh Dynasty only ruled southern Egypt from the [[Cataracts of the Nile|First Cataract]] to the Tenth Nome of Upper Egypt. To the north, Lower Egypt was ruled by the rival [[Tenth Dynasty of Egypt|Tenth Dynasty]] from [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]].<ref name="Grimal 155">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 155</ref> The struggle was to be concluded by [[Mentuhotep II]], who ascended the Theban throne in 2055 BC.<ref name=" Shaw 149">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 149</ref> During Mentuhotep II's fourteenth regnal year, he took advantage of a revolt in the Thinite Nome to launch an attack on Herakleopolis, which met little resistance.<ref name="Grimal 155"/> After toppling the last rulers of the Tenth Dynasty, Mentuhotep began consolidating his power over all of Egypt, a process that he finished by his 39th regnal year.<ref name="Grimal 156"/> For this reason, Mentuhotep II is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom.<ref name="Habachi 16-52">[[#Habachi1963|Habachi. (1963)]] pp. 16–52</ref>

Mentuhotep II commanded petty campaigns as far south as the Second Cataract in [[Nubia]], which had gained its independence during the [[First Intermediate Period]]. He also restored Egyptian hegemony over the Sinai region, which had been lost to Egypt since the end of the Old Kingdom.<ref name=" Grimal 157">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 157</ref> To consolidate his authority, he restored the cult of the ruler, depicting himself as a god in his own lifetime, wearing the headdresses of [[Amun]] and [[Min (god)|Min]].<ref name="Shaw 151">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 151</ref> He died after a reign of 51 years and passed the throne to his son, [[Mentuhotep III]].<ref name=" Grimal 157"/>

Mentuhotep III reigned for only twelve years, during which he continued consolidating Theban rule over the whole of Egypt, building a series of forts in the eastern Delta region to secure Egypt against threats from Asia.<ref name=" Grimal 157"/> He also sent the first expedition to Punt during the Middle Kingdom, using ships constructed at the end of Wadi Hammamat, on the Red Sea.<ref name=" Shaw 156">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 156</ref> Mentuhotep III was succeeded by [[Mentuhotep IV]], whose name, significantly, is omitted from all ancient Egyptian king lists.<ref name="Redford 71">[[#Redford1992|Redford. (1992)]] p. 71.</ref> The [[Turin King List]] claims that after Mentuhotep III came "seven kingless years".<ref name="Gardiner 124">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 124.</ref> Despite this absence, his reign is attested from a few inscriptions in [[Wadi Hammamat]] that record expeditions to the [[Red Sea]] coast and to quarry stone for the royal monuments.<ref name=" Redford 71"/> The leader of this expedition was his vizier Amenemhat, who is widely assumed to be the future pharaoh [[Amenemhet I]], the first king of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth Dynasty]].<ref name=" Redford 72">[[#Redford1992|Redford. (1992)]] p. 72.</ref><ref name="Gardiner 125">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 125.</ref>

Mentuhotep IV's absence from the king lists has prompted the theory that Amenemhet I usurped his throne.<ref name=" Gardiner 125"/> While there are no contemporary accounts of this struggle, certain circumstantial evidence may point to the existence of a civil war at the end of the 11th Dynasty.<ref name=" Redford 71"/> Inscriptions left by one Nehry, the [[Haty-a]] of [[Hermopolis]], suggest that he was attacked at a place called Shedyet-sha by the forces of the reigning king, but his forces prevailed. [[Khnumhotep I]], an official under Amenemhet I, claims to have participated in a flotilla of twenty ships sent to pacify Upper Egypt. [[Donald Redford]] has suggested these events should be interpreted as evidence of open war between two dynastic claimants.<ref name=" Redford 74">[[#Redford1992|Redford. (1992)]] p.74</ref> What is certain is that, however he came to power, Amenemhet I was not of royal birth.<ref name="Gardiner 125"/>

===Twelfth Dynasty===
{{main|Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt}}

====Early Twelfth Dynasty====
[[File: Ägyptisches Museum Leipzig 104.jpg|thumb|150px|The head of a statue of Senusret I.]]
[[File:GuardianStatueofAmenemhmatII.jpg|thumb|A figure wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt and whose face appears to reflect the features of the reigning king, most probably [[Amenemhat II]] or [[Senwosret II]]. It functioned as a divine guardian for the [[Imiut fetish|imiut]], and it is wearing a divine kilt, which suggests that the statuette was not merely a representation of the living ruler.<ref>{{cite web |title=Guardian Figure |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/543864 |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |access-date=9 February 2022}}</ref>]]

From the Twelfth Dynasty onwards, pharaohs often kept well-trained standing armies, which included [[Nubian people|Nubian]] contingents. These formed the basis of larger forces that were raised for defense against invasion, or expeditions up the Nile or across the Sinai. However, the Middle Kingdom was basically defensive in its military strategy, with fortifications built at the [[First Cataract]] of the Nile, in the Delta and across the Sinai Isthmus.<ref>p5. 'The Collins Encyclopedia of Military History', (4th edition, 1993), Dupuy & Dupuy.</ref>

Early in his reign, Amenemhet I was compelled to campaign in the Delta region, which had not received as much attention as Upper Egypt during the 11th Dynasty.<ref name="Arnold 20">[[#Arnold1991|Arnold. (1991)]] p. 20.</ref> Also, he strengthened defenses between Egypt and Asia, building the Walls of the Ruler in the East Delta region.<ref name=" Shaw 148">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 148</ref> Perhaps in response to this perpetual unrest, Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt in the north, known as [[Itjtawy|Amenemhet It Tawy]], or ''Amenemhet, Seizer of the Two Lands''.<ref name="Arnold 14">[[#Arnold1991|Arnold. (1991)]] p. 14.</ref> The location of this capital is unknown, but is presumably near the city's necropolis, the present-day [[el-Lisht]].<ref name="Shaw 158">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 158</ref> Like Mentuhotep II, Amenemhet bolstered his claim to authority with propaganda.<ref name="Grimal 159">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 159</ref> In particular, the [[Prophecy of Neferty]] dates to about this time, which purports to be an oracle of an Old Kingdom priest, who predicts a king, Amenemhet I, arising from the far south of Egypt to restore the kingdom after centuries of chaos.<ref name="Shaw 158"/>

