View source for Middle kingdoms of India

{{short description|Political entities in the Indian subcontinent from 3rd century BCE - 13th century CE}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
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{{Essay-like|date=June 2019}}
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{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
{{Human history}}

The '''Middle Kingdoms of India''' were the political entities that existed on the [[Indian subcontinent]] from 230 BCE to 1206 CE. The period began with the decline of the [[Maurya Empire]] and the corresponding rise of the [[Satavahana dynasty]], initiated by [[Simuka]] in the 1st century BCE. The “middle” period lasted for over 1,200 years and concluded in 1206 CE with the establishment of the [[Delhi Sultanate]] and the gradual decline of the [[Later Cholas]], the last of whom, [[Rajendra Chola III]], died in 1279 CE.

This period encompasses two eras: ''Classical India'', from the [[Maurya Empire]] up until the end of the [[Gupta Empire]] in 500 CE, and ''early Medieval India'' from 500 CE onwards.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> It also encompasses the era of classical [[Hinduism]], which is dated from 200 BCE to 1100 CE.<ref>{{citation|last=Michaels|first=Axel|year=2004|title=Hinduism. Past and present|place=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=32|isbn=0691089523|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jID3TuoiOMQC&pg=PA32}}</ref> From 1 CE until 1000 CE, [[Economic history of India|India's economy]] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth.<ref name="Maddisson World GDP">{{cite web|title=The World Economy (GDP): Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|access-date=21 May 2013|archive-date=22 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722202625/http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]|isbn=9789264022621|pages=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en|access-date=3 January 2017|archive-date=15 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015104311/http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date/d&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy;+All+Subjects;+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en|url-status=live}}</ref> This period was followed by the late [[Medieval India|Medieval period]] in the 13th century.

==The Northwest==
{{ Annotated image
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{{Annotation|230|5|'''South Asia<br>in 150 BCE'''|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|145|[[Satavahanas|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|130|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGHA-<br>VAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|75|40|[[Indo-Greeks|INDO-<br>GREEKS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|15|10|[[Greco-Bactrians|GRECO-<br>BACTRIANS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|110|60|[[Audumbaras|AUDUMBARAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|80|[[Yaudheya|YAUDHEYAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|135|80|[[Pauravas|PAURAVAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|100|70|[[Vrishni|VRISHNIS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|135|70|[[Kuninda Kingdom|KUNINDAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|90|[[Mitra dynasty (Mathura)|MITRAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|90|[[Arjunayanas|ARJUNAYANAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|80|105|[[Malavas|MALAVAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|140|105|[[Shungas|SHUNGAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=8|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|215|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|195|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|200|120|[[Samatata|SAMATATAS]]|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=6|color=#000000}}
|caption={{center|South Asia circa 150 BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (d) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
}}
[[File:NLI Decima Asiae Tabula.jpg|thumb|alt=[[Ptolemy]]'s 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges 15th century reproduction|Ptolemy's 10th map of Asia, depicting India within the Ganges, 15th century reproduction]]
During the 2nd century BCE, the [[Maurya Empire]] became a collage of regional powers with overlapping boundaries. The whole northwest attracted a series of invaders between 200 BCE and 300 CE. The [[Puranas]] speak of many of these tribes as foreigners and impure barbarians ([[Mleccha]]s). First the [[Satavahana dynasty]] and then the [[Gupta Empire]], both successor states to the Maurya Empire, attempt to contain the expansions of the successive before eventually crumbling internally due to the pressure exerted by these wars.

The invading tribes were influenced by [[Buddhism]] which continued to flourish under the patronage of both invaders and the Satavahanas and Guptas and provides a cultural bridge between the two cultures. Over time, the invaders became "Indianized" as they influenced society and philosophy across the Gangetic plains and were conversely influenced by it. This period is marked by both intellectual and artistic achievements inspired by cultural diffusion and [[syncretism]] as the new kingdoms straddle the [[Silk Road]].

===The Indo-Greeks===
{{Main|Indo-Greek Kingdom}}
[[File:DemetriusCoin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Silver coin of the founder of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]], [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius]] (r. c.&nbsp;205–171 BC).]]
The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]] covered various parts of the Northwestern [[South Asia]] during the last two centuries BCE, and was ruled by more than 30 [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] kings, often in conflict with each other.

The kingdom was founded when [[Demetrius I of Bactria]] invaded the [[Hindu Kush]] early in the 2nd century BCE. The Greeks in India were eventually divided from the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] centered in Bactria (now the border between [[Afghanistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]).

The expression "Indo-Greek Kingdom" loosely describes a number of various dynastic polities. There were numerous cities, such as [[Taxila]],<ref>Mortimer Wheeler ''Flames over Persepolis'' (London, 1968). Pp. 112 ''ff.'' It is unclear whether the Hellenistic street plan found by John Marshall's excavations dates from the Indo-Greeks or from the Kushans, who would have encountered it in Bactria; Tarn (1951, pp. 137, 179) ascribes the initial move of Taxila to the hill of Sirkap to Demetrius I, but sees this as "not a Greek city but an Indian one"; not a ''polis'' or with a [[Hippodamian plan]].</ref> [[Pushkalavati]] and [[Sagala]] in Pakistan's [[Punjab region|Punjab]].<ref>"Menander had his capital in Sagala" Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.83. McEvilley supports Tarn on both points, citing Woodcock: "Menander was a Bactrian Greek king of the Euthydemid dynasty. His capital (was) at Sagala (Sialkot) in the Punjab, "in the country of the Yonakas (Greeks)"." McEvilley, p.377. However, "Even if Sagala proves to be Sialkot, it does not seem to be Menander's capital for the Milindapanha states that Menander came down to Sagala to meet Nagasena, just as the Ganges flows to the sea."</ref> These cities would house a number of dynasties in their times, and based on [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]'' and the nomenclature of later kings, a certain [[Theophilos (king)|Theophila]] in the south was also probably a satrapal or royal seat at some point.

[[Euthydemus I]] was, according to [[Polybius]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |title=11.34 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420074248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[Magnesia (regional unit)|Magnesian Greek]]. His son, Demetrius, founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom, was therefore of Greek descent from his father at minimum. A marriage treaty was arranged for Demetrius with a daughter of [[Antiochus III the Great]], who had partial [[Persian people|Persian]] descent.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |title=Polybius 11.34 |access-date=20 February 2021 |archive-date=20 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080420074248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ethnicity of later Indo-Greek rulers is less clear.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/623931 "Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329185312/https://www.jstor.org/stable/623931 |date=29 March 2019 }} W. W. Tarn. ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'', Vol. 22 (1902), pages 268–293</ref> For example, [[Artemidoros Aniketos]] (80 BCE) may have been of Indo-Scythian descent. Intermarriage also occurred, as exemplified by [[Alexander the Great]], who married [[Roxana]] of Bactria, or [[Seleucus I Nicator]], who married [[Apama]] of Sogdia.

During the two centuries of their rule, the Indo-Greek kings combined the Greek and Indian languages and symbols, as seen on their coins, and blended Greek, Hindu and Buddhist religious practices, as seen in the archaeological remains of their cities and in the indications of their support of Buddhism, pointing to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences.<ref>"A vast hoard of coins, with a mixture of Greek profiles and Indian symbols, along with interesting sculptures and some monumental remains from Taxila, Sirkap and Sirsukh, point to a rich fusion of Indian and Hellenistic influences", ''India, the Ancient Past'', Burjor Avari, p.130</ref> The diffusion of Indo-Greek culture had consequences which are still felt today, particularly through the influence of [[Greco-Buddhist art]]. The Indo-Greeks ultimately disappeared as a political entity around 10 CE following the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, although pockets of Greek populations probably remained for several centuries longer under the subsequent rule of the Indo-Parthians and [[Kushan Empire]].<ref>"When the Greeks of Bactria and India lost their kingdom they were not all killed, nor did they return to Greece. They merged with the people of the area and worked for the new masters; contributing considerably to the culture and civilization in southern and central Asia." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 278.</ref>

===The Yavanas===
{{Main|Yona}}
The '''Yavana''' or '''Yona''' people, literally "[[Ionians|Ionian]]" and meaning "Western foreigner", were described as living beyond Gandhara. Yavanas, Sakas, [[the Pahlavas]] and [[Huna people|Hunas]] were sometimes described as ''mleccha''s, "foreigners". [[Kambojas]] and the inhabitants of [[Madra]], the [[Kekeya Kingdom]], the [[Indus River]] region and Gandhara were sometimes also classified as ''mleccha''s. This name was used to indicate their cultural differences with the culture of the [[Kuru kingdom]] and [[Panchala]].{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}

===The Indo-Scythian Sakas===
{{Main|Indo-Scythians|Saka}}
The [[Indo-Scythians]] are a branch of the [[Saka]]s who migrated from southern [[Siberia]] into [[Bactria]], [[Sogdia]], [[Arachosia]], [[Gandhara]], [[Kashmir]], [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and into parts of Western and Central India, [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Rajasthan]], from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 4th century [[Common Era|CE]]. The first Saka king in India was [[Maues]] or Moga who established Saka power in Gandhara and gradually extended supremacy over north-western India. Indo-Scythian rule in India ended with the last of the [[Western Satraps]], [[Rudrasimha III]], in 395 CE.

The invasion of India by Scythian tribes from [[Central Asia]], often referred to as the "Indo-Scythian invasion", played a significant part in the [[history of India]] as well as nearby countries. In fact, the Indo-Scythian war is just one chapter in the events triggered by the nomadic flight of Central Asians from conflict with Chinese [[tribe]]s which had lasting effects on [[Bactria]], [[Kabul]], [[Parthia]] and India as well as far off Rome in the west. The Scythian groups that invaded India and set up various [[monarchy|kingdoms]], included, besides the Sakas,<ref>Cunningham, (1888) p. 33.</ref> other allied [[tribe]]s, such as the [[Medes]],<ref name="Cunningham 1888, p. 33">Cunningham (1888), p. 33.</ref>{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} [[Scythians]],<ref name="Cunningham 1888, p. 33"/>{{sfn|Barstow|1928|pp= 63, 105–135, 145 155, 152}}{{better source needed|date=January 2016}} [[Massagetae]],{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} [[Getae]],<ref>Latif (1984), p. 56.</ref> [[Parama Kamboja kingdom|Parama Kambojas]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]],{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} [[Bahlikas]], [[Rishikas]] and [[Parada kingdom|Paradas]].

===The Indo-Parthians===
{{Main|Indo-Parthian Kingdom}}
The [[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]] was founded by [[Gondophares]] around 20 BCE. The kingdom lasted only briefly until its conquest by the Kushan Empire in the late 1st century CE and was a loose framework where many smaller dynasts maintained their independence.

