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{{Short description|Group of grasses (food grain)}}
{{good article}}
{{Other uses|Millet (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2024}}
[[File:Grain millet, early grain fill, Tifton, 7-3-02.jpg|thumb|[[Pearl millet]]]]

'''Millets''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɪ|l|ɪ|t|s}})<ref name="Oxford Dictionaries">{{cite web |title=Definition of millet |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/millet |website=Oxford Dictionaries |publisher=Oxford University |access-date=21 July 2017}}</ref> are a highly varied group of small-seeded [[grasses]], widely grown around the world as [[cereal]] crops or grains for [[fodder]] and human food. Most millets belong to the tribe [[Paniceae]]<!--within the grass family [[Poaceae]]-->.

Millets are important crops in the [[Semi-arid climate|semiarid tropics]] of Asia and Africa, especially in [[India]], [[Mali]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Niger]], with 97% of production in [[Developing country|developing countries]].<ref name="HCS">{{cite journal |last1=McDonough |first1=Cassandrea M. |last2=Rooney |first2=Lloyd W. |last3=Serna-Saldivar |first3=Sergio O. |title=The Millets |journal=Food Science and Technology: Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology |volume=99 |edition=2nd |pages=177–210 |publisher=CRC Press |year=2000}}</ref> The crop is favoured for its [[Agricultural productivity|productivity]] and short growing season under hot dry conditions.<ref name="NPR"/> The millets are sometimes understood to include the widely cultivated [[sorghum]];<ref name=BSBI07/> apart from that, [[pearl millet]] is the most commonly cultivated of the millets.<ref name="FAO">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/W1808E/w1808e0l.htm |title=The World Sorghum and Millet Economies: Facts, Trends and Outlook |chapter=Annex II: Relative importance of millet species, 1992–94 |year=1996 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-103861-1}}</ref> [[Finger millet]], [[proso millet]], [[barnyard millet]], [[little millet]], [[kodo millet]], [[browntop millet]] and [[foxtail millet]] are other important crop species.
Millets may have been consumed by humans for about 7,000 years and potentially had "a pivotal role in the rise of multi-crop agriculture and settled farming societies".<ref name="NPR">{{cite web |title=Millet: How A Trendy Ancient Grain Turned Nomads Into Farmers |last=Cherfas |first=Jeremy |date=23 December 2015 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/12/23/460559052/millet-how-a-trendy-ancient-grain-turned-nomads-into-farmers |website=National Public Radio |series=The Salt |access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

The word ''millet'' is derived via [[Old French]] ''millet, millot'' from [[Latin]] ''millium'', 'millet', ultimately from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''*mele-'', 'to crush'.<ref>{{cite web |title=millet (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/millet |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref>

== Description ==

=== Characteristics ===

Millets are small-grained, annual, warm-weather cereals belonging to the grass family. They are highly tolerant of drought and other extreme weather conditions and have a similar nutrient content to other major [[cereal]]s.<ref name="Fahad Bajwa Nazir Anjum 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Fahad |first1=Shah |last2=Bajwa |first2=Ali A. |last3=Nazir |first3=Usman |last4=Anjum |first4=Shakeel A. |last5=Farooq |first5=Ayesha |last6=Zohaib |first6=Ali |last7=Sadia |first7=Sehrish |last8=Nasim |first8=Wajid |last9=Adkins |first9=Steve |last10=Saud |first10=Shah |last11=Ihsan |first11=Muhammad Z. |last12=Alharby |first12=Hesham |last13=Wu |first13=Chao |last14=Wang |first14=Depeng |last15=Huang |first15=Jianliang |display-authors=5 |title=Crop Production under Drought and Heat Stress: Plant Responses and Management Options |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=8 |date=2017-06-29 |article-number=1147 |pmid=28706531 |pmc=5489704 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2017.01147 |bibcode=2017FrPS....8.1147F |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Patan 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Patan |first1=Shaik Sha Valli Khan |last2=Vallepu |first2=Suneetha |last3=Shaik |first3=Khader Basha |last4=Shaik |first4=Naseem |last5=Adi Reddy |first5=Nanja Reddy Yellodu |last6=Terry |first6=Randall G. |last7=Sergeant |first7=Kjell |last8=Hausman |first8=Jean François |title=Drought resistance strategies in minor millets: a review |journal=Planta |volume=260 |issue=1 |date=2024 |article-number=29 |issn=0032-0935 |doi=10.1007/s00425-024-04427-w |pmid=38879859 |bibcode=2024Plant.260...29P |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00425-024-04427-w|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths="180" heights="180">
File:Finger millet 3 11-21-02.jpg|[[Eleusine coracana|Finger millet]] in the field
File:Panicum miliaceum0.jpg|Ripe head of [[proso millet]]
File:Millet In Kerala-3.jpg|[[Sprouting]] millet plants
</gallery>