Propaganda notwithstanding, Amenemhet never held the absolute power commanded in theory by the Old Kingdom pharaohs. During the First Intermediate Period, the governors of the [[Nome (Egypt)|nomes]] of Egypt, [[nomarch]]s, gained considerable power. Their posts had become hereditary, and some nomarchs entered into marriage alliances with the nomarchs of neighboring nomes.<ref name="Gardiner 128">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 128.</ref> To strengthen his position, Amenemhet required registration of land, modified nome borders, and appointed nomarchs directly when offices became vacant, but acquiesced to the nomarch system, probably to placate the nomarchs who supported his rule.<ref name=" Grimal 160">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 160</ref> This gave the Middle Kingdom a more feudal organization than Egypt had before or would have afterward.<ref name=" Gardiner 129">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 129.</ref>

In his twentieth regnal year, Amenemhat established his son [[Senusret I]] as his coregent,<ref name=" Gardiner 129"/> beginning a practice which would be used repeatedly throughout the rest of the Middle Kingdom and again during the New Kingdom. In Amenemhet's thirtieth regnal year, he was presumably murdered in a palace conspiracy. Senusret, campaigning against Libyan invaders, rushed home to Itjtawy to prevent a takeover of the government.<ref name="Shaw 160">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 160</ref> During his reign, Senusret continued the practice of directly appointing nomarchs,<ref name=" Shaw 175">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 175</ref> and undercut the autonomy of local priesthoods by building at cult centers throughout Egypt.<ref name=" Shaw 162">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 162</ref> Under his rule, Egyptian armies pushed south into Nubia as far as the Second Cataract, building a border fort at [[Buhen]] and incorporating all of [[Lower Nubia]] as an Egyptian colony.<ref name="Shaw 161">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 161</ref> Senusret I also exercised control over the land of Kush, from the Second to the Third Cataract, including the island of Sai. The southernmost inscription containing Sesostris I's name has been found on the island of Argo, north of modern Dongola.<ref>{{Cite book |title= A History of Ancient Egypt |last= Grimal|first= Nicolas|publisher= Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994) |year= 1994 |pages=164}}</ref> To the west, he consolidated his power over the Oases, and extended commercial contacts into Syria-Canaan as far as [[Ugarit]].<ref name=" Grimal 165">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 165</ref> In his 43rd regnal year, Senusret appointed [[Amenemhet II]] as junior coregent, before dying in his 46th.<ref name="Murnane 5">[[#Murnane1977|Murnane. (1977)]] p. 5.</ref>

{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =vertical
| image1   = Procession of the Aamu, Tomb of Khnumhotep II (composite).jpg
| image2   = Drawing of the procession of the Aamu group tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan.jpg
| footer=A group of West Asiatic peoples (possibly [[Canaan]]ites and precursors of the future [[Hyksos]]) depicted entering Egypt {{Circa|1900 BC}}. From the tomb of a 12th dynasty official [[Khnumhotep II]] under pharaohs [[Amenemhat II]] and [[Senusret II]], at [[Beni Hasan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mieroop |first1=Marc Van De |title=A History of Ancient Egypt |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4051-6070-4 |page=131 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JADDYAZ9GIIC&pg=PA131 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bard |first1=Kathryn A. |author-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-89611-2 |page=188 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lFscBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kamrin |first1=Janice |title=The Aamu of Shu in the Tomb of Khnumhotep II at Beni Hassan |journal=Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections |date=2009 |volume= 1 |issue=3 |s2cid=199601200 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Curry |first1=Andrew |title=The Rulers of Foreign Lands - Archaeology Magazine |website=www.archaeology.org |date=2018 |url=https://www.archaeology.org/issues/309-1809/features/6855-egypt-hyksos-foreign-dynasty}}</ref>
}}
The reign of [[Amenemhat II]] has been often characterized as largely peaceful,<ref name="Grimal 165"/> but records of his {{transliteration|ar|genut}}, or daybooks, have cast doubt on that assessment.<ref name="Shaw 163">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 163</ref> Among these records, preserved on temple walls at Tod and Memphis, are descriptions of peace treaties with certain Syrio-Canaanian cities, and military conflict with others.<ref name=" Shaw 163"/> To the south, Amenemhet sent a campaign through lower Nubia to inspect [[Historical names of Nubia#Egyptians|Wawat]].<ref name=" Grimal 165"/> It does not appear that Amenemhet continued his predecessors' policy of appointing nomarchs, but let it become hereditary again.<ref name=" Shaw 175"/> Another expedition to Punt dates to his reign.<ref name=" Shaw 163"/> In his 33rd regnal year, he appointed his son [[Senusret II]] coregent.<ref name=" Murnane 7">[[#Murnane1977|Murnane. (1977)]] p. 7.</ref>

Evidence for military activity of any kind during the reign of Senusret II is non-existent. Senusret instead appears to have focused on domestic issues, particularly the irrigation of the [[Faiyum Oasis|Faiyum]]. This multi-generational project aimed to convert the Faiyum oasis into a productive swath of farmland.<ref name="Shaw 164">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 164</ref> Senusret eventually placed his pyramid at the site of [[el-Lahun]], near the junction of the Nile and the Fayuum's major irrigation canal, the [[Bahr Yussef]].<ref name=" Gardiner 138">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 138.</ref> He reigned only fifteen years,<ref name="Grimal 166">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 166</ref> which explains the incomplete nature of many of his constructions.<ref name="Shaw 164"/> His son [[Senusret III]] succeeded him.