===The Pahlavas===
{{Main|The Pahlavas}}
The '''Pahlavas''' are a people mentioned in ancient Indian texts like the ''[[Manusmṛti]]'', various [[Puranas]], the ''[[Ramayana]]'', the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', and the ''Brhatsamhita''. In some texts the Pahlavas are synonymous with the [[Pallava dynasty]] of [[South India]]. While the ''Vayu Purana'' distinguishes between ''Pahlava'' and ''Pahnava'', the ''Vamana Purana'' and ''Matsya Purana'' refer to both as ''Pallava''. The ''Brahmanda Purana'' and ''Markendeya Purana'' refer to both as ''Pahlava'' or ''Pallava''. The ''Bhishama Parava'' of the [[Mahabharata]] does not distinguish between the Pahlavas and Pallavas. The Pahlavas are said to be same as the Parasikas, a Saka group. According to P. Carnegy,{{sfn|Rapson|1908|pp=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n101/mode/2up xcviii–xcix]}}<ref name="see">See:
* ''Notes on the Races, Tribes, and Castes inhabiting the Province of Oudh, Lucknow, Oudh'' Government Press. 1868, p. 4; 
* Singh, M. R. (1972). ''The Geographical Data in Early Puranas, a Critical Studies''. p. 135; 
* [[Sacred Books of the East]], XXV, Intr. p. cxv, 
* Rapson (1908) ''Coins of Ancient India'', [https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/36/mode/2up p. 37], n.2.{{failed verification|date=November 2024}}</ref> the Pahlava are probably those people who spoke Paluvi or Pehlvi, the [[Parthian language]]. Buhler similarly suggests Pahlava is an Indic form of ''Parthava'' meaning "Parthian".<ref name="see"/>{{sfn|Rapson|1908|pp=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n101/mode/2up xcviii–xcix]}} In a 4th-century BCE, the ''Vartika'' of [[Kātyāyana]] mentions the ''Sakah-Parthavah'', demonstrating an awareness of these Saka-Parthians, probably by way of commerce.<ref>Agarwala (1954), p. 444.</ref>

===The Western Satraps===
{{Main|Western Satraps}}
{{ Annotated image
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| image-width = 270  <!--  DO NOT CHANGE MAP SIZE (270) AS THIS WILL DISPLACE THE LABELS -->
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{{Annotation|230|5|'''South Asia<br>in 150 CE'''|text-align=center|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=10|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|95|145|[[Satavahana Empire|SATAVAHANAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|105|205|[[Pandyan dynasty|PANDYAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|115|175|[[Chola dynasty|CHOLAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|90|60|[[Kushan Empire|KUSHAN<br>EMPIRE]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=9|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|65|100|[[Western Satraps|WESTERN<br>SATRAPS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|48|65|[[Paratarajas|PARATA<br>RAJAS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|150|110|[[Mahameghavahana dynasty|MAHAMEGA-<br>VAHANA]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
{{Annotation|2|60|[[Indo-Parthians|INDO-<br>PARTHIANS]]|font-weight=bold|font-style=normal|font-size=7|color=#000000}}
|caption=South Asia in the 2nd century CE.<ref name="JES">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=145, map XIV.1 (e) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224162023/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=182 |url-status=live }}</ref>
}}
The [[Western Satraps]] (35–405 CE) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India ([[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] and [[Malwa]]: modern [[Gujarat]], southern [[Sindh]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Madhya Pradesh]] states). Their state, or at least part of it, was called "[[Ariaca]]" according to the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]''. They were successors to the Indo-Scythians and were contemporaneous with the Kushan Empire, which ruled the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and were possibly their overlords, and the Satavahana dynasty of [[Andhra in Indian epic literature|Andhra]] who ruled in Central India. They are called "Western" in contrast to the "Northern" Indo-Scythian satraps who ruled in the area of [[Mathura]], such as [[Rajuvula]], and his successors under the Kushans, the "Great Satrap" Kharapallana and the "Satrap" Vanaspara.{{efn|Kharapallana and Vanaspara are known from an inscription discovered in [[Sarnath]], and dated to the 3rd year of [[Kanishka]], in which they were paying allegiance to the Kushanas.{{sfn|Rapson|1908|p=[https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n105/mode/2up ciii]}} }} Although they called themselves "Satraps" on their coins, leading to their modern designation of "Western Satraps", Ptolemy's ''Geography'' still called them "Indo-Scythians".<ref>Ptolemy, ''Geographia'', Ch. 7</ref> Altogether, there were 27 independent Western Satrap rulers during a period of about 350 years.

===The Kushans===
{{Main|Kushan Empire}}
The Kushan Empire (c. 1st–3rd centuries) originally formed in [[Bactria]] on either side of the middle course of the [[Amu Darya]] in what is now northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan; during the 1st century CE, they expanded their territory to include the Punjab and much of the [[Ganges]] basin, conquering a number of kingdoms across the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the process.<ref>Hill (2009), pp. 29, 31.</ref><ref>Hill (2004)</ref> The Kushans conquered the central section of the main Silk Road and, therefore, had control of the overland trade between India, and [[China]] to the east, and the [[Roman Empire]] and [[Sassanian Empire|Persia]] to the west.

[[Emperor Kanishka]] was a great patron of [[Buddhism]]; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward the [[Indian subcontinent]] the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new [[Hindu]] majority.<ref name="Frumkin1970">{{cite book|author=Grégoire Frumkin|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|year=1970|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=[https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum/page/51 51]–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rafi U. Samad |title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93 |year=2011 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-859-2 |pages=93–}}</ref>

===The Indo-Sasanians===
{{Main|Indo-Sasanians}}
The rise of new Persian power, the [[Sasanian Empire]], saw them exert their influence into the Indus region and conquer lands from the Kushan Empire, setting up the [[Indo-Sasanians]] around 240 CE. They were to maintain their influence in the region until they were overthrown by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Afterwards, they were displaced in 410 CE by the invasions of the [[Hephthalite Empire]].

===The Hephthalite Hunas===
{{Main|Huna people|Hephthalite Empire}}
[[File:HephthaliteCoin.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Billon (alloy)|Billon]] [[Ancient drachma|drachma]] of the [[Huna people|Huna]] King Napki Malka (Afghanistan or Gandhara, c. 475–576).]]The [[Hephthalite Empire]] was another Central Asian nomadic group to invade. They are also linked to the [[Yuezhi]] who had founded the Kushan Empire. From their capital in [[Bamyan]] (present-day Afghanistan) they extended their rule across the Indus and [[North India]], thereby causing the collapse of the Gupta Empire. They were eventually defeated by the Sasanian Empire allied with [[Turkic peoples]].

===The Rais===
{{Main|Rai dynasty}}
The [[Rai dynasty]] of [[Sindh]] were patrons of [[Buddhism]] even though they also established a huge temple of [[Shiva]] in [[Sukkur]] close to their capital, [[Aror]].

===The Gandharan kingdom===
{{Main|Gandhara|Gandhara kingdom}}
'''Gandhāra''' was an ancient region in the [[Kabulistan|Kabul]], [[Peshawar Valley|Peshawar]], [[Swat District|Swat]], and [[Taxila]] areas of what are now northwestern [[Pakistan]] and eastern [[Afghanistan]]. It was one of 16 [[Mahajanapada]] of [[ancient India]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Professor of Asian History Hermann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPVq3ykHyH4C&pg=PA53 |title=A History of India |last2=Kulke |first2=Hermann |last3=Rothermund |first3=Dietmar |date=2004 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-32919-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Warikoo |first=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsdvkRtAtusC&pg=PA73 |title=Bamiyan: Challenge to World Heritage |date=2004 |publisher=Third Eye |isbn=978-81-86505-66-3 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hansen |first=Mogens Herman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8qvY8pxVxcwC&pg=PA377 |title=A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation |date=2000 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |isbn=978-87-7876-177-4 |language=en}}</ref>

===The Karkotas===
{{Main|Karkota Empire}}
{{Location map+
|South Asia
|float      = right
|width      = 280
|caption    = South Asia circa 700 CE.<ref name="A Historical atlas of South Asia">{{cite book |last1=Schwartzberg |first1=Joseph E. |title=A Historical atlas of South Asia |date=1978 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |page=146, map XIV.2 (f) |isbn=0226742210 |url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183 |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224144259/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/pager.html?object=183 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|nodiv      = 1
|mini       = 1
|relief=yes
|places     =
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=41|N |long=65|E |label=[[Yabghus of Tokharistan|TOKHARA<br/>YABGHUS]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=33|N |long=65|E |label=[[Umayyad Caliphate|UMAYYAD<br>CALIPHATE]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=37.5|N |long=70|E |label=<div talign=center>[[Turk Shahis|TURK<br/>SHAHIS]]</div>|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34.5|N |long=67.5|E |label=<div talign=center>[[Zunbils|ZUNBILS]]</div>|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=20|N |long=76|E |label=[[Chalukya dynasty|CHALUKYAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=25|N |long=72|E |label=[[Maitraka dynasty|MAITRAKAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=18|N |long=78|E |label=[[Pallava dynasty|GREATER PALLAVAS]]|position=bottom |label_size=70|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=28|N |long=81|E |label=[[Varman dynasty of Kannauj|<div talign=center>VARMAN<br/>DYNASTY</div>]]|position=bottom |label_size=80|mark=File:1000x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=39.25|N |long=74|E |label=[[Patola Shahis|<div talign=center>'''PATOLA'''<br/>'''SHAHIS'''</div>]]|position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34|N |long=81|E |label=[[Tibetan Empire|TIBETAN<br/>EMPIRE]] |position=right |label_size=80|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
{{location map~ |South Asia |lat=34.09|N |long=76|E |label='''[[Karkota Empire|KARKOTAS]]''' |position=bottom |label_size=60|mark=File:1x1.png|marksize=0}}
}}
The [[Karkota Empire]] was established around 625 CE. During the eighth century they consolidated their rule over Kashmir.{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} The most illustrious ruler of the dynasty was [[Lalitaditya Muktapida]]. According to Kalhana's ''[[Rajatarangini]]'', he defeated the Tibetans and [[Yashovarman]] of [[Kanyakubja]], and subsequently conquered eastern kingdoms of Magadha, [[Kamarupa]], [[Gauḍa (region)|Gauda]], and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]]. Kalhana also states that he extended his influence of Malwa and [[Gujarat]] and defeated [[Arabs]] at [[Sindh]].{{r|1977 Majumdar|pp=260–263}}{{sfn|Wink|1991|pp=72–74}}{{Incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}} According to historians, Kalhana highly exaggerated the conquests of Lalitaditya.{{sfn|Chadurah|1991|p=45}}{{sfn|Hasan|1959|p=54}}

===The Kabul Shahis===
{{Main|Turk Shahi|Hindu Shahi}}
The Kabul Shahi dynasties ruled portions of the [[Kabul]] valley and Gandhara from the decline of the [[Kushan Empire]] in the 3rd century to the early 9th century.<ref name="EB">Shahi Family. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 16 October 2006 [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9067075].</ref> The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE–670 CE, when the capitals were located in [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] and Kabul, and later [[Hund, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Udabhandapura]], also known as Hund,<ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: ''The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> for its new capital. In ancient time, the title Shahi appears to be a quite popular royal title in Afghanistan and the northwestern areas of the Indian subcontinent. Variants were used much more priorly in the Near East,{{efn|Darius used titles like ''Kshayathiya'', ''Kshayathiya Kshayathiyanam'', etc.}} but as well later on by the Sakas, Kushans Hunas, Bactrians, by the rulers of Kapisa/Kabul and [[Gilgit]].{{sfn|Pandey|1973|pp=1, 45–46, 48, 80}}{{sfn|Mohan|1976|p=80}}<ref>Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</ref> In Persian form, the title appears as ''Kshathiya, Kshathiya Kshathiyanam'', Shao of the Kushanas and the ''Ssaha'' of [[Mihirakula]] (Huna chief).<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|date=1954 |title=[title missing]<!--Title and author missing--> |pages=112 ff}}{{author missing|date=November 2024}}{{title missing|date=November 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Mohan|1976|p=80}} The Kushanas are stated to have adopted the title ''Shah-in-shahi'' (''Shaonano shao'') in imitation of Achaemenid practice.{{sfn|Keay|2001|p=203}} The Shahis are generally split up into two eras—the Buddhist Shahis and the Hindu Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE.

==The Gangetic Plains and Deccan==
Following the demise of the [[Mauryan Empire]], the [[Satavahana]]s rose as the successor state to check and contend with the influx of the [[Central Asian]] tribes from the Northwest. The Satavahanas straddling the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan plateau]] also provided a link for transmission of [[Buddhism]] and contact between the Northern [[Indo-Gangetic plain|Gangetic plains]] and the Southern regions even as the [[Upanishads]] were gaining ground. Eventually weakened both by contention with the northwestern invaders and internal strife they broke up and gave rise to several nations around Deccan and central India regions even as the [[Gupta Empire]] arose in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] and ushered in a '''"Golden Age"''' and rebirth of empire as decentralized local administrative model and the spread of Indian culture until collapse under the [[Huna people|Huna]] invasions. After the fall of [[Gupta Empire]] the Gangetic region broke up into several states temporarily reunited under [[Harsha]] then giving rise to the [[Rajput]] dynasties. In the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], the [[Chalukya]]s arose forming a formidable nation marking the migration of the centers of cultural and military power long held in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] to the new nations forming in the southern regions of India.