=== Taxonomic history ===

In 1753, [[Carl Linnaeus]] described [[foxtail millet]] as ''Panicum italicum''. In 1812, [[Palisot de Beauvois]] grouped several taxa into ''Setaria italica''.<ref name="House 1995"/> 

The genus ''[[Pennisetum]]'' was divided by [[Otto Stapf (botanist)|Otto Stapf]] in 1934<!--posthumous publication--> into the section ''penicillaria'', with 32 species including all the cultivated ones, and four other sections. In 1977, J. Brunken and colleagues classed the wild ''P. violaceum'' as part of the cultivated species ''P. glaucum'' (pearl millet).<ref name="House 1995">{{cite book |last=House |first=L. R. |chapter=Sorghum and millets: History, taxonomy, and distribution |editor=Dendy, David A.V. |title=Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry and Technology |year=1995 |publisher=American Association of Cereal Chemists |location=St. Paul, Minnesota |pages=1–9 |url=https://oar.icrisat.org/5486/1/Sorghum_&_Millets_Chemistry_and_Technology_1-9.pdf}}</ref>

[[Finger millet]] was described as ''Eleusine coracana'' by [[Joseph Gaertner]] in 1788.<ref>{{cite web |title=Eleusine coracana (finger millet) |date=2019 |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1079/cabicompendium.20674 |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.20674 |access-date=3 January 2025}}</ref>

== Evolution ==

=== Phylogeny ===

The millets are closely related to [[sorghum]] and [[maize]] within the [[PACMAD clade]] of grasses,<ref name="GWPGII">{{cite journal |author=Grass Phylogeny Working Group II| title=New grass phylogeny resolves deep evolutionary relationships and discovers C<sub>4</sub> origins | journal=New Phytologist |volume=193 |issue=2 |year=2012 |pages=304–312 |issn=0028-646X |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03972.x |pmid=22115274| bibcode=2012NewPh.193..304. | hdl=2262/73271 |hdl-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref> and more distantly to the [[cereal]]s of the [[BOP clade]] such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]].<ref name="Escobar Scornavacca Cenci Guilhaumon 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Escobar |first1=Juan S |last2=Scornavacca |first2=Céline |last3=Cenci |first3=Alberto |last4=Guilhaumon |first4=Claire |last5=Santoni |first5=Sylvain |last6=Douzery |first6=Emmanuel J. P. |last7=Ranwez |first7=Vincent |last8=Glémin |first8=Sylvain |last9=David |first9=Jacques |display-authors=5 |title=Multigenic phylogeny and analysis of tree incongruences in Triticeae (Poaceae) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2011 |page=181 |pmid=21702931 |pmc=3142523 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-181 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..181E }}</ref> 