====Height of the Middle Kingdom====
[[File:Senwosret III, ca. 1836-1818 B.C.E. Granite.jpg|thumb|150px|One of the few intact statues of Senusret III]]
[[Senusret III]] was a warrior-king, often taking to the field himself. In his sixth year, he re-dredged an Old Kingdom canal around the First Cataract to facilitate travel to [[Upper Nubia]]. He used this to launch a series of brutal campaigns in Nubia in his sixth, eighth, tenth, and sixteenth years. After his victories, Senusret built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish the formal boundary between Egyptian conquests and unconquered Nubia at [[Semna]].<ref name="Shaw 166">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 166</ref> The personnel of these forts were charged to send frequent reports to the capital on the movements and activities of the local [[Medjay]] natives, some of which survive, revealing how tightly the Egyptians intended to control the southern border.<ref name="Gardiner 136">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 136.</ref> Medjay were not allowed north of the border by ship, nor could they enter by land with their flocks, but they were permitted to travel to local forts to trade.<ref name="Gardiner 135">[[#Gardiner1964|Gardiner. (1964)]] p. 135.</ref> After this, Senusret sent one more campaign in his 19th year but turned back due to abnormally low Nile levels, which endangered his ships.<ref name="Shaw 166"/> To the north, One of Senusret's soldiers records a campaign into Canaan, perhaps against [[Shechem]], the only reference to a military campaign against a certain location in Cannan from Middle Kingdom literature,<ref name="Redford 76">[[#Redford1992|Redford. (1992)]] p. 76</ref> although there are other references to action against Asiatics.<ref>{{Cite book|title= Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature (Culture and History of the Ancient Near East)|last1= Bar|first1= S.| last2= Kahn|first2= D. |last3= Shirley|first3= J.J. |publisher= BRILL |year= 2011 |pages=198}}</ref> It is not known whether Egypt wished to control Canaan like Northern Nubia, but numerous administrative seals of the period have been found there, as well as other indications of increased activity Northward in this period.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Egypt/The-Middle-Kingdom-1938-c-1630-bce-and-the-Second-Intermediate-period-c-1630-1540-bce The Middle Kingdom (1938–c. 1630 BCE) and the Second Intermediate period (c. 1630–1540 BCE)]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title= Overlooked Evidence for Sesostris III's Foreign Policy |last= Gee |first= John |journal= Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |year= 2004 |volume= 41 |pages=23–31|doi= 10.2307/20297185 |jstor= 20297185 }}</ref> As in the old kingdom, the contact was particularly strong with [[Byblos]], known for its valuable wood.<ref>{{Cite book |title= The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE |last1= Steiner |first1= Margreet L. |last2= Killebrew|first2=Ann E. |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2014 |pages= 72–73}}</ref>

[[File:Indus carnelian bead UC30334 Egypt Middle Kingdom London, Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.jpg|thumb|left|A rare [[etched carnelian bead]] excavated in Egypt, and thought to have been imported from the [[Indus Valley civilization]] through [[Mesopotamia]], in an example of [[Egypt-Mesopotamia relations]]. [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] tomb 197, Late Middle Kingdom. Now in [[Petrie Museum]] ref. UC30334, [[London]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grajetzki |first1=Wolfram |title=Tomb 197 at Abydos, Further Evidence for Long Distance Trade in the Middle Kingdom |journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant |date=2014 |volume=24 |pages=159–170 |doi=10.1553/s159 |jstor=43553796}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stevenson |first1=Alice |title=Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology: Characters and Collections |date=2015 |publisher=UCL Press |isbn=9781910634042 |page=54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DEZLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 |language=en}}</ref>]]
Domestically, Senusret has been given credit for an administrative reform that put more power in the hands of appointees of the central government, instead of regional authorities.<ref name=" Shaw 166"/> Egypt was divided into three ''water'', or administrative divisions: North, South, and Head of the South (perhaps [[Lower Egypt]], most of [[Upper Egypt]], and the nomes of the original Theban kingdom during the war with [[Heracleopolis Magna|Herakleopolis]], respectively). Each region was administered by a [[Reporter (Ancient Egypt)|Reporter]], Second Reporter'','' some kind of council (the ''Djadjat''), and staff of minor officials and scribes.<ref name="Hayes 32">[[#Hayes1953|Hayes. (1953)]] p. 32</ref> The power of the nomarchs seems to drop off permanently during his reign, which has been taken to indicate that the central government had finally suppressed them, though there is no record that Senusret ever took direct action against them.<ref name=" Shaw 166"/>

Senusret III left a lasting legacy as a warrior pharaoh. His name was Hellenized by later Greek historians as Sesostris, a name which was then given to a conflation of Senusret and several New Kingdom warrior pharaohs.<ref name=" Shaw 260">[[#Shaw1995|Shaw and Nicholson. (1995)]] p. 260</ref> In Nubia, Senusret was worshiped as a patron God by Egyptian settlers.<ref name="Aldred 129">[[#Aldred1987|Aldred. (1987)]] p.129</ref> The duration of his reign remains something of an open question. His son [[Amenemhet III]] began reigning after Senusret's 19th regnal year, which has been widely considered Senusret's highest attested date.<ref name="Wegner 250">[[#Wegner1996|Wegner. (1996)]] p. 250</ref> However, a reference to a year 39 on a fragment found in the construction debris of Senusret's mortuary temple has suggested the possibility of a long coregency with his son.<ref name=" Wegner 260">[[#Wegner1996|Wegner. (1996)]] p. 260</ref>