===The Satavahana Empire===
{{Main|Satavahana dynasty}}
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Vasishtiputra Sri Satakarni.jpg|thumb|200px|Silver coin of king Vasishtiputra Satakarni (c. 160 AD) of the [[Satavahana]].]] -->

The '''Sātavāhana dynasty''' began as feudatories to the [[Maurya Empire]] but declared independence with its decline. They were the first Indic rulers to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed and are known for their patronage of [[Buddhism]], resulting in Buddhist monuments from the [[Ellora Caves]] to [[Amaravathi village, Guntur district]]. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Gangetic plains to the southern tip of India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

The Sātavāhanas had to compete with the [[Shunga Empire]] and then the [[Kanva dynasty]] of [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] to establish their rule. Later they had to contend in protecting their domain from the incursions of [[Saka]]s, [[Yona]]s and [[the Pahlavas]]. In particular their struggles with the [[Western Satraps]] weakened them and the empire split into smaller states.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===The Mahameghavahana dynasty===
{{main|Mahameghavahana dynasty}}

The Mahameghavahanas (c. 250s BCE – 400s CE) was an ancient ruling dynasty of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] after the decline of the Mauryan Empire. The third ruler of the dynasty, [[Kharavela|Khārabēḷa]], conquered much of [[India]] in a series of campaigns at the beginning of the common era.<ref>Agrawal, Sadananda (2000): Śrī Khāravela, Sri Digambar Jain Samaj, Cuttack, Odisha</ref> Kaḷingan military might was reinstated by Khārabēḷa: under Khārabēḷa's generalship, the Kaḷinga state had a formidable maritime reach with trade routes linking it to the then-Simhala (Sri Lanka), Burma (Myanmar), Siam (Thailand), Vietnam, Kamboja (Cambodia), Borneo, Bali, Samudra (Sumatra) and Jabadwipa (Java). Khārabēḷa led many successful campaigns against the states of Magadha, [[Anga]], the Satavahanas and the [[South India]]n regions ruled by the [[Pandyan dynasty]] (modern [[Andhra Pradesh]]) and expanded Kaḷinga as far as the [[Ganges]] and the [[Kaveri]].
[[File:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves 2024 42.jpg|thumb|The rock-cut jaina viharas of Khandagiri caves , built under the patronage of Kharavela.]]
The Kharavelan state had a formidable maritime empire with trading routes linking it to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Burma]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Borneo]], [[Bali]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Java]]. Colonists from Kaḷinga settled in Sri Lanka, Burma, as well as the [[Maldives]] and [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. Even today Indians are referred to as [[Keling]] in Malaysia because of this.<ref>[http://www.visvacomplex.com/Keling_English_Version.html Keling_English Version] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226054454/http://www.visvacomplex.com/Keling_English_Version.html |date=26 February 2013 }}. Visvacomplex.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.</ref>

Although religiously tolerant, Khārabēḷa patronised [[Jainism]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page6.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010503232502/http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page6.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2001-05-03 |access-date=2012-01-16 |title=Maharaja Kharavela }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page13.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010503230545/http://www.freeindia.org/biographies/kharavela/page13.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2001-05-03 |access-date=2012-01-16 |title=Maharaja Kharavela's Family }}</ref> and was responsible for the propagation of Jainism in the [[Indian subcontinent]] but his importance is neglected in many accounts of Indian history. The main source of information about Khārabeḷa is his famous seventeen line rock-cut [[Hathigumpha inscription|Hātigumphā inscription]] in the [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]] near [[Bhubaneswar]], Odisha. According to the Hathigumpha inscription, he attacked [[Rajgir|Rajagriha]] in Magadha, thus inducing the Indo-Greek king [[Demetrius I of Bactria]] to retreat to [[Mathura]].<ref>Shashi Kant (2000): The Hathigumpha Inscription of Kharavela and the Bhabru Edict of Ashoka, D K Printworld Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

===The Bharshiva dynasty===
{{Main|Bharshiva Dynasty}}
Before the rise of the Guptas, [[Bharshiva Dynasty|Bharshiva Kings]] ruled most of the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]]. They perform ten [[Ashvamedha]] sacrifices on the banks of Ganga River. [[Samudragupta]] mention Naga rulers in his Allahabad pillar.<ref>A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume edited by K. K. Kusuman, Page no 153</ref>

===The Vakatakas===
{{Main|Vakataka}}
[[File:Ajanta (63).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of [[Ajanta Caves]], built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers.]]
The '''Vakataka Empire''' was the contemporaries of the [[Gupta Empire]] and the successor state of the [[Satavahana]]s they formed the southern boundaries of the north and ruled over today's modern-day states of [[Madhya Pradesh]] and [[Maharashtra]] during the 3rd and 5th centuries. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of [[Ajanta Caves]] (a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]), built under the patronage of the Vakataka rulers. They were eventually overrun by the [[Chalukya]]s.

===The Guptas===
{{Main|Gupta Empire}}
[[File:Silver Coin of Kumaragupta I.jpg|thumb|Silver coin of the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] King [[Kumara Gupta I]] (414–455).]]
The '''Classical Age''' refers to the period when much of the [[Indian subcontinent]] was reunited under the [[Gupta Empire]] (ca. 320 CE–600 CE).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |title=India – Historical Setting – The Classical Age – Gupta and Harsha<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=1 January 2010 |archive-date=18 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018171922/http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> This period is called the [[Golden Age of India]]<ref>[http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802092924/http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html|date=2 August 2009}}</ref> and was marked by extensive achievements in [[Science and technology in ancient India|science, technology]], [[List of Indian inventions and discoveries|engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian logic|logic]], [[Indian mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian astronomy|astronomy]], [[Indian religion|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] that crystallized the elements of what is generally known as [[Hindu culture]].<ref>[http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM The Age of the Guptas and After<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204082030/http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |date=4 December 2008 }}</ref> The [[Decimal|decimal numeral system]], including the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]], was invented in India during this period.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The peace and prosperity created under Guptas leadership enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavors in India.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |title=Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330100325/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |url-status=live }}</ref>

The high points of this cultural creativity is seen in Gupta architecture, sculpture and painting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |title=Encyclopedia – Britannica Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |url-status=live }}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as [[Kalidasa]], [[Aryabhata]], [[Varahamihira]], [[Vishnu Sharma]], and [[Vatsyayana]] who made advances in a variety of academic fields.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |title=The Gupta Empire of India {{!}} Chandragupta I {{!}} Samudragupta<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=1 January 2010 |archive-date=11 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711171258/http://www.historybits.com/gupta.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Science and political administration advanced during the Gupta era.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}{{clarify|date=July 2013}} Trade ties made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in [[Burma]], [[Sri Lanka]], and both [[Maritime Southeast Asia|maritime]] and [[mainland Southeast Asia]].

The Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimize their rule, but they also patronized [[Buddhism]], which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}} The military exploits of the first three rulers - [[Chandragupta I]] (ca. 319–335), [[Samudragupta]] (ca. 335–376), and [[Chandragupta II]] (ca. 376–415) —brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |title=Trade {{!}} The Story of India - Photo Gallery<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=5 September 2017 |archive-date=28 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328013124/http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |url-status=live }}</ref> They successfully resisted the north-western kingdoms until the arrival of the [[Huna people|Hunas]] who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at [[Bamyan City|Bamiyan]]. Nevertheless, much of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north.{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

===The Harsha Vardhana===
{{Main|Empire of Harsha}}
After the collapse of the [[Gupta Empire]], the gangetic plains fractured into numerous small nations. [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]] was able to briefly bind them together under his rulership as the [[Empire of Harsha]]. Only a defeat at the hands of the [[Chalukya]]s ([[Pulakeshin II]]) prevented him from expanding his reign south of the [[Narmada River]]. This unity did not last long beyond his reign and his empire fractured soon after his death in 647 AD.

===Later Guptas===
{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
The Later Gupta dynasty, also known as the Later Guptas of Magadha, were the rulers of the [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] region and partly of [[Malwa]] from the 6th and 8th centuries CE. The Later Guptas emerged after the disintegration of the [[Gupta Empire|Imperial Guptas]] as the rulers of Magadha and Malwa however, there is no evidence to connect the two dynasties and the Later Guptas may have adopted the -gupta suffix to link themselves the Imperial Guptas.<ref name=Ghosh2021>{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=Suchandra |title=The Encyclopedia of Ancient History |chapter=Later Guptas |date=2022 |pages=1–2 |doi=10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00571 |isbn=978-1-119-39991-9 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/9781119399919.eahaa00571|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=246}}

===The Gurjaras===

Present day [[Rajasthan]] was Gurjara area for centuries with capital at [[Bhinmal|Bhilmal]] (Bhinmal or Srimal), situated nearly 50 miles to the north west of [[Mount Abu]].<ref name="Smith 1909">Smith, Vincent A. (January 1909). "The Gurjars of Rajputana and [[Kannauj]]". ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' pp. 53–75</ref> The Pratihara of Bhinmal moved to Kannuaj on the [[Ganges]] at the beginning of the 9th century and transferred their capital to Kannuaj and founded an empire which at its peak was bounded on the east by [[Bihar]], on the west by the ''lost river'', [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|the Hakra]], and the [[Arabian Sea]], on the North By the [[Himalaya]] and [[Sutlej River|Sutlaj]], and on the South by the [[Yamuna River|Jumna]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]].<ref name="Smith 1909"/> The region round [[Bharuch|Broach]], which was offshoot of this kingdom, was also ruled by the [[Gurjaras of Lata|Gurjaras of Nandipuri]] and [[Gurjaras of Lata]].{{r|1977 Majumdar|p=66}}

===The Vishnukundinas===
{{Main|Vishnukundina}}
The '''Vishnukundina Empire''' was an Indian dynasty that ruled over the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]], [[Odisha]] and parts of [[South India]] during the 5th and 6th centuries carving land out from the [[Vakataka|Vakataka Empire]]. The Vishnukundin reign came to an end with the conquest of the eastern Deccan by the [[Chalukya]], [[Pulakeshin II]]. Pulakeshin appointed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana]] as Viceroy to rule over the conquered lands. Eventually Vishnuvardhana declared his independence and started the [[Eastern Chalukya]] dynasty.

===The Maitrakas===
{{Main|Maitraka}}
The '''Maitraka Empire''' ruled [[Gujarat]] in western India from the c. 475 to 767 CE. The founder of the dynasty, ''Senapati'' (general) Bhatarka, was a military governor of [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra]] [[peninsula]] under [[Gupta Empire]], who had established himself as the independent ruler of Gujarat approximately in the last quarter of the 5th century. The first two Maitraka rulers Bhatarka and Dharasena I used only the title of ''Senapati'' (general). The third ruler Dronasimha declared himself as the ''Maharaja''.<ref name="HRC">Roychaudhuri, H. C. (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India'', University of Calcutta, Calcutta, pp. 553–554</ref> King Guhasena stopped using the term ''Paramabhattaraka Padanudhyata'' along his name like his predecessors, which denotes the cessation of displaying of the nominal allegiance to the Gupta overlords. He was succeeded by his son Dharasena II, who used the title of ''Mahadhiraja''. His son, the next ruler Siladitya I, Dharmaditya was described by [[Xuanzang|Hiuen Tsang]] as a "monarch of great administrative ability and of rare kindness and compassion". Siladitya I was succeeded by his younger brother Kharagraha I.<ref name="Mahajan">Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). ''Ancient India'', S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-219-0887-6}}, pp.594–596</ref> Virdi copperplate grant (616 CE) of Kharagraha I proves that his territories included [[Ujjain]].