{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=(Part of [[Poaceae]])
|1={{clade
   |label1=[[BOP clade]]<!--<ref name="Escobar Scornavacca Cenci Guilhaumon 2011"/>-->
   |1={{clade
      |1=[[Bambusoideae]] (bamboos)
      |2={{clade
         |label1=[[Pooideae]]
         |1={{clade
            |label1= [[Poeae]]
            |1=''[[Avena]]'' (oat), [[fescue]], [[ryegrass]]
            |label2=[[Triticeae]]
            |2={{clade
               |1=''[[Hordeum]]'' (barley)
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Triticum]]'' (wheat)
                  |2=''[[Secale]]'' (rye)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         |2=''[[Oryza]]'' (rice)
         }}
      }}
   |label2=[[PACMAD clade]]<!--<ref name="GWPGII"/>-->
   |2={{clade
      |1=[[Aristidoideae]] 
      |2={{clade
         |1=[[Panicoideae]] (most '''millets'''; [[sorghum]]; [[maize]])
         |2={{clade
            |1={{clade
               |1=[[Chloridoideae]] ('''finger millet; teff''') 
               |2=[[Danthonioideae]] 
               }}
            |2={{clade
               |1=[[Arundinoideae]] 
               |2=[[Micrairoideae]] 
               }}
            }}
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

Within the Panicoideae, sorghum (great millet<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=14 December 2021 }}</ref>) is in the tribe ''[[Andropogoneae]]'', while pearl millet, proso, foxtail, fonio, little millet, sawa, Japanese barnyard millet and kodo are in the tribe ''[[Paniceae]]''.<ref name="Soreng Peterson 2022"/><ref name="Morrone Aagesen 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Morrone |first1=Osvaldo |last2=Aagesen |first2=Lone |last3=Scataglini |first3=Maria A. |last4=Salariato |first4=Diego L. |last5=Denham |first5=Silvia S. |last6=Chemisquy |first6=Maria A. |last7=Sede |first7=Silvana M. |last8=Giussani |first8=Liliana M. |last9=Kellogg |first9=Elizabeth A. |last10=Zuloaga |first10=Fernando O. |display-authors=5 |title=Phylogeny of the Paniceae (Poaceae: Panicoideae): integrating plastid DNA sequences and morphology into a new classification |journal=Cladistics |volume=28 |issue=4 |date=2012  |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.2011.00384.x |pages=333–356|pmid=34836451 }}</ref> Within the Chloridoideae, finger millet is in the tribe ''[[Cynodonteae]]'', while teff is in the tribe ''[[Eragrostideae]]''.<ref name="Soreng Peterson 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Zuloaga |first3=Fernando O. |last4=Romaschenko |first4=Konstantin |last5=Clark |first5=Lynn G. |last6=Teisher |first6=Jordan K. |last7=Gillespie |first7=Lynn J. |last8=Barberá |first8=Patricia |last9=Welker |first9=Cassiano A. D. |last10=Kellogg |first10=Elizabeth A. |last11=Li |first11=De-Zhu |last12=Davidse |first12=Gerrit |display-authors=5 |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) III: An update |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=60 |issue=3 |date=2022 |doi=10.1111/jse.12847 |pages=476–521|bibcode=2022JSyEv..60..476S }}</ref>

=== Taxonomy ===

The different species of millets are not all closely related. All are members of the family [[Poaceae]] (the grasses), but they belong to different [[tribe (biology)|tribe]]s and subfamilies. Commonly cultivated millets are:<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Taylor |editor-first1=John R.N. |editor-last2=Duodu |editor-first2=Kwaku G. |date=2019 |title=Sorghum and Millets: Chemistry, Technology, and Nutritional Attributes |edition=2nd |url=https://shop.elsevier.com/books/sorghum-and-millets/taylor/978-0-12-811527-5 |publisher=Elsevier |page=3 |isbn=978-0-12-811527-5}}</ref>

[[Eragrostideae]] tribe in the subfamily [[Chloridoideae]]:

* ''[[Eleusine coracana]]'': Finger millet
* ''[[Eragrostis tef]]'': Teff; often not considered to be a millet<ref name="fao1">{{cite web |title=Sorghum and millet in human nutrition |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=1995 |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818E/T0818E00.htm |access-date=2012-01-07 |archive-date=2018-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001231759/http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0818e/T0818E00.HTM }}</ref>

[[Paniceae]] tribe in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]]:

* Genus ''[[Panicum]]'':
** ''[[Proso millet|Panicum miliaceum]]'': Proso millet (common millet, broomcorn millet, hog millet, or white millet, also known as baragu in Kannada, panivaragu in Tamil)
** ''[[Panicum sumatrense]]'': Little millet
** ''[[Panicum hirticaule]]'': Sonoran millet, cultivated in the American Southwest
* ''[[Cenchrus americanus]]'': Pearl millet
[[File:A closeup of Pearl Millet (Cumbu).JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'')|alt=Closeup picture of pearl millet]]
* ''[[Setaria italica]]'': Foxtail millet, Italian millet, panic<ref>{{Cite OED|panic}} from classical Latin pānicum (or pānīcum) Italian millet.</ref>
* Genus ''[[Digitaria]]'': of minor importance as crops<ref name=fao1/>
** ''[[Digitaria exilis]]'': known as white fonio, fonio millet, and hungry rice or acha rice
** ''[[Digitaria iburua]]'': Black fonio
** ''[[Digitaria compacta]]'': Raishan, cultivated in the [[Khasi Hills]] of northeast India
** ''[[Digitaria sanguinalis]]'': Polish millet
* Genus ''[[Echinochloa]]'': collectively, the members of this genus are called ''barnyard grasses'' or ''barnyard millets''
** ''[[Echinochloa esculenta]]'': Japanese barnyard millet
** ''[[Echinochloa frumentacea]]'': Indian barnyard millet
** ''[[Echinochloa stagnina]]'': Burgu millet
** ''[[Echinochloa crus-galli]]'': Common barnyard grass (or cockspur grass)
* ''[[Paspalum scrobiculatum]]'': Kodo millet
[[File:A closeup of Varagu millet with husk..JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Kodo millet (''Paspalum scrobiculatum'')|alt=Closeup picture of kodo millet]]
* Genus [[Urochloa]] (formerly Brachiaria)
** ''[[Urochloa deflexa]]'': Guinea millet
** ''[[Urochloa ramosa]]'': Browntop millet, southern India<ref>{{cite web |title=Browntop Millet |url=https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_urra.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_urra.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=1 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="GA-browntop">{{Cite book| publisher = Springer New York| isbn = 978-1-4419-0426-3| pages = 1021–1024| editor-last = Smith|editor-first = Claire| last1 = Kingwell-Banham| first1 = Eleanor| last2 = Fuller| first2 = Dorian Q.| title = Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology| chapter = Brown Top Millet: Origins and Development| location = New York, NY| access-date = 2025-01-15| date = 2014| doi = 10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2318| chapter-url = http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2_2318}}</ref>
* ''[[Spodiopogon formosanus]]'': Taiwan oil millet, endemic to Taiwan<ref name="Takei 2013">Takei, Emiko (October 2013). ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267747587_Millet_Culture_and_Indigenous_Cuisine_in_Taiwan Millet Culture and Indigenous Cuisine in Taiwan]''. The 2013 International Conference on Chinese Food Culture, Kunming, Yunnan, China.</ref>

[[Andropogoneae]] tribe, also in the subfamily [[Panicoideae]]:

* ''[[Sorghum bicolor]]'': Sorghum; usually considered a separate cereal, but sometimes known as ''great millet''
* ''[[Job's tears|Coix lacryma-jobi]]'': Job's tears, also known as adlay millet<ref name=fao1/>