[[File:Ägypten 1999 (237) Luxor-Museum (28186790096).jpg|thumb|150px|One of the few intact statues of Amenemhat III]]
The reign of [[Amenemhat III]] was the height of the Middle Kingdom's economic prosperity. His reign is remarkable for the degree to which Egypt exploited its resources. Mining camps in the Sinai, which had previously been used only by intermittent expeditions, were operated on a semi-permanent basis, as evidenced by the construction of houses, walls, and even local cemeteries.<ref name=" Grimal 170">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 170</ref> There are 25 separate references to mining expeditions in the Sinai, and four to expeditions in Wadi Hammamat, one of which had over two thousand workers.<ref name="Grajetzki 60">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 60</ref> Amenemhet reinforced his father's defenses in Nubia<ref name="Shaw 168">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 168</ref> and continued the Faiyum land reclamation project.<ref name="Shaw 169">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 169</ref>
After a reign of 45 years, Amenemhet III was succeeded by [[Amenemhet IV]],<ref name="Grimal 170"/> whose nine-year reign is poorly attested.<ref name="Shaw 170">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 170</ref> Clearly by this time, dynastic power had begun to weaken, for which several explanations have been proposed. Contemporary records of the Nile flood levels indicate that the end of the reign of Amenemhet III was dry, and crop failures may have helped to destabilize the dynasty.<ref name="Shaw 169"/> Further, Amenemhet III had an inordinately long reign, which tends to create succession problems.<ref name="Grimal 171">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 171</ref> The latter argument perhaps explains why Amenemhet IV was succeeded by [[Sobekneferu]], the first historically attested female pharaoh of Egypt.<ref name=" Grimal 171"/> Sobekneferu ruled no more than four years,<ref name=" Shaw 171">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 171</ref> and as she apparently had no heirs, when she died the Twelfth Dynasty came to a sudden end as did the Golden Age of the Middle Kingdom.

===Decline into the Second Intermediate Period===
[[File:KneelingStatueOfSobekhotepV-AltesMuseum-Berlin.png|thumb|upright|150px|A [[kneeling]] statue of Sobekhotep V, one of the pharaohs from the declining years of the Middle Kingdom.]]
After the death of Sobeknefru, the throne may have passed to [[Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep]],<ref>[[Kim Ryholt|K.S.B. Ryholt]]: ''The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c.1800–1550 BC'', Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications, vol. 20. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997</ref><ref>Darrell D. Baker: ''The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC'', Stacey International, {{ISBN|978-1-905299-37-9}}, 2008</ref> though in older studies [[Wegaf]], who had previously been the Great Overseer of Troops,<ref name="Grajetzki 66">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 66</ref> was thought to have reigned next.<ref name="Grimal 183">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 183</ref> Beginning with this reign, Egypt was ruled by a series of ephemeral kings for about ten to fifteen years.<ref name="Grajetzki 64">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 64</ref> Ancient Egyptian sources regard these as the first kings of the [[Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt|Thirteenth Dynasty]], though the term dynasty is misleading, as most kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were not related.<ref name="Grajetzki 65">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 65</ref> The names of these short-lived kings are attested on a few monuments and [[Graffito (archaeology)|graffiti]], and their succession order is only known from the [[Turin Canon]], although even this is not fully trusted.<ref name="Grajetzki 64"/>

After the initial dynastic chaos, a series of longer-reigning, better-attested kings ruled for about fifty to eighty years.<ref name="Grajetzki 64"/> The strongest king of this period, [[Neferhotep I]], ruled for eleven years and maintained effective control of Upper Egypt, Nubia, and the Delta,<ref name="Grajetzki 71">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 71</ref> with the possible exceptions of [[Xois]] and [[Avaris]].<ref name="Shaw 172">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 172</ref> Neferhotep I was even recognized as the suzerain of the ruler of Byblos, indicating that the Thirteenth Dynasty was able to retain much of the power of the Twelfth Dynasty, at least up to his reign.<ref name=" Shaw 172"/> At some point during the 13th Dynasty, Xois, and Avaris began governing themselves,<ref name=" Shaw 172"/> the rulers of Xois being the Fourteenth Dynasty, and the Asiatic rulers of Avaris being the [[Hyksos]] of the Fifteenth Dynasty. According to [[Manetho]], this latter revolt occurred during the reign of Neferhotep's successor, [[Sobekhotep IV]], though there is no archaeological evidence.<ref name="Grajetzki 72">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 72</ref> Sobekhotep IV was succeeded by the short reign of [[Sobekhotep V]], who was followed by [[Wahibre Ibiau]], then [[Merneferre Ai]]. Wahibre Ibiau ruled ten years, and Merneferre Ai ruled for twenty-three years, the longest of any Thirteenth Dynasty king, but neither of these two kings left as many attestations as either Neferhotep of Sobekhotep IV. Despite this, they both seem to have held at least parts of Lower Egypt. After Merneferre Ai, however, no king left his name on any object found outside the south.<ref name="Grajetzki 74">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 74</ref> This begins the final portion of the Thirteenth Dynasty when southern kings continue to reign over Upper Egypt. But when the unity of Egypt fully disintegrated, the Middle Kingdom gave way to the [[Second Intermediate Period]].<ref name="Grajetzki 75">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 75</ref>
[[File:GD-EG-Louxor-116.JPG|thumb|Head of a statue of [[Senusret III]]]]