===The Gurjara Pratiharas===
{{Main|Gurjara Pratihara}}
The '''Gurjara Pratihara Empire''' ([[Hindi]]: गुर्जर प्रतिहार)<ref>{{cite book
 | title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
 | author =Panchānana Rāya
 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ&q=Gurjar+parihar
 | publisher =I. M. H. Press
 | year =1939
 | page =125
}}</ref> formed an Indian dynasty that ruled much of [[Hindustan|Northern India]] from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910 CE), it rivaled the [[Gupta Empire]] in the extent of its territory.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Gurjara-Pratihara+dynasty |title=Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty definition of Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty in the Free Online Encyclopedia<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=19 August 2009 |archive-date=2 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002203615/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Gurjara-Pratihara+dynasty |url-status=live }}</ref>

Pointing out the importance of the Gurjara Pratihara empire in the history of India Dr. [[R. C. Majumdar]] has observed,
"the ''Gurjara Pratihara Empire'' which continued in full glory for nearly a century, was the last great empire in Northern India before the [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent|Muslim conquest]]." This honour is accorded to the empire of [[Harsha]] by many historians of repute but without any real justification, for the Pratihara empire was probably larger, certainly not less in extent rivalled the [[Gupta Empire]] and brought political unity and its attendant blessings upon a large part of Northern India. But its chief credit lies in its successful resistance to the foreign invasions from the west, from the days of [[Junaid]]. This was frankly recognised by the Arab writers themselves.

Historians of India, since the days of [[Lord Elphinstone|Eliphinstone]], has wondered at slow progress of Muslim invaders in India compared to their rapid advance in other parts of the world. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Now there can be little doubt that it was the power of the Gurjara Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of [[Sindh]], their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "chief contribution of the Gurjara Pratiharas to the history of India".<ref>{{cite book|title=History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D.|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|page=207 to 208|isbn=978-81-269-0027-5|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|year=2002}}</ref>

===The Rajputs===
{{Main|Rajput}}
The '''[[Rajput]]''' were a Hindu clan who rose to power across a region stretching from the Gangetic plains to the Afghan mountains, and refer to the various dynasties of the many kingdoms in the region in the wake of the collapse of the [[Sassanid Empire]] and [[Gupta Empire]] and marks the transition of Buddhist ruling dynasties to Hindu ruling dynasties.

====Katoch Dynasty====
{{Main|Katoch}}
The '''[[Katoch]]''' were a Hindu Rajput clan of the [[Chandravanshi]] lineage; with recent research suggests that Katoch may be one of the oldest royal dynasties in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20091104/himplus.htm#8 |title=Dharam Prakash Gupta, "Seminar on Katoch dynasty trail". ''Himachal Plus.'' On line. |access-date=3 January 2017 |archive-date=2 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102122914/https://www.tribuneindia.com/2009/20091104/himplus.htm#8 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

====The Chauhans====
{{Main|Chauhan dynasty|Chahamanas of Shakambhari}}
[[File:Prithvi Raj Chauhan (Edited).jpg|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Prithvi Raj Chauhan]] at Ajmer]]
The '''Chauhan dynasty''' flourished from the 8th to 12th centuries CE. It was one of the three main Rajput dynasties of that era, the others being [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratiharas]] and [[Paramara dynasty|Paramaras]]. Chauhan dynasties established themselves in several places in [[North India]] and in the state of [[Gujarat]] in [[Western India]]. They were also prominent at Sirohi in the southwest of [[Rajputana]], and at Bundi and Kota in the east. Inscriptions also associate them with Sambhar, the salt lake area in the [[Kingdom of Amber|Amber]] (later Jaipur) district (the Sakhambari branch remained near lake Sambhar and married into the ruling [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratihara]], who then ruled an empire in [[Northern India]]). Chauhans adopted a political policy that saw them indulge largely in campaigns against the Chalukyas and the invading Muslim hordes. In the 11th century, they founded the city of Ajayameru ([[Ajmer]]) in the southern part of their kingdom, and in the 12th century, the Chauhans captured Dhilika (the ancient name of [[Delhi]]) from the Tomaras and annexed some of their territory along the [[Yamuna River]].

The '''Chauhan Kingdom''' became the leading state in Northern India under King [[Prithviraj III]] (1165–1192 CE), also known as '''Prithvi Raj Chauhan''' or Rai Pithora. [[Prithviraj III]] has become famous in folk tales and historical literature as the Chauhan king of [[Delhi]] who resisted and repelled the invasion by [[Mohammed of Ghor]] at the [[First Battle of Tarain]] in 1191. Armies from other Rajput kingdoms, including [[Mewar]], assisted him. The Chauhan kingdom collapsed after Prithviraj and his armies faced defeat<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=L5eFzeyjBTQC&dq=muhammad+sam+prithvi+defeat&pg=PA26 Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526) - I By Satish Chandra]</ref>{{r|Hoernle}} from Mohammed of Ghor in 1192 at the [[Second Battle of Tarain]].

====The Kachwaha====
{{Main|Kachwaha}}
The '''Kachwaha''' originated as tributaries of the preceding powers of the region. Some scholars point out that it was only following the downfall, in the 8th–10th century, of [[Kannauj]] (the regional seat-of-power, following the break-up of [[Harsha]]'s empire), that the Kacchapaghata state emerged as a principal power in the [[Chambal River|Chambal]] valley of present-day [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archipelago.org/vol3-4/snead3.htm |title=Stella Snead – Guardian Lion<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=10 February 2011 |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227093335/http://www.archipelago.org/vol3-4/snead3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

====The Paramaras====
{{Main|Paramara dynasty}}
The '''Paramara dynasty''' was a [[Rajput|Rajput dynasty]] in early [[Medieval India]] who ruled over [[Malwa]] region in central India.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|pp=169–171}} This dynasty was founded by Upendra in c. 800 CE. The most significant ruler of this dynasty was [[Bhoja]] who was a [[philosopher king]] and [[polymath]]. The seat of the Paramara kingdom was ''Dhara Nagari'' (the present day [[Dhar]] city in [[Madhya Pradesh]] state).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://agnivanshi.blogspot.com/2008/05/paramara-dynasty.html |title=Agnivansha: Paramara Dynasty<!-- Bot generated title --> |access-date=31 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811055122/http://agnivanshi.blogspot.com/2008/05/paramara-dynasty.html |archive-date=11 August 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

====Chalukyas====
{{Main|Chaulukya dynasty}}
[[File:Sun Temple Sabha Mandap.JPG|thumb|right|200px|upright=2|[[Modhera Sun Temple]] built by the Chaulukyas.]]
The '''Chaulukyas''' (also called Solankis) was another Rajput dynasty In [[Gujarat]], [[Anhilwara]] (modern [[Patan, Gujarat|Siddhpur Patan]]) served as their capital.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|p=170}} [[Gujarat]] was a major center of [[Indian Ocean]] trade, and Anhilwara was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. The Chaulukyas were patrons of the great seaside temple of [[Shiva]] at [[Somnath Patan]] in [[Kathiawar]]; Bhima Dev helped rebuild the temple after it was sacked by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 1026. His son, [[Karna (Chaulukya dynasty)|Karna]], conquered the [[Bhil]] king Ashapall or Ashaval, and after his victory established a city named [[Ahmedabad|Karnavati]] on the banks of the [[Sabarmati River]], at the site of modern [[Ahmedabad]].

====Tomaras of Delhi====
{{Main|Tomara dynasty}}
'''Tomaras of Delhi''' was a [[Rajput|Rajput Clan]] during 9th to 12th century.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|pp=168–170}} The [[Tomaras of Delhi]] ruled parts of the present-day [[Delhi]] and [[Haryana]].{{sfn|Singh|2008|p=571}} Much of the information about this dynasty comes from bardic legends of little historical value, and therefore, the reconstruction of their history is difficult.{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} According to the bardic tradition, the dynasty's founder Anangapal Tuar (that is Anangapala I Tomara) founded Delhi in 736 CE.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=339}} However, the authenticity of this claim is doubtful.{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} The bardic legends also state that the last Tomara king (also named Anangapal) passed on the throne of Delhi to his maternal grandson [[Prithviraj Chauhan]]. This claim is also inaccurate: historical evidence shows that Prithviraj inherited Delhi from his father [[Someshvara (Chahamana dynasty)|Someshvara]].{{sfn|Ganguly|1981|p=704}} According to the [[Bijolia]] inscription of Someshvara, his brother [[Vigraharaja IV]] had captured Dhillika (Delhi) and Ashika (Hansi); he probably defeated a Tomara ruler.{{sfn|Ganguly|1984|p=117}}

====Gahadavala dynasty====
{{Main|Gahadavala dynasty}}
The Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day [[Indian states]] of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Bihar]], during the 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at [[Varanasi]] in the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain|Gangetic plains]].{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}

===Khayaravala dynasty===
{{Main|Khayaravala dynasty}}
The Khayaravala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day [[Indian states]] of [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]], during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Khayaragarh in [[Shahabad district]]. [[Pratapdhavala]] and [[Shri Pratapa]] were king of the dynasty according to inscription of [[Rohtas Fort, India|Rohtas]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CenDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT41|title=Majestic Monuments of India: Ancient Indian Mega Structures|access-date=25 July 2020|last1=Prabhu|first1=T. L.|date=4 August 2019}}</ref>[[File:Rohtasgarh Fort Entrance.jpg|thumb|Rohtasgarh Fort]]

===The Pratihars===
Pratihars ruled from Mandore, near present-day Jodhpur, they held the title of Rana before being defeated by Guhilots of Chittore.

===The Palas===
{{Main|Pala Empire}}
[[File:IndianBuddha11.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s, 11th century, [[Pala Empire]]]]
'''Pala Empire''' was a [[Buddhist]] dynasty that ruled from the north-eastern region of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. The name ''Pala'' ([[Bengali language|Modern]] {{langx|bn|পাল}} ''pal'') means ''protector'' and was used as an ending to the names of all Pala monarchs. The Palas were followers of the [[Mahayana]] and [[Vajrayana|Tantric]] schools of Buddhism. [[Gopala (Pala king)|Gopala]] was the first ruler from the dynasty. He came to power in 750 CE in [[Gaur, West Bengal|Gaur]] by a [[democratic election]]. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the [[Mahajanapadas|Mahā Janapadas]]. He reigned from 750 to 770 CE and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of [[Bengal]]. The [[Buddhist]] [[dynasty]] lasted for four centuries (750–1120 CE) and ushered in a period of stability and prosperity in [[Bengal]]. They created many temples and works of art as well as supported the Universities of [[Nalanda]] and [[Vikramashila]]. [[Somapura Mahavihara]] built by [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]] is the greatest [[Buddhist]] [[Vihara]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]].

The empire reached its peak under [[Dharmapala of Bengal|Dharmapala]] and [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]]. Dharmapala extended the empire into the northern parts of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. This triggered once again the power struggle for the control of the subcontinent. [[Devapala (Pala dynasty)|Devapala]], successor of Dharmapala, expanded the empire to cover much of South Asia and beyond. His empire stretched from [[Assam]] and [[Utkala Kingdom|Utkala]] in the east, [[Kamboja Kingdom|Kamboja]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]]) in the north-west and [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription Devapala exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the [[Huna people|Huna]], and humbled the lords of [[Gurjaradesa|Gurjaras]] (the [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Gurjara-Pratiharas]]) and the [[Dravidian people|Dravidas]].

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time. However, [[Mahipala]] I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered control over all of Bengal and expanded the empire. He survived the invasions of [[Rajendra Chola]] and the [[Chalukyas]]. After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until [[Ramapala]], the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the [[Varendra]] rebellion and extended his empire farther to [[Kamarupa]], Odisha and Northern India.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Palas were responsible for the introduction of [[Mahayana Buddhism]] in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Myanmar]]. The Palas had extensive trade and influence in [[south-east Asia]]. This can be seen in the sculptures and architectural style of the [[Sailendra|Sailendra Empire]] (present-day [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]], [[Java]], [[Sumatra]]).

===Karnatas of Mithila===
{{Main|Karnats of Mithila}}
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in [[Darbhanga]] and [[Simraungadh (medieval city)|Simraongadh]]. The dynasty was established by [[Nanyadeva]], a military commander of Karnataka-origin. Under this dynasty, the [[Maithili language|Maithili]] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the [[Varna Ratnakara]] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into [[Nepal]]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of [[Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=CPN |title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |date=1969 |volume=31 |pages=66–72 |jstor=44138330 }}</ref>

===The Candras===
{{Main|Candra Dynasty}}
The '''Candra Dynasty''' who ruled over eastern [[Greater Bengal|Bengal]] and were contemporaries of the Palas.