== Domestication and spread ==

The cultivation of common millet as the earliest dry crop in East Asia has been attributed to its resistance to drought,<ref name="Lu"/> and this has been suggested to have aided its spread.<ref name="Lawler"/> Asian varieties of millet made their way from China to the Black Sea region of [[Europe]] by 5000 BC.<ref name="Lawler">{{cite journal |last=Lawler |first=A. |year=2009 |title=Bridging East and West: Millet on the move |journal=Science |volume=325 |issue= 5943|pages=942–943 |doi=10.1126/science.325_940 |pmid=19696328 }}</ref>

Millet was growing wild in Greece as early as 3000 BC, and bulk storage containers for millet have been found from the [[Late Bronze Age]] in [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] and northern Greece.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nesbitt |first1=Mark |last2=Summers |first2=Geoffrey |date=January 1988 |title=Some Recent Discoveries of Millet (Panicum miliaceum L. and Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) at Excavations in Turkey and Iran |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Records-of-millet-from-the-Ancient-Near-East-and-Greece_tbl1_234002850 |journal=Anatolian Studies |volume=38 |issue=38 |pages=85–97 |doi=10.2307/3642844 |access-date=25 February 2019 |jstor=3642844 |s2cid=84670275 }}</ref> [[Hesiod]] states that "the beards grow round the millet, which men sow in summer."<ref name="Hesiod2013">{{cite book |author=Hesiod |title=Hesiod, the Poems and Fragments, Done Into English Prose |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V9uungEACAAJ |date=September 2013 |publisher=Theclassics Us |pages=fragments S396–423 |isbn=978-1-230-26344-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1091#Hesiod_0606_290 |title = The Poems and Fragments &#124; Online Library of Liberty}}</ref> Millet is listed along with wheat in the third century BC by [[Theophrastus]] in his ''[[Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus)|Enquiry into Plants]]''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Theophrastus |author2=[[Arthur Hort]] |url=https://archive.org/details/enquiryintoplant01theouoft/page/78 |title=Enquiry into plants and minor works on odours and weather signs, with an English translation by Sir Arthur Hort, bart |year=1916}}</ref>

=== East Asia ===

Proso millet (''Panicum miliaceum'') and foxtail millet (''Setaria italica'') were important crops beginning in the [[Early Neolithic]] of China. Some of the earliest evidence of millet cultivation in China was found at [[Cishan culture|Cishan]], where proso millet husk [[Phytolith|phytoliths]] and biomolecular components have been identified around 10,300–8,700 years ago in [[storage pit (archaeology)|storage pits]] along with remains of pit-houses, pottery, and stone tools related to millet cultivation.<ref name="Lu">{{cite journal |pmid=19383791 |year=2009 |last1=Lu |first1=H. |last2=Zhang |first2=J. |last3=Liu |first3=K. B. |last4=Wu |first4=N. |last5=Li |first5=Y. |last6=Zhou |first6=K. |last7=Ye |first7=M. |last8=Zhang |first8=T. |last9=Zhang |first9=H. |last10=Yang |first10=X. |last11=Shen |first11=L. |last12=Xu |first12=D. |last13=Li |first13=Q. |display-authors=5 |title=Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago |volume=106 |issue=18 |pages=7367–7372 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0900158106 |pmc=2678631 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |bibcode=2009PNAS..106.7367L |doi-access=free }}</ref> Evidence at Cishan for foxtail millet dates back to around 8,700 years ago.<ref name="Lu"/> Noodles made from these two varieties of millet were found under a 4,000-year-old earthenware bowl containing well-preserved noodles at the [[Lajia]] archaeological site in north China; this is the oldest evidence of millet noodles in China.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4335160.stm |title=Oldest noodles unearthed in China |work=BBC News |date=12 October 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lu |first1=Houyuan |last2=Yang |first2=Xiaoyan |last3=Ye |first3=Maolin |last4=Liu |first4=Kam-Biu |last5=Xia |first5=Zhengkai |last6=Ren |first6=Xiaoyan |last7=Cai |first7=Linhai |last8=Wu |first8=Naiqin |last9=Liu |first9=Tung-Sheng |display-authors=5 |title=Millet noodles in Late Neolithic China |journal=Nature |date=12 October 2005 |volume=437 |issue=7061 |pages=967–968 |doi=10.1038/437967a |pmid=16222289 |s2cid=4385122 }}</ref>