==Administration==
When the Eleventh Dynasty reunified Egypt it had to create a centralized administration such as had not existed in Egypt since the downfall of the Old Kingdom government. To do this, it appointed people to positions that had fallen out of use in the decentralized First Intermediate Period. The highest among these was the vizier.<ref name="Shaw 174">[[#Shaw2000|Shaw. (2000)]] p. 174</ref> The vizier was the chief minister for the king, handling all the day-to-day business of government in the king's place.<ref name="Shaw 174"/> This was a monumental task, therefore it would often be split into two positions, a vizier of the north, and a vizier of the south. It is uncertain how often this occurred during the Middle Kingdom, but Senusret I clearly had two simultaneously functioning viziers.<ref name="Shaw 174"/> Other positions were inherited from the provincial form of government at Thebes used by the Eleventh Dynasty before the reunification of Egypt.<ref name="Grajetzki21">[[#Grajetzki2006|Grajetzki. (2006)]] p. 21</ref> The ''Overseer of Sealed Goods'' became the country's treasurer, and the ''Overseer of the Estate'' became the King's chief steward.<ref name="Grajetzki21"/> These three positions and the ''Scribe of the Royal Document,'' probably the king's personal scribe, appear to be the most important posts of the central government, judging by the monument count of those in these positions.<ref name="Grajetzki21"/>

Besides this, many Old Kingdom posts which had lost their original meaning and become mere honorifics were brought back into the central government.<ref name="Shaw 174"/> Only high-ranking officials could claim the title ''Member of the Elite'', which had been applied liberally during the First Intermediate Period.<ref name="Grajetzki21"/>

This basic form of administration continued throughout the Middle Kingdom, though there is some evidence of a major reform of the central government under Senusret III. Records from his reign indicate that Upper and Lower Egypt were divided into separate ''waret'' and governed by separate administrators.<ref name="Shaw 175"/> Administrative documents and private stelae indicate a proliferation of new bureaucratic titles around this time, which have been taken as evidence of a larger central government.<ref name="Richards 7">[[#Richards2005|Richards. (2005)]] p. 7</ref> Governance of the royal residence was moved into a separate division of government.<ref name="Shaw 175"/> The military was placed under the control of a chief general.<ref name="Shaw 175"/> However, it is possible that these titles and positions were much older, and simply were not recorded on funerary stelae due to religious conventions.<ref name="Richards 7"/>

===Provincial government===
[[File:House MK.jpg|thumb|right|Clay model of a Middle Kingdom house. [[Musée du Louvre]].]]
Decentralization during the First Intermediate Period left the individual Egyptian provinces, or [[Nome (Egypt)|Nomes]], under the control of powerful families who held the hereditary title of ''Great Chief of the Nome'', or [[Nomarch]].<ref name="Trigger 108">[[#Trigger1983|Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983)]] p. 108</ref> This position developed during the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties, when the various powers of Old Kingdom provincial officials began to be exercised by a single individual.<ref name="Trigger 108"/> At roughly this time, the provincial aristocracy began building elaborate tombs for themselves, which have been taken as evidence of the wealth and power that these rulers had acquired as nomarchs.<ref name="Trigger 108"/> By the end of the First Intermediate Period, some nomarchs ruled their nomes as minor potentates, such as the nomarch Nehry of Hermopolis, who dated inscriptions by his own regnal year.<ref name="Shaw 174"/>

{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 400
| caption_align     = center
| align             = right
| direction         = horizontal
| image1           = Nubian Archers.jpg
| caption1         = [[11th Dynasty]] model of Nubian archers in the Egyptian army, from a tomb in [[Asyut]] (c. 2130–1991 BC).
| image2            = Mesehtisoldiers.JPG
| caption2          = 11th Dynasty model of Egyptian soldiers from the tomb of Mesehti.
}}

When the Eleventh Dynasty came to power, it was necessary to subdue the power of the nomarchs if Egypt were to be reunified under a central government. The first major steps towards that end took place under Amenemhet I. Amenemhet made the city, not the nome, the center of administration, and only the ''[[haty-a]]'', or mayor, of the larger cities, would be permitted to carry the title of nomarch.<ref name="Shaw 175"/> The title of nomarch continued to be used until the reign of Senusret III,<ref name="Shaw 175"/> as did the elaborate tombs indicative of their power, after which they suddenly disappeared.<ref name="Trigger 112">[[#Trigger1983|Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983)]] p. 112</ref> This has been interpreted several ways. Traditionally, it has been believed that Senusret III took some action to suppress the nomarch families during his reign.<ref name="Grimal 167">[[#Grimal1988|Grimal. (1988)]] p. 167</ref> Recently, other interpretations have been proposed. Detlef Franke has argued that Senusret II adopted a policy of educating the sons of nomarchs in the capital and appointing them to government posts. In this way, many provincial families may have been bled dry of scions.<ref name="Shaw 175"/> Also, while the title of ''Great Overlord of the Nome'' disappeared, other distinctive titles of the nomarchs remained. During the First Intermediate Period, individuals holding the title of ''Great Overlord'' also often held the title of ''Overseer of Priests.''<ref name="Trigger 109">[[#Trigger1983|Trigger, Kemp, O'Connor, and Lloyd. (1983)]] p. 109</ref> In the late Middle Kingdom, there existed families holding the titles of mayor and overseer of priests as hereditary possessions.<ref name="Trigger 112"/> Therefore, it has been argued that the great nomarch families were never subdued, but were simply absorbed into the pharaonic administration of the country.<ref name="Trigger 112"/> While it is true that the large tombs indicative of nomarchs disappeared at the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, grand royal tombs also ceased being built soon thereafter due to general instability surrounding the decline of the Middle Kingdom.<ref name="Trigger 112"/>

==Agriculture and climate==
{{quote box|align=right|width=25%|quote=''It was I who brought forth grain, the grain god loved me,''<br />
''the Nile adored me from his every source;''<br />
''One did not hunger during my years, did not thirst;''<br />
''they sat content with all my deeds, remembering me fondly;''<br />
''and I set each thing firmly in its place.''<ref name="Foster 88">[[#Foster2001|Foster. (2001)]] p. 88</ref>|source=extract from the [[Instructions of Amenemhat]]}}

Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the annual inundation of the [[Nile River]] was relied upon to fertilize the land surrounding it. This was essential for agriculture and food production. There is evidence that the collapse of the previous [[Old Kingdom]] may have been due in part to low flood levels, resulting in famine.<ref name="Bell 227">[[#Bell1975|Bell. (1975)]] p. 227</ref> This trend appears to have been reversed during the early years of the Middle Kingdom, with relatively high water levels recorded for much of this era, with an average inundation of 19 meters above its non-flood levels.<ref name="Bell 230">[[#Bell1975|Bell. (1975)]] p. 230</ref> The years of repeated high inundation levels correspond to the most prosperous period of the Middle Kingdom, which occurred during the reign of Amenemhat III.<ref name="Bell 263">[[#Bell1975|Bell. (1975)]] p. 263</ref> This seems to be confirmed in some of the literature of the period, such as in the [[Instructions of Amenemhat]], where the king tells his son how agriculture prospered under his reign.<ref name="Foster 88"/>

==Art==
[[File:Статуя фараона Аменемхета III.jpg|alt=|thumb|Seated Statue of Amenemhat III, around 19th century BC. [[Hermitage Museum|The State Hermitage Museum]]]]

After the reunification of Egypt in the Middle Kingdom, the kings of the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties were able to turn their focus back to art. In the Eleventh Dynasty, the kings had their monuments made in a style influenced by the Memphite models of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasties. During this time, the pre-unification Theban relief style all but disappeared. These changes had an ideological purpose, as the Eleventh Dynasty kings were establishing a centralized state after the First Intermediate Period, and returning to the political ideals of the Old Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Art of Ancient Egypt|first=Gay|last=Robins|year=2008|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674030657|edition= Rev.|location=Cambridge, Mass.|page=90|oclc=191732570}}</ref> In the early Twelfth Dynasty, the artwork had a uniformity of style due to the influence of the royal workshops. It was at this point that the quality of artistic production for the elite members of society reached a high point that was never surpassed, although it was equaled in other periods.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=109}} Egypt prospered in the late Twelfth Dynasty, and this was reflected in the quality of the materials used for royal and private monuments.

The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty were buried in [[pyramid]] complexes based on those of the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=96}} In the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]], these were made of stone bricks, but the Middle Kingdom kings chose to have theirs made of mud bricks and finished with a casing of Tura limestone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000070190|title=Pyramid {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t070190|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03|last1=Watson|first1=Philip J.|last2=Gendrop|first2=Paul|last3=Stillman|first3=Damie}}</ref> Private tombs, such as those found in Thebes, usually consisted of a long passage cut into rock, with a small chamber at the end. These tended to have little or no decoration.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000084413|title=Thebes (i) {{!}} Grove Art|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t084413|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> Stone box [[Sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] with both flat and vaulted lids were manufactured in the Middle Kingdom, as a continuation of the Old Kingdom tradition. The motifs on these were more varied and of higher artistic quality than that of any sarcophagi produced before and after the Middle Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000075996|title=Sarcophagus {{!}} Grove Art|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t075996|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> Additionally, funerary [[Stele|stelae]] developed in regard to images and iconography. They continued to show the deceased seated in front of a table of offerings, and began to include the deceased's wife and other family members.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=102}}

Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, there was a change to the art pieces placed in non-royal tombs. The amount of [[wooden tomb model]]s decreased drastically, and they were replaced by small faience models of food. Magic wands and rods, models of protective animals, and fertility figures began to be buried with the dead.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=114}} Additionally, the number of statues and funerary stelae increased, but their quality decreased. In the late Twelfth Dynasty, coffins with interior decorations became rare, and the decorations on the outside became more elaborate. The [[Rishi coffin|''rishi''-coffin]] made its first appearance during this time. Made of wood or [[cartonnage]], the coffin was in the shape of a body wrapped in linen, wearing a beaded collar and a funerary mask.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=115}}

There were also changes to the art form of stelae in the Middle Kingdom. During this time, round-topped stelae developed out of the rectangular form of previous periods. Many examples of both of these types come from this period;<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000081249|title=Stele {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t081249|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03|last1=Collon|first1=Dominique|last2=Strudwick|first2=Nigel|last3=Lyttleton|first3=Margaret|last4=Wiedehage|first4=Peter|last5=Blair|first5=Sheila S.|last6=Benson|first6=Elizabeth P.}}</ref> excavation at Abydos yielded over 2000 private stelae, ranging from excellent works to crude objects, although very few belonged to the elite.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000000298|title=Abydos {{!}} Grove Art|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t000298|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref> Additionally, classic royal commemorative stelae were first found in this period. These took the form of round-topped stelae, and they were used to mark boundaries. For example, Senusret III used them to mark the boundary between Egypt and Nubia.<ref name=":1" /> Because of the prosperity of this period, the lower elite were able to commission statues and stelae for themselves, although these were of poorer artistic quality.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=110}} Those who commissioned non-royal stelae had the ultimate goal of eternal existence. This goal was communicated with the specific placement of information on the stone slabs similar to royal stelae (the owner's image, offering formula, inscriptions of names, lineage and titles).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ancient Egypt transformed: the Middle Kingdom |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |last1=Oppenheim |first1=Adela |last2=Arnold |first2=Dorothea |last3=Arnold |first3=Dieter |last4=Yamamoto |first4=Kei |year=2015|isbn=9781588395641|location=New York|pages=36|oclc=909251373}}</ref>

=== Statuary ===
[[File:Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, ca. 1844-1837 B.C.E. 59.1.jpg|upright|thumbnail|Head and Torso of a Noblewoman, around 1844–1837 BC. 59.1. [[Brooklyn Museum]]]]