===The Eastern Gangas===
{{Main|Eastern Ganga dynasty}}
{{See also|Konark Sun Temple|Jagannath Temple (Puri)}}
[[File:Konark Temple painting 1848 Odisha in British Museum.png|thumb|200x200px|[[Konark Sun Temple]] at [[Konark]], [[Odisha]], built by King Narasimhadeva I (1236–1264 AD) also a [[World Heritage Site]].]]
The '''Eastern Ganga dynasty''' rulers reigned over [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] which consisted of the parts of the modern-day Indian states of [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Chhattisgarh]], Madhya Pradesh and [[Andhra Pradesh]] from the 11th century to the early 15th century.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-225335/Ganga-dynasty Ganga Dynasty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623023431/http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-225335/Ganga-Dynasty |date=23 June 2008 }} www.britannica.com.</ref> Their capital was known by the name Kalinganagar, which is the modern [[Srimukhalingam]] in Srikakulam District of [[Andhra Pradesh]] bordering [[Odisha]]. Today they are most remembered as the builders of the [[Konark Sun Temple]] a [[World Heritage Site]] at [[Konark]], [[Odisha]]. It was built by King Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264 CE). During their reign (1078–1434 CE) a new style of temple architecture came into being, commonly called as Indo-Aryan architecture. This dynasty was founded by King Anantavarma Chodaganga Deva (1078–1147 CE). He was a religious person and a patron of art and literature. He is credited for having built the famous [[Jagannath Temple (Puri)|Jagannath Temple]] of Puri in [[Odisha]].
[[File:Loving Couple (Mithuna) 13th century, Eastern Ganga Dynasty, Orissa, India.jpg|thumb|Loving Couple (Mithuna) 13th century, Eastern Ganga Dynasty, Orissa, India]]
King Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was succeeded by a long line of illustrious rulers such as [[Narasimhadeva I]] (1238–1264 CE). The rulers of Eastern Ganga dynasty not only defended their kingdom from the constant attacks of the [[Muslim]] rulers from both northern and southern India but were perhaps one of the few empires to have successfully invaded and defeated their Muslim adversaries. The Eastern Ganga King Narasimha Deva I invaded the Muslim kingdom of Bengal and handed a heavy defeat to the Sultan. This ensured that Sultanate never encroached upon the domains of the Ganga Emperors for nearly a century. His military exploits still survive today as folklore in Odisha. This kingdom prospered through trade and commerce and the wealth was mostly used in the construction of temples. The rule of the dynasty came to end under the reign of King Bhanudeva IV (1414–1434 CE), in the early 15th century.

===The Senas===
{{Main|Sena Empire}}
The Palas were followed by the [[Sena dynasty]] who brought [[Bengal]] under one ruler during the 12th century. [[Vijay Sen]] the second ruler of this dynasty defeated the last [[Pala Empire|Pala emperor]] [[Madanapala (Pala dynasty)|Madanapala]] and established his reign. [[Ballal Sena]] introduced [[Kulīna System]] in Bengal and made [[Nabadwip]] the capital. The fourth king of this dynasty [[Lakshman Sen]] expanded the empire beyond Bengal to [[Bihar]], [[Assam]], northern [[Odisha]] and probably to [[Varanasi]]. Lakshman was later defeated by the [[Muslim]]s and fled to eastern Bengal where he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of [[Hinduism]] and cultivated [[Sanskrit literature]] in India.

===The Varmans===
The '''Varman Dynasty''' (not to be confused with the [[Varman dynasty]] of Kamarupa) ruled over eastern [[Greater Bengal|Bengal]] and were contemporaries of the Senas.

==The Northeast==
===Kamarupa===
{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}
The '''Kāmarūpa''', also called '''Pragjyotisha''', was one of the historical kingdoms of [[Assam]] alongside [[Davaka]],{{r|sharma 2005| p=248}} Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms. that existed from 350 to 1140 CE. Ruled by three dynasties from their capitals in present-day [[Guwahati]], [[North Guwahati]] and [[Tezpur]], it at its height covered the entire [[Brahmaputra Valley]], [[North Bengal]], [[Bhutan]] and parts of [[Bangladesh]], and at times portions of [[West Bengal]] and [[Bihar]].<ref>{{Harvcol|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}</ref>

====The Varmans====
The [[Varman dynasty]] (350–650 CE), the first historical rulers of [[Kamarupa]]; was established by [[Pushyavarman]], a contemporary of [[Samudragupta]].<ref>Arun Bhattacharjee (1993), ''Assam in Indian Independence'', p. 143</ref> While Pushyavarman was the contemporary of the Gupta Emperor Samudra Gupta, Bhaskaravarman was the contemporary of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.<ref>"Three thousand years after these mythical ancestors (Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta) there occurred Pushyavarman as the first historical king, after whom we have an uninterrupted line of rulers up to Bhaskarvarman."{{harv|Sharma|1978|p=xxix}}</ref> This dynasty became vassals of the [[Gupta Empire]], but as the power of the Guptas waned, [[Mahendravarman (Varman dynasty)|Mahendravarman]] (470–494 CE) performed two [[Ashvamedha]] (horse sacrifices) and threw off the imperial yoke.{{efn|"According to him (D C Sircar) Narayanavarma, the father of Bhutivarman, was the first Kamarupa king to perform horse-sacrifices and thus for the first time since the days of Pusyavarman freedom from the Gupta political supremacy was declared by Narayanavarma. But a careful study or even a casual perusal of the seal attached to the Dubi C.P. and of the nalanda seals should show that it is Sri Mahendra, the father of Narayanavarma himself, who is described as the performer of two horse-sacrifices."{{harv|Sharma|1978|p=8}} }} The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the [[Mlechchha dynasty|Mlechchha]] and then the [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala]] dynasties.

====The Mlechchhas====
The [[Mlechchha dynasty]] succeeded the Varman dynasty and ruled to the end of the 10th century. They ruled from their capital in the vicinity of the Harrupeshwara ([[Tezpur]]). The rulers were aboriginals, with lineage from [[Narakasura]]. According to historical records, there were ten rulers in this dynasty. The Mlechchha dynasty in Kamarupa was followed by the Pala kings.
[[File:Assam MK Lion.JPG|right|thumb|200px|9th–10th century lion sculpture representing powerful [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Kamarupa-Palas]], [[Madan Kamdev]]]]

====The Palas====
The [[Pala dynasty (Kamarupa)|Pala dynasty of Kamarupa]] succeeded the Mlechchha dynasty, ruled from its capital at [[Durjaya]] ([[North Gauhati]]). Dynasty reigned till the end of the 12th century.

[[Brahma Pala]] (900–920 CE), was founder Pala dynasty (900–1100 CE) of Kamarupa. Dynasty ruled from its capital [[Durjaya]], modern-day [[North Guwahati]]. The greatest of the Pala kings, [[Dharma Pala]] had his capital at Kamarupa Nagara, now identified with [[North Guwahati]]. [[Ratna Pala]] was another notable sovereign of this line. Records of his land-grants have been found at Bargaon and [[Sualkuchi]], while a similar relic of [[Indra Pala]], has been discovered at Guwahati. Pala dynasty come to end with [[Jaya Pala]] (1075–1100 CE).<ref>{{cite book |title=Readings in the history & culture of Assam |last=Samiti |first=Kamarupa Anusandhana |year=1984 |publisher=Kamarupa Anusandhana Samiti|pages=227}}</ref>

=== Twipra ===
{{main|Twipra Kingdom|Manikya dynasty}}
The '''Twipra Kingdom''' ruled ancient [[Tripura]]. Kingdom was established around the confluence of the Brahmaputra river with the Meghna and Surma rivers in today's Central Bangladesh area. The capital was called Khorongma and was along the Meghna river in the Sylhet Division of present-day Bangladesh.

==Deccan plateau and the South==
In the first half of the millennium the South saw various small kingdoms rise and fall mostly independent to the turmoil in the Gangetic plains and the spread of the [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] to the southern tip of India. 
From the mid-seventh to the mid-13th centuries, [[regionalism (politics)|regionalism]] was the dominant theme of political and dynastic history of the Indian subcontinent. Three features commonly characterize the sociopolitical realities of this period.
* First, the spread of Brahmanical religions was a two-way process of [[Sanskrit]]ization of local cults and localization of Brahmanical social order.
* Second was the ascendancy of the Brahman priestly and landowning groups that later dominated regional institutions and political developments.
* Third, because of the seesawing of numerous dynasties that had a remarkable ability to survive perennial military attacks, regional kingdoms faced frequent defeats but seldom total annihilation.

Peninsular India was involved in an 8th-century tripartite power struggle among the [[Chalukya]]s (556–757 CE), the [[Pallava]]s (300–888 CE) of [[Kanchipuram]], and the [[Pandyas]]. The Chalukya rulers were overthrown by their subordinates, the [[Rashtrakutas]] (753–973 CE). Although both the [[Pallava]] and [[Pandya]] kingdoms were enemies, the real struggle for political domination was between the [[Pallava]] and [[Chalukya]] realms.

The emergence of the [[Rashtrakutas]] heralded a new era in the history of South India. South Indian kingdoms had hitherto ruled areas only up to and south of the [[Narmada River]]. It was the [[Rashtrakuta]]s who first forged north to the Gangetic plains and successfully contested their might against the [[Pala Empire|Palas]] of Bengal and the [[Rajput]] [[Prathihara]]s of [[Gujarat]].

Despite interregional conflicts, local autonomy was preserved to a far greater degree in the south where it had prevailed for centuries. The absence of a highly centralized government was associated with a corresponding local autonomy in the administration of villages and districts. Extensive and well-documented overland and maritime trade flourished with the [[Arab]]s on the west coast and with [[Southeast Asia]]. Trade facilitated cultural diffusion in Southeast Asia, where local elites selectively but willingly adopted Indian art, architecture, literature, and social customs.

The interdynastic rivalry and seasonal raids into each other's territory notwithstanding, the rulers in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] and South India patronized all three religions - [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], and [[Jainism]]. The religions vied with each other for royal favor, expressed in land grants but more importantly in the creation of monumental temples, which remain architectural wonders. The cave temples of [[Elephanta Island]] (near [[Mumbai]] or [[Bombay]], as it was known formerly), [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]], and [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]] (in Maharashtra), and structural temples of [[Pattadakal]], [[Aihole]], [[Badami]] in Karnataka and [[Mahaballipuram]] and [[Kanchipuram]] in Tamil Nadu are enduring legacies of otherwise warring regional rulers.

By the mid-7th century, [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] began to decline as sectarian [[Hindu]] devotional cults of [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] vigorously competed for popular support.

Although [[Sanskrit]] was the language of learning and theology in South India, as it was in the north, the growth of the [[bhakti]] (devotional) movements enhanced the crystallization of [[vernacular literature]] in [[Dravidian languages]]: [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; they often borrowed themes and vocabulary from Sanskrit but preserved much local cultural lore. Examples of Tamil literature include two major poems, [[Cilappatikaram]] (The Jewelled Anklet) and [[Manimekalai]] (The Jewelled Belt); the body of devotional literature of [[Jain]] and [[Buddhist]] and also Hindu devotional movements; and the reworking of the [[Ramayana]] by Kamban in the 12th century. A nationwide cultural synthesis had taken place with a minimum of common characteristics in the various regions of South Asia, but the process of cultural infusion and assimilation would continue to shape and influence India's history through the centuries.

===The Sangam Era Kingdoms===
{{Main|Sangam period|Ancient Tamil country}}

Farther south were three ancient Tamil states — [[Chera dynasty|Chera]] (on the west), [[Chola dynasty|Chola]] (on the east), and [[Pandya]] (in the south). They were involved in internecine warfare seeking regional supremacy. They are mentioned in Greek and Ashokan sources as important Indian kingdoms beyond the Mauryan Empire. A corpus of ancient [[Tamil literature]], known as [[Sangam literature|Sangam]] (academy) works, provides much useful information about life in these kingdoms in the era 300 BCE to 200 CE.