Palaeoethnobotanists have found evidence of the cultivation of millet in the [[Korean Peninsula]] dating to the Middle [[Jeulmun pottery period]] (around 3500–2000 BC).<ref name="Crawford 1992">{{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Gary W. |chapter=Prehistoric Plant Domestication in East Asia |editor1=Cowan C.W. |editor2=Watson P.J |title=The Origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-87474-990-8 |pages=117–132 }}</ref><ref name="Crawford Lee 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=Gary W. |first2=Gyoung-Ah |last2=Lee |title=Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula |journal=Antiquity |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=87–95 |year=2003 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00061378 |s2cid=163060564 }}</ref> Millet continued to be an important element in the intensive, multicropping agriculture of the [[Mumun pottery period]] (about 1500–300 BC) in Korea.<ref name="Crawford Lee 2003"/> Millets and their wild ancestors, such as [[barnyard grass]] and [[panic grass]], were also cultivated in Japan during the [[Jōmon period]] sometime after 4000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Gary W. |title=Paleoethnobotany of the Kameda Peninsula |publisher=Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan |location=Ann Arbor |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-932206-95-4 }}</ref><ref name="Crawford 1992"/>

In the Zhengluo<!--acc to source--> region of China, two millet species (foxtail millet and proso millet) were grown, enabling the people to survive the [[4.2-kiloyear event|cooling of the global climate around 2200 BC]].<ref name="An Kirleis Jin 2019">{{cite journal |last1=An |first1=Jingping |last2=Kirleis |first2=Wiebke |last3=Jin |first3=Guiyun |date=2019-11-01 |title=Changing of crop species and agricultural practices from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age in the Zhengluo region, China |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12520-019-00915-3 |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=6273–6286 |doi=10.1007/s12520-019-00915-3|bibcode=2019ArAnS..11.6273A |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Chinese myths attribute the domestication of millet to [[Shennong]], a legendary emperor of China, and [[Hou Ji]], whose name means Lord Millet.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yang |first=Lihui |title=Handbook of Chinese Mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-533263-6 |pages=70, 131–135, 198 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

=== Indian subcontinent ===

Little millet (''Panicum sumatrense'') is believed to have been domesticated around 3000 BC in the Indian subcontinent and Kodo millet (''Paspalum scrobiculatum'') around 3700 BC, also in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="weber">{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=Steven A. |title=Out of Africa: The Initial Impact of Millets in South Asia |journal=Current Anthropology |date=April 1998 |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=267–274 |doi=10.1086/204725 |s2cid=143024704 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pokharia |first1=Anil K. |last2=Kharakwal |first2=Jeewan Singh |last3=Srivastava |first3=Alka |title=Archaeobotanical evidence of millets in the Indian subcontinent with some observations on their role in the Indus civilization |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=February 2014 |volume=42 |pages=442–455 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.11.029 |bibcode=2014JArSc..42..442P }}</ref> 
Pearl millet had arrived in the [[Indian subcontinent]] by 2000 BC to 1700 BC.<ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011"/>
Browntop millet (''Urochloa ramosa'') was likely domesticated in the [[Deccan]] near the beginning of the third millennium BCE and spread throughout India, though was later superseded by other millets.<ref name="GA-browntop"/> Various millets have been mentioned in some of the [[Yajurveda]] texts, identifying [[foxtail millet]] (''priyaṅgu''), [[Barnyard millet]] (''aṇu'') and black [[finger millet]] (''śyāmāka''), indicating that millet cultivation was happening around 1200 BC in India.<ref name="miraroy">{{cite journal |last1=Roy |first1=Mira |title=Agriculture in the Vedic Period |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science |date=2009 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=497–520 |url=https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.insa.nic.in/writereaddata/UpLoadedFiles/IJHS/Vol44_4_2_MRoy.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> Upon request by the [[Government of India|Indian Government]] in 2018, the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations]] declared 2023 as [[International Year of Millets]].<ref>{{cite web |title=International Year of Millets 2023 - IYM 2023 |url=https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/international-year-of-millets-unleashing-the-potential-of-millets-for-the-well-being-of-people-and-the-environment |access-date=2022-12-21 |website=Food and Agriculture Organisation}}</ref> 
Cultivation of [[Finger millet]] had spread to South India by 1800 BC.<ref name="Engels Hawkes 1991"/>