In the first half of the Twelfth Dynasty, proportions of the human figure returned to the traditional Memphite style of the Fifth and early Sixth Dynasties.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|pp=106, 107}} Male figures had broad shoulders, a low small of the back, and thick muscular limbs. Females had slender figures, a higher small of the back and no musculature.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|pp=106, 107}} In this period, sketches for the production of statues and reliefs were laid out on a squared grid, a new guide system. Since this system contained a greater number of lines, it allowed more body parts to be marked. Standing figures were composed of eighteen squares from the feet to the hairline. Seated figures were made of fourteen squares between their feet and hairline, accounting for the horizontal thigh and knee.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|pp=107, 108}} The black granite seated statue of the king [[Amenemhat III]] to the right, above is a perfect example of male proportions and the squared grid system of this period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/06.+Sculpture/83612/?lng|title=Statue of Amenemhat III|website=hermitagemuseum|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref> Most royal statues, such as this one, would serve as representations of the king's power.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|pp=112, 113}}

The quality of Egyptian statuary reached its peak in the Middle Kingdom.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000080560|title=Sphinx {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t080560|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03|last1=Boddens-Hosang|first1=F. J. E.|last2=d'Albiac|first2=Carole}}</ref> Royal statues combined both elegance and strength in a manner that was seldom seen after this period.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oxfordartonline.com/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000083009|title=Taharqa {{!}} Grove Art|year=2003|language=en|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t083009|isbn=978-1-884446-05-4|access-date=2018-12-03|last1=Russmann|first1=Edna R.}}</ref> A popular form of statuary during this time was that of the [[sphinx]]. During this period, sphinxes appeared in pairs, and were recumbent, with human faces, and a lion's mane and ears. An example would be the diorite sphinx of [[Senusret III]].<ref name=":0" />

One of the innovations in [[sculpture]] that occurred during the Middle Kingdom was the [[Block statue (Egyptian)|block statue]], which would continue to be popular through to the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] almost 2,000 years later.<ref name="Teeter 27">[[#Teeter1994|Teeter. (1994)]] p. 27</ref> Block statues consist of a man [[Squatting position|squatting]] with his knees drawn up to his chest and his arms folded on top of his knees. Often, these men are wearing a "wide cloak" that reduces the body of the figure to a simple block-like shape.<ref>Bothmer, 94.</ref> The surface of the garment or "wide cloak" allowed space for inscriptions.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=109}} Most of the detail is reserved for the head of the individual being depicted. In some instances, the modeling of the limbs has been retained by the sculptor.<ref>Shaw, "Block Statue".</ref> There are two basic types of block statues: ones with the feet completely covered by the cloak and ones with the feet uncovered.<ref>''Late Period'', 4–5.</ref>

This statue to the right represents a woman from the top echelon of society and demonstrates characteristics of Middle Kingdom art. The heavy tripartite wig frames the broad face and passes behind the ears, thus giving the impression of forcing them forward. They are large in keeping with the ancient Egyptian ideal of beauty; the same ideal required small breasts, and also in this respect the sculpture is no exception. Whereas the natural curve of the eyebrows dips towards the root of the nose, the artificial eyebrows in low [[relief]] are absolutely straight above the inner corners of the eyes, a feature which places the bust early in the Twelfth Dynasty. Around 1900 BC these artificial eyebrows began to follow the natural curve and dip toward the nose.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bothmer|first1=Bernard|title=Brief Guide to the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art|date=1974|publisher=Brooklyn Museum|location=Brooklyn, NY|page=36}}</ref>

In the later Twelfth Dynasty, the proportions of the human figure changed. These changes survived through the Thirteenth to Seventeenth Dynasties. Male figures had smaller heads in proportion to the rest of the body, narrow shoulders and waists, a high small of the back, and no muscled limbs. Female figures had these proportions more to an extreme with narrower shoulders and waists, slender limbs, and a higher small of the back in order to keep a distinction between male and female measurements.{{sfnp|Robins|2008|p=118}}

== Technology ==
Main metal alloy used in the Middle Kingdom was arsenical copper/[[arsenical bronze]], an alloy of arsenic and copper. This was observed e.g. in the Egyptian and Nubian collections of metal artefacts from Leipzig<ref>{{Cite book |last=Odler |first=Martin |title=Invisible connections: an archaeometallurgical analysis of the Bronze Age metalwork from the Egyptian Museum of the University of Leipzig |last2=Kmošek |first2=Jiří |date=2020 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-740-7 |series=Archaeopress egyptology |location=Summertown, Oxford (GB)}}</ref> and Brussels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rademakers |first=Frederik W. |last2=Verly |first2=Georges |last3=Delvaux |first3=Luc |last4=Vanhaecke |first4=Frank |last5=Degryse |first5=Patrick |date=June 2021 |title=From desert ores to Middle Kingdom copper: elemental and lead isotope data from the RMAH collection, Belgium |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12520-021-01329-w |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |doi=10.1007/s12520-021-01329-w |issn=1866-9557}}</ref> Gradually, [[Bronze|tin bronze]] is replacing arsenical copper in case of practical objects.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Odler |first=Martin |title=Invisible connections: an archaeometallurgical analysis of the Bronze Age metalwork from the Egyptian Museum of the University of Leipzig |last2=Kmošek |first2=Jiří |date=2020 |publisher=Archaeopress Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78969-740-7 |series=Archaeopress egyptology |location=Summertown, Oxford (GB)}}</ref>