Tamil social order was based on different ecoregions. Segments of society were characterized by [[matriarchy]] and matrilineal succession—which survived well into the 19th century—cross-cousin marriage, and strong regional identity. Tribal chieftains emerged as "kings" just as people moved from pastoralism toward agriculture sustained by irrigation based on rivers by small-scale water tanks (as man-made ponds are called in India) and wells, as well as maritime trade with Rome and [[Southeast Asia]].

Discoveries of Roman gold coins in various sites attest to extensive [[South India]]n links with the outside world. As with [[Pataliputra]] in the northeast and [[Taxila]] in the northwest (in modern Pakistan), the city of [[Madurai]], the capital of the [[Pandyan Kingdom]] (in modern [[Tamil Nadu]]), was the center of intellectual and literary activity. Poets and bards assembled there under royal patronage at successive concourses to composed anthologies of poems and expositions on [[Tamil language|Tamil]] grammar. By the end of the 1st century BCE, South Asia was crisscrossed by overland trade routes, which facilitated the movements of Buddhist and [[Jainism|Jain]] missionaries and other travelers and opened the area to a synthesis of many cultures.

===The Cheras===
{{Main|Chera Empire}}
From early pre-historic times, Kerala and Tamil Nadu were the homes of the four Tamil-Malayalam states of the [[Chera dynasty|Chera]], [[Chola dynasty|Chola]], [[Pandyan Dynasty|Pandya]] and [[Pallavas]]. The oldest extant [[Sangam Literature|literature]], dated between 300 BCE and 600 CE mentions the exploits of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Cherans, who spoke Tamil language ruled from the capitals of [[Kuttanad]], [[Muziris]], [[Karur]], and traded extensively with West Asian kingdoms.

An unknown dynasty called [[Kalabhras]] invaded and displaced the three [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamil]] kingdoms between the 4th and the 7th centuries. This is referred to as the Dark Age in [[Tamil people|Tamil]] history. They were eventually expelled by the [[Pallavas]] and the [[Pandyas]].

===The Kalabhras===
{{Main|Kalabhras}}
Little of their origins or the time during which they ruled is known beyond that they ruled over the entirety of the southern tip of India during the 3rd to the 6th century, overcoming the [[Sangam period|Sangam]] era kingdoms. The appear to be patrons of [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]] as the only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in the many [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]] literature of the time. They were contemporaries of the [[Kadambas]] and the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]]. They were overcome by the rise of the [[Pallavas]] and the resurgence of the [[Pandyan Kingdom]].

===The Kadambas===
{{Main|Kadambas}}
[[File:Doddagaddavalli Lakshmidevi temple1 retouched.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Kadamba tower at [[Doddagaddavalli]]]]
The '''Kadamba Dynasty''' ({{langx|kn|ಕದಂಬರು}}) (345–525 CE) was an ancient royal family of [[Karnataka]] that ruled from [[Banavasi]] in present-day [[Uttara Kannada]] district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger [[Kannada]] empires, the [[Chalukya]] and the [[Rashtrakuta]] empires for over five hundred years during which time they branched into [[Goa]] and [[Hanagal]]. At the peak of their power under King Kakushtavarma, they ruled large parts of Karnataka. During the pre-Kadamba era the ruling families that controlled Karnataka, the [[Mauryas]], [[Satavahanas]] and Chutus were not natives of the region and the nucleus of power resided outside present day Karnataka. The Kadambas were the first indigenous dynasty to use Kannada, the language of the soil at an administrative level. In the history of Karnataka, this era serves as a broad based historical starting point in the study of the development of region as an enduring geo-political entity and Kannada as an important regional language.

The dynasty was founded by [[Mayurasharma]] in 345 which at times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. One of his successors, [[Kakusthavarma]] was a powerful ruler and even the kings of imperial [[Gupta Dynasty]] of northern India cultivated marital relationships with his family, giving a fair indication of the sovereign nature of their kingdom. Tiring of the endless battles and bloodshed, one of the later descendants, King Shivakoti adopted Jainism. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] of [[Talakad]] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy.

===The Western Gangas===
[[File:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Bahubali]] as Gommateshvara built by the Western Ganga is one of the largest monolithic statues in the world.]]
{{Main|Western Gangas}}
The '''Western Ganga Dynasty''' (350–1000 CE) ({{langx|kn|ಪಶ್ಚಿಮ ಗಂಗ ಸಂಸ್ಥಾನ}}) was an important ruling dynasty of ancient [[Karnataka]] in India. They are known as '''Western Gangas''' to distinguish them from the [[Eastern Ganga Dynasty|Eastern Gangas]], who in later centuries ruled over modern [[Odisha]]. The general belief is the Western Gangas began their rule during a time when multiple native clans asserted their freedom due to the weakening of the [[Pallava dynasty]] of [[South India]], a geo-political event sometimes attributed to the southern conquests of [[Samudragupta]]. The Western Ganga sovereignty lasted from about 350 to 550 CE, initially ruling from [[Kolar, Karnataka|Kolar]] and later moving their capital to [[Talakad]] on the banks of the [[Kaveri]] in modern [[Mysore district]].

After the rise of the imperial [[Chalukya dynasty]] of [[Badami]], the Gangas accepted Chalukya overlordship and fought for the cause of their overlords against the Pallavas of [[Kanchipuram]]. The Chalukyas were replaced by the [[Rashtrakuta Dynasty|Rashtrakutas]] of [[Manyakheta]] in 753 CE as the dominant power in the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. After a century of struggle for autonomy, the Western Gangas finally accepted Rashtrakuta overlordship and successfully fought alongside them against their foes, the [[Chola dynasty]] of [[Tanjavur]]. In the late 10th century, north of Tungabhadra river, the Rashtrakutas were replaced by the emerging Western Chalukya Empire and the Chola Dynasty saw renewed power south of the [[Kaveri]]. The defeat of the Western Gangas by Cholas around 1000 resulted in the end of Ganga influence over the region.

Though territorially a small kingdom, the Western Ganga contribution to polity, culture and literature of the modern south Karnataka region is considered important. The Western Ganga kings showed benevolent tolerance to all faiths but are most famous for their patronage towards [[Jainism]] resulting in the construction of monuments in places such as [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]]. The kings of this dynasty encouraged the fine arts due to which literature in Kannada and [[Sanskrit]] flourished. [[Chavundaraya]]'s writing, ''Chavundaraya Purana'' of 978 CE, is an important work in Kannada prose. Many classics were written on subjects ranging from [[Indian religions|religious topics]] to [[Elephant#Working animal|elephant management]].

===The Badami Chalukyas===
{{Main|Chalukya Empire}}
{{See also|Badami Chalukya Architecture|Pattadakal|Badami Cave Temples|Aihole|Mahakuta group of temples}}
The '''Chalukya Empire''', natives of the [[Aihole]] and [[Badami]] region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/62/mode/2up 62–63]}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=168}}
Jayasimha and Ranaraga, ancestors of Pulakeshin I, were administrative officers in the Badami province under the Kadambas (Fleet in Kanarese Dynasties, p.&nbsp;343),{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}<ref>Moraes (1931). p. 51{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}</ref>{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=328}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|loc=p. 360: "They belonged to the Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada."}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=58}} They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration.{{efn|A considerable number of their records are in Kannada.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/62/mode/2up 63]}} }}{{efn|7th century Chalukya inscriptions call Kannada the natural language.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=345}} }} In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when [[Pulakeshin I]] made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=360}} During the rule of [[Pulakeshin II]] a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the [[Tapti River]] and [[Narmada River]] for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (''Uttarapatheswara''). The [[Aihole]] inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634,{{efn|In this composition, the poet deems himself an equal to Sanskrit scholars of lore like Bharavi and Kalidasa.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=312}} }}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=59}} proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, [[Alupas]] of South Canara, [[Mauryas of Puri]], [[Kosala Kingdom|Kingdom of Kosala]], [[Malwa]], [[Lata (region)|Lata]] and Gurjaras of southern [[Rajasthan]]. The inscription describes how King Harsha of [[Kannauj]] lost his ''Harsha'' (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=169}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=361–362}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=59–60}}{{efn|Some of these kingdoms may have submitted out of fear of Harshavardhana of Kannauj.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 59, citing Majumdar}} The rulers of Kosala were the Panduvamshis of South Kosala.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 59, citing Sircar}} }}

[[File:Relief of seated Vishnu at the Badami cave temple no.3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Badami Cave Temples]] No 3. (Vishnu)]]
These victories earned him the title ''Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy'' (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the [[Bay of Bengal]] in present-day Odisha. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the [[Pandyas]] of [[Madurai]], [[Chola dynasty]] and [[Chera dynasty|Cheras]] of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=170}} Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=58}}<ref name="great1">Ramesh 1984, p76</ref> [[Hiuen-Tsiang]], a [[China|Chinese]] traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] emperor [[Khosrau II]] exchanged ambassadors.{{efn|From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=60}} }} However, the continuous wars with [[Pallavas]] took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king [[Narasimhavarman I]] avenged his father's defeat,<ref name="vincent">{{cite book
|last = Smith
|first= Vincent Arthur
|title= The Early History of India
|year=1904
|publisher= The Clarendon press
|pages = 325–327
}}</ref> conquered and plundered the [[Vatapi|capital of Pulakeshin II]] who may have died in battle.<ref name="vincent" />{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=362}} A century later, Chalukya [[Vikramaditya II]] marched victoriously into [[Kanchipuram]], the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a [[Kannada]] inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=331, 345}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=140}}<ref name="kanchi2">Ramesh (1984), pp159–160</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=364}} He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a [[Kalabhra]] ruler.<ref name="kanchi4">Ramesh (1984), p159</ref>

The [[Kappe Arabhatta]] record from this period (700) in ''tripadi'' (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. <!--Some contemporary literary writings in Kannada now considered extinct are, ''Karnateshwara Katha'' (a eulogy of Pulakeshin II),{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/62/mode/2up 63]}} ''Prabhrita'' by Syamakundacharya and ''Chudamani'' by Tumubuluracharya, both of 650 have been referenced in later centuries.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=355}}<ref name="ex2">Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 4</ref>--> The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind.<ref name="legacy">Hardy (1995). p65–66</ref>{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}} More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the [[Malaprabha]] basin in Karnataka, over 125 temples exist in Aihole alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Index |website=Monuments of India|url=http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html|first=Michael D. |last=Gunther |date=2002|access-date=2006-11-10|archive-date=8 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508172924/http://art-and-archaeology.com/india/india.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at [[Pattadakal]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], the cave temples of [[Badami]], the temples at [[Mahakuta group of temples|Mahakuta]] and early experiments in temple building at [[Aihole]] are their most celebrated monuments.<ref name="legacy"/> Two of the famous paintings at [[Ajanta Caves|Ajanta]] cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them.{{r|monuments}}{{efn|Kamath quotes K. V. Soundararajan, speaking of the Chalukyan art:{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/74/mode/2up 74]}} "The Badami Chalukya introduced in the western Deccan a glorious chapter alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace, in Western Deccan".}} Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and [[Vengi]] as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/74/mode/2up 74]}}

===The Pallavas===
{{Main|Pallava Empire}}
[[File:Mamallapuram1a.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Shore Temple]] in [[Mamallapuram]] built by the [[Pallavas]]. (c. eighth century CE)]]
The 7th century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the [[Pallavas]] under [[Mahendravarman I]] and his son ''Mamalla'' [[Narasimhavarman I]]. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=91–92}} It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the [[Satavahana]] Empire.<ref>Durga Prasad, ''History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D''., pp 68</ref> After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] and the Tamil country. Later they had marital ties with the [[Vishnukundina]] who ruled over the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]]. It was around 550 AD under King [[Simhavishnu]] that the Pallavas emerged into prominence. They subjugated the Cholas and reigned as far south as the [[Kaveri River]]. Pallavas ruled a large portion of [[South India]] with [[Kanchipuram]] as their capital. [[Dravidian architecture]] reached its peak during the Pallava rule.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} [[Narasimhavarman II]] built the [[Shore Temple]] which is a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. Many sources describe [[Bodhidharma]], the founder of the [[Zen]] school of [[Buddhism]] in China, as a [[prince]] of the Pallava dynasty.<ref>Kamil V. Zvelebil (1987). "The Sound of the One Hand", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'', Vol. 107, No. 1, pp. 125–126.</ref>

===The Eastern Chalukyas===
{{Main|Eastern Chalukyas}}
'''Eastern Chalukyas''' were a [[South Indian]] dynasty whose kingdom was located in the present day [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Their capital was [[Vengi]] and their dynasty lasted for around 500&nbsp;years from the 7th century until c. 1130 CE when the Vengi kingdom merged with the [[Chola]] empire. The Vengi kingdom was continued to be ruled by Eastern Chalukyan kings under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 CE, when the kingdom succumbed to the [[Hoysalas]] and the [[Yadu|Yadavas]]. They had their capital originally at Vengi now (Pedavegi, Chinavegi and Denduluru) near [[Eluru]] of the [[West Godavari district]] end later changed to Rajamahendravaram ([[Rajamundry]]).

Eastern Chalukyas were closely related to the [[Chalukyas]] of Vatapi ([[Badami]]). Throughout their history they were the cause of many wars between the more powerful [[Cholas]] and [[Western Chalukyas]] over the control of the strategic Vengi country. The five centuries of the Eastern Chalukya rule of Vengi saw not only the consolidation of this region into a unified whole, but also saw the efflorescence of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] culture, literature, poetry and art during the later half of their rule. It can be said to be the golden period of [[Andhra Pradesh|Andhra]] history.

===The Pandyas===
{{Main|Pandyan Empire}}
Pallavas were replaced by the Pandyas in the 8th century. Their capital [[Madurai]] was in the deep south away from the coast. They had extensive trade links with the Southeast Asian maritime empires of [[Srivijaya]] and their successors. As well as contacts, even diplomatic, reaching as far as the [[Roman Empire]]. During the 13th century of the Christian era [[Marco Polo]] mentioned it as the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|richest empire]] in existence.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} Temples like [[Meenakshi Amman Temple]] at [[Madurai]] and [[Nellaiappar Temple]] at [[Tirunelveli]] are the best examples of Pandyan Temple architecture.<ref>'Advanced History of India', K.A. Nilakanta Sastri (1970)p. 181–182, Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi</ref> The Pandyas excelled in both trade as well as literature and they controlled the pearl fisheries along the South Indian coast, between Sri Lanka and India, which produced some of the finest pearls in the known ancient world.

===The Rashtrakutas===
{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
{{See also|Rashtrakuta literature|Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta|Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta|Ellora Caves}}
[[File:Indian Rashtrakuta Empire map.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Rashtrakuta|Rashtrakuta Empire]] in 800 CE, 915&nbsp;CE.]]
[[File:Kailasha temple at ellora.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Ellora Kailasanathar Temple|Kailash Temple]] in [[Ellora Caves]]]]
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of [[Berar sultanate|Berar]] (in present-day [[Amravati district]] of [[Maharashtra]]). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, [[Dantidurga]] trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata).{{efn|From the Rashtrakuta inscriptions.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=57, 64}}{{ubl|The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that feudatory Dantidurga defeated the Chalukyas and humbled their great ''Karnatik'' army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas){{r|Reu|p=54}} }} }} Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made [[Manyakheta]] their capital (modern Malkhed in [[Kalaburagi district]]).{{efn|From Karda plates: "A capital which could put to shame even the capital of gods"<ref>Altekar (1934). p. 47</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}} {{ubl|
"A capital city built to excel that of Indra"{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=4, 132, 146}} }} }} Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the 10th centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.{{efn|Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities.{{sfn|Thapar|1990|p=334}} Literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered during the Rashtrakuta rule.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=73, 88–89}} }}<ref>Altekar (1934). pp. 411–413</ref>{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=87}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}<ref name="patron"/>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}}{{r|Reu|pp=37–38}}

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the [[doab]] region of [[Ganges River]] and [[Yamuna|Jamuna River]] during the rule of [[Dhruva Dharavarsha]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=89}} His victories were a "[[digvijaya (conquest)|digvijaya]]" gaining only fame and booty in that region.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 75, citing Altekar}} The rule of his son [[Govinda III]] signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the [[Pala Dynasty]] of [[Bengal]] and Gurjara [[Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty|Pratihara]] of north western India resulting in the capture of [[Kannauj]]. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a [[tripartite struggle]] for the resources of the rich [[Gangetic plains]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=90}} Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Pandava]] [[Arjuna]] of the Hindu epic [[Mahabharata]].{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=199}}
The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the [[sacred waters]] of the Ganges River.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=76}} [[Amoghavarsha I]], eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=91}}{{efn|[[Kavirajamarga]] in Kannada and ''Prashnottara Ratnamalika'' in Sanskrit{{r|Reu|p=38}} }}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=90}} The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=91}} he has been compared to emperor [[Ashoka]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=80}} The rule of [[Indra III]] in the 10th century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=92}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 81}} [[Krishna III]] followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] of [[Ujjain]] in the north and Cholas in the south.{{r|Chopra partial cite|pp=92–93}}{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}

An Arabic writing ''Silsilatuttavarikh'' (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world.{{r|Reu|p=39}} ''Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik'' (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise.<ref name="hara">''Murujul Zahab'' by Al Masudi (944), ''Kitabul Akalim'' by Al Istakhri (951), ''Ashkal-ul-Bilad'' by Ibn Haukal (976)</ref>{{r|Reu|pp=41–42}} The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from [[Cape Comorin]] in the south to Kannauj in the north and from [[Banaras]] in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.<ref name="Himalayas">From the Sanjan inscriptions, {{cite web |title=The Rashrakutas |url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/ |author=Jyotsna Kamat|publisher=1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=2006-12-20|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406134533/http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/rashtrakutas/|url-status=live}}</ref>
While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at [[Ellora Caves|Ellora]], the temple being a splendid achievement.{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=200}} In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]].<ref name="karnataka_whs">{{cite web|title=Reclaiming past glory |url=http://www.archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |author=Vijapur, Raju S. |publisher=Spectrum |work=Deccan Herald |access-date=2007-02-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007194411/http://archive.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/feb272007/spectrum1437452007226.asp |archive-date=7 October 2011 }}</ref>

===The Western Chalukyas===
{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
{{See also|Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukya Architecture}}
In the late 10th century, the [[Western Chalukya Empire|Western Chalukyas]], also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. [[Manyakheta]] was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern [[Basavakalyan]]). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the [[Badami Chalukyas]] is still debated.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=137}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 100, citing: Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar and Gopal, B. R.}} Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific.{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=356–358}}<ref name="patron">Narasimhacharya (1988). pp. 68, 17–21</ref>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}} More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to the Chalukya King [[Vikramaditya VI]] than to any other king prior to the 12th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=Chalukyas of Kalyana |url= http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm|author=Kamat, Jyotsna|publisher=1996–2006 Kamat's Potpourri|access-date=2006-12-24|archive-date=8 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308045748/http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/deccan/deckings.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tailapa II]], a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur district]]), re-established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of [[Karka II]]. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading [[Paramara dynasty|Paramara]] of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 101: From the 957 and 965 records}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=162}} Tailapa II was helped in this campaign by the Kadambas of [[Hanagal]].<ref>Moraes (1931). pp. 93–94{{incomplete short citation|date=November 2024}}</ref> This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of [[Ancient Tamil country|Tamilakam]] for control of the resources of the [[Godavari River]]–[[Krishna River]] doab region in [[Vengi]]. [[Someshvara I]], a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the [[Tungabhadra River]] region despite suffering some defeats{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 103, citing Ganguli}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=167–168}} while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kaḷinga]] regions.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=104}} For approximately 100&nbsp;years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=164, 174}} The Cholas occupied Gangavadi from 1004 to 1114.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=118}}
[[File:Ornate pillars in the Saraswati temple at Gadag.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gadag style pillars, [[Western Chalukya Architecture|Western Chalukya art]].]]

In 1076 CE, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, [[Vikramaditya VI]], changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} His fifty-year reign was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=468–469}} His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri]], the [[Kakatiya dynasty]] and the Southern Kalachuri.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}} At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the [[Narmada River]] in the north to the [[Kaveri River]] in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Poet [[Bilhana]] in his Sanskrit work wrote "Rama Rajya" regarding his rule; poet Vijnaneshwara called him "A king like none other".{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=106}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=6}} Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 115: quoting Sastri (1955), pp. 427–428: "Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition."}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=427–428}}{{sfn|Foekema|1996|loc=p. 14: "Of the city of Kalyana, situated in the north of Karnataka nothing is left, but a fabulous revival in temple building during the 11th century in central Karnataka testifies to the wealth during Kalyan Chalukya rule."}} With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri]]s of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra).{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=107}} [[Bijjala II]], the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (''mahamandaleswar'') during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. [https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/114/mode/2up 114] (From the 1142 and 1147 records)}} Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital [[Basavakalyana|Kalyani]].{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=139}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|loc=p. 108: From the Chikkalagi records}} His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas.{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=140}}{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=109}}

===The Yadavas===
{{Main|Yadava dynasty}}
The '''Seuna''', ''Sevuna'' or '''Yadava dynasty''' ([[Marathi language|Marathi]]: देवगिरीचे यादव, {{langx|kn|ಸೇವುಣರು}}) (c. 850–1334 CE) was an Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the [[Tungabhadra]] to the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] rivers, including present-day [[Maharashtra]], north [[Karnataka]] and parts of [[Madhya Pradesh]], from its capital at Devagiri (present-day [[Daulatabad, Maharashtra|Daulatabad]] in Maharashtra). The Yadavas initially ruled as feudatories of the [[Western Chalukyas]]. Around the middle of the 12th century, they declared independence and established rule that reached its peak under Singhana II. The foundations of [[Marathi people|Marathi]] culture was laid by the Yadavas and the peculiarities of [[Maharashtra]]'s social life developed during their rule.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

===The Kakatiyas===
{{Main|Kakatiya dynasty}}
The [[Kakatiya dynasty]] was a South Indian dynasty that ruled [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Telangana]], India from 1083 to 1323 CE. They were one of the great [[Telugu people|Telugu]] kingdoms that lasted for centuries.

===The Kalachuris===
{{See also|Kalachuri dynasty (disambiguation){{!}}Kalachuri dynasties (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Kudalasangama.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sangamanatha temple at [[Kudalasangama]], [[North Karnataka]]]]
Kalachuri is the name used by two kingdoms who had a succession of dynasties from the 10th to 12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India (west [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]]) and were called [[Chedi Kingdom|Chedi]] or ''Haihaya'' (''Heyheya'') (northern branch) and the other southern Kalachuri who ruled over parts of [[Karnataka]]. They are disparately placed in time and space. Apart from the dynastic name and perhaps a belief in common ancestry, there is little in known sources to connect them.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

The earliest known [[Kalachuris of Mahishmati|Kalachuri family of Mahishmati]] (550–620 CE) ruled over northern [[Maharashtra]], Malwa and western Deccan. Their capital was Mahismati situated in the Narmada river valley. There were three prominent members; Krishnaraja, Shankaragana and Buddharaja. They distributed coins and epigraphs around this area.<ref name="Students' Britannica India">Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani.</ref>

'''[[Kalachuris of Kalyani]]''' or the southern Kalachuris (1130–1184 CE) at their peak ruled parts of the [[Deccan Plateau|Deccan]] extending over regions of present-day [[North Karnataka]] and parts of [[Maharashtra]]. This dynasty rose to power in the Deccan between 1156 and 1181 CE. They traced their origins to ''Krishna'' who was the conqueror of ''Kalinjar'' and Dahala in [[Madhya Pradesh]]. It is said that ''Bijjala'' a viceroy of this dynasty established the authority over [[Karnataka]]. He wrested power from the [[Chalukya]] king Taila III. Bijjala was succeeded by his sons Someshwara and Sangama but after 1181 CE, the [[Chalukyas]] gradually retrieved the territory. Their rule was a short and turbulent and yet very important from the socio-religious movement point of view; a new sect called the [[Lingayat]] or [[Virashaiva]] sect was founded during these times.<ref name="Students' Britannica India"/>

A unique and purely native form of [[Kannada]] literature-poetry called the ''Vachanas'' was also born during this time. The writers of ''[[Vachanas]]'' were called ''Vachanakaras'' (poets). Many other important works like Virupaksha Pandita's ''Chennabasavapurana'', Dharani Pandita's ''Bijjalarayacharite'' and Chandrasagara Varni's ''Bijjalarayapurana'' were also written.