Important technological evidence from the German excavations at the [[Elephantine]] Island was recently published, datable to the Middle Kingdom. An intentional production of [[arsenical bronze]], evidence of the cementation alloying process of copper with speiss inside ceramic crucibles, and a piece of speiss, were published from the Elephantine archaeological contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kmošek |first=Jiří |last2=Odler |first2=Martin |date=2025-06-30 |title=Production of arsenical bronze using speiss on the Elephantine Island (Aswan, Egypt) during the Middle Kingdom (Middle Bronze Age) ( c .2000–1650 BCE) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/arcm.70008 |journal=Archaeometry |language=en |doi=10.1111/arcm.70008 |issn=0003-813X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Literature==
{{main|Ancient Egyptian literature}}
{{Continental Asia in 2000 BCE|right|Middle Kingdom of Egypt and contemporary cultures {{c.|2000 BC}}}}
[[Richard B. Parkinson]] and [[Ludwig D. Morenz]] write that ancient Egyptian literature—narrowly defined as ''[[belles-lettres]]'' ("beautiful writing")—were not recorded in written form until the early Twelfth Dynasty.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46, 49–50, 55–56}}; {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}; see also {{Harvnb|Simpson|1972|pp=3–6}} and {{Harvnb|Erman|2005|pp=xxiv–xxv}}.</ref> Old Kingdom texts served mainly to maintain the divine cults, preserve souls in the afterlife, and document accounts for practical uses in daily life. It was not until the Middle Kingdom that texts were written for the purpose of entertainment and intellectual curiosity.<ref name="morenz 2003 102"/> Parkinson and Morenz also speculate that written works of the Middle Kingdom were transcriptions of the [[oral literature]] of the Old Kingdom.<ref>{{Harvnb|Parkinson|2002|pp=45–46, 49–50, 55–56}}; {{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}.</ref> It is known that some oral poetry was preserved in later writing; for example, litter-bearers' songs were preserved as written verses in tomb inscriptions of the Old Kingdom.<ref name="morenz 2003 102">{{Harvnb|Morenz|2003|p=102}}.</ref>

It is also thought that the growth of the middle class and growth in the number of scribes needed for the expanded bureaucracy under Senusret II helped spur the development of Middle Kingdom literature.<ref name="Shaw 171"/> Later ancient Egyptians considered the literature from this time as "classic".<ref name="Shaw 171"/> Stories such as the [[Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor]] and the [[Story of Sinuhe]] were composed during this period, and were popular enough to be widely copied afterwards.<ref name="Shaw 171"/> Many philosophical works were also created at this time, including the [[Dispute between a man and his Ba]] where an unhappy man converses with his soul, [[The Satire of the Trades]] in which the role of the scribe is praised above all other jobs, and the magic tales supposedly told to the Old Kingdom pharaoh [[Khufu]] in the [[Westcar Papyrus]].<ref name="Shaw 171"/>

Pharaohs of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|Twelfth]] through [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth Dynasty]] are credited with preserving some of the most interesting of [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] [[papyrus|papyri]]:

* 1950 BC: [[Akhmim Wooden Tablet]]
* 1950 BC: [[Heqanakht papyri]]
* 1800 BC: [[Berlin papyrus 6619]]
* 1800 BC: [[Moscow Papyrus|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]]
* 1650 BC: [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]
* 1600 BC: [[Edwin Smith papyrus]]                       
* 1550 BC: [[Ebers papyrus]]

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== Bibliography ==
<!-- Please order books alphabetically by the author's last name -->
* {{cite book|last=Aldred |first=Cyril |title=The Egyptians |year=1987 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |ref=Aldred1987}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Dorothea |author-link=Dorothea Arnold |year=1991|title=Amenemhet I and the Early Twelfth Dynasty at Thebes |journal=Metropolitan Museum Journal |volume=26 |pages=5–48 |doi= 10.2307/1512902|jstor=1512902 |s2cid=191398579 |ref=Arnold1991}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bell |first=Barbara |year=1975|title=Climate and the History of Egypt: The Middle Kingdom |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |publisher=Archaeological Institute of America |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=223–269 |doi=10.2307/503481 |jstor=503481 |s2cid=192999731 |ref=Bell1975}}
* {{cite book |last=Erman |first=Adolf |translator=Aylward M. Blackman |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Collection of Poems, Narratives and Manuals of Instructions from the Third and Second Millennia BC |year=2005 |publisher=Kegan Paul |location=New York |isbn=0-7103-0964-3 }}
* {{cite book|last=Foster |first=John L. |title=Ancient Egyptian Literature: An Anthology |year=2001 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-72527-2 |ref=Foster2001}}
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==Further reading==
*Allen, James P. ''Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
*Bourriau, Janine. ''Pharaohs and Mortals: Egyptian Art in the Middle Kingdom''. Cambridge, UK: Fitzwilliam Museum, 1988.
*Grajetzki, Wolfgang. ''The Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt: History, Archaeology and Society''. Bristol, UK: Golden House, 2006.
*Kemp, Barry J. ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization''. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2006.
*Oppenheim, Adela, Dieter Arnold, and Kei Yamamoto. ''Ancient Egypt Transformed: The Middle Kingdom''. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015.
*Parkinson, Richard B. ''Voices From Ancient Egypt: An Anthology of Middle Kingdom Writings''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
*--. ''Poetry and Culture in Middle Kingdom Egypt: A Dark Side to Perfection''. London: Continuum, 2002.
*Szpakowska, Kasia. ''Daily Life in Ancient Egypt''. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
*Wendrich, Willeke, ed. ''Egyptian Archaeology''. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

==External links==
* [http://aegyptologie.online-resourcen.de Scientific tool for converting calendar dates mentioned in Greek and Demotic Papyri from Egypt into Julian dates]
* [https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/keywords/egyptian-art-in-the-middle-kingdom Egyptian art in the middle kingdom.]



{{S-start}}
{{Succession box
| title = Time Periods of Egypt
| before = [[First Intermediate Period of Egypt|First Intermediate Period]]
| after = [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]]
| years = 2055–1650 BC
}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Middle Kingdom of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:21st century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:20th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:19th century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:17th century BC in Egypt]]