'''[[Kalachuris of Tripuri]]''' (Chedi) ruled in central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri (Tewar); it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th century, and declined in the 12th–13th centuries.

===The Hoysalas===
{{Main|Hoysala Empire}}
{{See also|Literature in the Hoysala Empire|Economy of the Hoysala Empire|Hoysala architecture}}
[[File:Shilabaalika on pillar bracket in Chennakeshava Temple at Belur3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Shilabalika, Chennakeshava temple, [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]].]]
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]] in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region).{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=498}} In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of [[Talakad]] and moved their capital to nearby [[Halebidu]].{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=499}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=pp. 124–126, quoting William Coelho: "Vishnuvardhana made many military conquests later to be further expanded by his successors into one of the most powerful empires of South India"; quoting B. S. K. Iyengar: "He was the true maker of the Hoysala kingdom".}} Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of [[Malnad]] Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them ''Maleparolganda'' or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (''Malepas'').{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=498}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 123, citing B. L. Rice}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=251}}{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=367}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=123}}{{efn|Natives of south Karnataka,{{r|Chopra partial cite|p=150}} }} With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as ''Ragale'' (blank verse), ''Sangatya'' (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), ''Shatpadi'' (seven line) etc. became widely accepted.<ref name="patron"/>{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=93}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=114}}<ref name="ragala10">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), pp164, 203; Rice E. P. (1921), p59</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=132–134}}{{sfn|Sastri|1958|pp=359, 361}} The Hoysalas expanded the [[Vesara]] architecture stemming from the Chalukyas,{{sfn|Sastri|1958|p=427}}culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]] at Belur and the [[Hoysaleswara temple]] at Halebidu.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=500–501}} Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala [[Vishnuvardhana]] against the Cholas in 1116.{{sfn|Foekema|1996|p=14}}{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=124}} [[Veera Ballala II]],{{efn|Kamath cites [[J. Duncan M. Derrett]] and William Coelho as considering Ballala II as the most outstanding of the Hoysala kings.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/132/ 132]}}{{sfn|Coelho|1950}} }} the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom"
(''Cholarajyapratishtacharya''), "Emperor of the south" (''Dakshina Chakravarthi'') and "Hoysala emperor" (''Hoysala Chakravarthi''). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near [[Srirangam]] a provincial capital.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=499}} This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|loc=p. 126, citing B .S. K. Iyengar}}{{sfn|Keay|2000|p=252}}

In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the [[Muslim]] incursions into [[South India]] began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, [[Veera Ballala III]], died in the battle of [[Madurai]] in 1343.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=500}} This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by [[Harihara I]], founder of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], located in the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with [[Vijayanagara]] as its capital.{{efn|Two theories exist about the origin of Harihara I and his brother [[Bukka Raya I]]. One states that they were [[Kannadiga]] commanders of the Hoysala army and another that they were [[Telugu language|Telugu]] speakers and commanders of the earlier [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=[https://archive.org/details/a-concise-history-of-karnataka-from-pre-historic-times-to-the-present/page/166/mode/2up 159–160]}} }}

===The Cholas===
{{Main|Chola Empire}}
{{See also|Early Cholas|Medieval Cholas|Later Cholas}}
[[File:Rajendra map new.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chola Empire]] under [[Rajendra Chola]] c.&nbsp;1030 CE]]
By the 9th century, under [[Rajaraja Chola]] and his son [[Rajendra Chola]], the Cholas rose as a notable power in south Asia. The [[Chola Empire]] stretched as far as [[Bengal]]. At its peak, the empire spanned almost 3,600,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (1,389,968 sq mi). Rajaraja Chola conquered all of peninsular [[South India]] and parts of [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Rajendra Chola]]'s navies went even further, occupying coasts from Burma (now [[Myanmar]]) to [[Vietnam]], the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Lakshadweep]], [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Malay Peninsula|Malaya]] in South East Asia and Pegu islands. He also conquered the rest of the Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Sastri|2000|p=199-200}}He defeated [[Mahipala]], the king of the Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital and named it [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]].{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

The Cholas excelled in building magnificent temples. [[Brihadeeswarar Temple|Brihadeshwara Temple]] in [[Thanjavur]] is a classical example of the magnificent [[architecture]] of the Chola kingdom. Brihadshwara temple is an [[UNESCO Heritage Site]] under "[[Great Living Chola Temples]]".<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 Great Living Chola Temples] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130105115252/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/250 |date=5 January 2013 }}.</ref> Another example is the [[Chidambaram Temple]] in the heart of the temple town of [[Chidambaram]].

==See also==
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
* [[History of Bihar]]
* [[Political history of medieval Karnataka]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
* {{Country study}} – [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
** {{Cite book |date=1996 |last1=Heitzman |first1=James |first2=Robert L. |last2=Worden |title=India: A Country Study |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/frdcstdy.indiacountrystud00heit?r=-1.155,0.002,3.309,1.232,0 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |ref=none |archive-date=14 July 2012 |access-date=17 November 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120714040603/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html |url-status=dead }}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist |refs=
<ref name="Chopra partial cite">Chopra (2003). Part 1{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}</ref><!--The source intended for this cite MAY be the "Chopra" ref (added Nov. 2024) shown under "Further reading" section, but without access to it, or further details, hard to be sure. Please check and complete cites, if you can get access to source.-->

<ref name="Hoernle">{{cite book|author1-link=Rudolf Hoernlé |first1= A. F. Rudolf |last1=Hoernlé|last2=Stark|first2=Herbert Alick |date=1909 |edition =Fourth, revised and enlarged |orig-date= First published 1904 |title=A History of India|publisher= Orissa Mission Press |location=[[Cuttack]], Orrisa, India |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00hoeruoft/page/n5/mode/2up}}</ref>

<ref name="1977 Majumdar">{{cite book|title=The History and Culture of the Indian People: The classical age|first1=Ramesh Chandra |last1=Majumdar |first2= Achut Dattatrya |last2=Pusalker |first3=A. K. |last3=Majumdar |first4=Dilip Kumar |last4=Ghose |first5=Vishvanath Govind |last5=Dighe |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|date=1977|page=66}}</ref>

<ref name="Reu">Reu (1933).{{full citation needed|date=November 2024}}</ref>

<ref name="sharma 2005">Sharma, Suresh Kant; Sharma, Usha (2005).''Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture''. Vol. 3.</ref>

<ref name="monuments">{{cite web|title=History of Karnataka—Chalukyas of Badami|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm |author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|access-date=2006-11-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104095148/http://www.ourkarnataka.com/history.htm <!--Added by H3llBot-->|archive-date=2006-11-04}}</ref>
}}

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* {{cite book |first=Dilip Kumar|last= Ganguly |title=History and Historians in Ancient India |url=https://archive.org/details/historyhistorian00gang |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyhistorian00gang/page/117 117] |year=1984 |publisher=Abhinav |isbn=978-0-391-03250-7 }}
* {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUlwmXjE9DQC&pg=PA2 |title=Kashmir Under the Sultans |first=Mohibbul |last=Hasan |publisher=Aakar |year=1959 |isbn=9788187879497 }}
* Hill, John E. (2004). ''The Peoples of the West from the [[Weilüe]]'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section7 Weilue: The Peoples of the West<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223070446/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html#section7 |date=23 December 2017 }}
* Hill, John E. (2009) ''Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE''. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. {{ISBN|978-1-4392-2134-1}}.
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* {{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=India: A history |date=2000 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87113-800-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiahistory00keay/page/n7/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Keay |first1=John |title=India discovered: The recovery of a lost civilization |date=2001 |publisher=HarperCollins |location=London |isbn=978-0-00-712300-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/indiadiscoveredr0000keay/page/n3/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
* Latif, S. M. (1891) ''History of the Panjab'', Reprinted by Progressive Books, Lahore, Pakistan, 1984.
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* {{cite book |last1=Niyogi |first1=Roma |others=Foreword by R. C. Majumdar |title=The History of the Gāhaḍavāla Dynasty |date=1959 |publisher=Calcutta Oriental Book Agency |location=Calcutta |url=https://indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/history-gahadavala-dynasty |language=en |oclc=555203407|via=Indian Culture Portal, Government of India}}
* {{cite book| title=The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab |date= 1973|first=D. B. |last=Pandey}}
* {{cite book |first=Sailendra Nath |last=Sen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA172 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age |year=1999 |isbn=9788122411980 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=E. J. (Edward James) |title=Catalogue of the coins of the Andhra dynasty, the Western Kṣatrapas, the Traikūṭaka Dynasty, and the 'Bodhi' Dynasty |date=1908 |publisher=British Museum Department of Coins and Medals |location=London |isbn=978-81-206-0522-0 |pages=ix–ccviii |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/catalogueofcoins0000raps/page/n105/mode/2up |chapter=Introduction}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sastri |first1=K. A. Nilakanta |title=A History of South India: From Prehistoric Times to the Fall of Vijayanagar |date=1958 |orig-date= First published 1955 |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.505532/page/n3/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last=Sastri |author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri | first= K. A | orig-year= 1935| year= 2000| title= The CōĻas| publisher= University of Madras | location= Madras |url=https://archive.org/stream/K.A.NilakantaSastriBooks/K.%20A.%20Nilakanta%20Sastri/Colas}}
* {{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Mukunda Madhava|title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam|publisher=Gauhati University, Assam|year=1978}}
* {{cite book |first = Upinder |last=Singh |title = A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA383 |year = 2008 |publisher = Pearson Education India |isbn = 978-81-317-1120-0 }}
*{{Citation
 | last = Sircar
 | first = D C
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 | title = The Comprehensive History of Assam
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*{{Cite book|first=Romila |last=Thapar|author-link=Romila Thapar |date=1990 |title=A History of India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |volume=One |edition=Reprint of 1966 |publisher=Penguin UK |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofindia00romi/page/n3/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-14-194976-5 |language=en |via=Internet Archive |url-access=registration}} – [https://books.google.com/books?id=1Y02AiEu1kcC via Google Books]
* {{cite book |first=Romila |last=Thapar |title=A History of India: From the Origins to AD 1300 |date= 2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0143029892|url= https://archive.org/details/HistoryOfEarlyIndiaFromTheOriginsToAD1300Thapar/page/n5/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last1=Wink |first1=André |title=Al-Hind |date=1991 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden; New York; Köln |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |volume= 1: ''Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam: 7th–11th centuries''}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* <!--This book MAY be the reference intended for the many incomplete citations shown as "Chopra (2003) Part 1", but it is not certain. Added to FR November 2024. Someone with access please check and complete cites, if able.-->{{cite book |last1=Chopra |first1=Pran Nath |last2=Puri |first2=B. N. |last3=Das |first3=M. N. |last4=Pradhan |first4=A. C. |title=A comprehensive history of ancient India – Part 1: Ancient India |date=2003 |publisher=Sterling Publishers |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 |ref=none}}
* Majumdar, R. C.; Pusalker, A. D.; & Majumdar, A. K. (1988). ''The history and culture of the Indian people''. Vol. 3. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
*{{Cite book|first=Jadunath |last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC|title=A History of Jaipur: c. 1503–1938|date=1994|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0333-5|language=en|ref=none}}
*{{Cite book|first=Jadunath |last=Sarkar|author-link=Jadunath Sarkar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qoRDAAAAYAAJ|title=Military History of India|date=1960|publisher=Orient Longmans|isbn=9780861251551|language=en|ref=none}}
{{refend}}
{{Clear}}

{{India topics}}
{{Middle kingdoms of India}}

[[Category:Iron Age Asia]]
[[Category:Iron Age cultures of South Asia]]