=== Africa ===

Pearl millet (''Pennisetum glaucum'') was domesticated in the Sahel region of West Africa from ''Pennisetum violaceum''.<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002"/> Early archaeological evidence in Africa includes finds at [[Kintampo Complex|Birimi]] in northern Ghana (1740 [[Radiocarbon dating#Reporting dates|cal BC]]) and [[Dhar Tichitt]] in [[Mauritania]] (1936–1683 cal BC) and the lower Tilemsi valley in [[Mali]] (2500 to 2000 cal BC).<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002"/><ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011"/> Studies of [[isozyme]]s suggest domestication took place north east of the [[Senegal River]] in the far west of the Sahel and tentatively around 6000 BC.<ref name="D'Andrea Casey 2002">{{Cite journal  |last1=D'Andrea |first1=A. C. |last2=Casey |first2=J. |title=Pearl Millet and Kintampo Subsistence |journal=The African Archaeological Review |date=2002 |access-date=18 May 2024 |jstor=25130746 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=147–173 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1016518919072 |doi=10.1023/A:1016518919072 |s2cid=162042735|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Manning Pelling Higham 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Manning |first1=Katie |last2=Pelling |first2=Ruth |last3=Higham |first3=Tom |last4=Schwenniger |first4=Jean-Luc |last5=Fuller |first5=Dorian Q. |title=4500-Year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali: new insights into an alternatives are cereal domestication pathway |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2010.09.007 |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=312–322 |year=2011 |bibcode=2011JArSc..38..312M }}</ref> 

Finger millet is native to the highlands of [[East Africa]] and was domesticated before the third millennium BC.<ref name="Engels Hawkes 1991">{{cite book |title=Plant Genetic Resources of Ethiopia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WKj__YqTU4AC&q=finger+millet+domesticated+ethiopia&pg=PA162 |isbn=978-0-521-38456-8 |last1=Engels |first1=J. M. M. |last2=Hawkes |first2=J. G. |last3=Hawkes |first3=John Gregory |last4=Worede |first4=M. |date=1991 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

=== Europe ===

Broomcorn or [[proso millet]] (''Panicum miliaceum'') came to Europe from East Asia as early as the 17th century BC in Vinogradnyi Sad, Ukraine.<ref name="Kirleis 2022">{{cite book |editor=Wiebke Kirleis |editor2=Marta Dal Corso |editor3=Dragana Filipović |url=https://www.sidestone.com/books/millet-and-what-else |title=Millet and What Else?. The Wider Context of the Adoption of Millet Cultivation in Europe |date=2022-04-15 |isbn=978-94-6427-015-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dal Corso |first1=Marta |last2=Pashkevych |first2=Galyna |last3=Filipović |first3=Dragana |last4=Liu |first4=Xinyi |last5=Motuzaite Matuzeviciute |first5=Giedre |last6=Stobbe |first6=Astrid |last7=Shatilo |first7=Ludmila |last8=Videiko |first8=Mihail |last9=Kirleis |first9=Wiebke |date=2022-12-01 |title=Between Cereal Agriculture and Animal Husbandry: Millet in the Early Economy of the North Pontic Region |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1 |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=321–374 |doi=10.1007/s10963-022-09171-1}}</ref> At around 1500 BC it reached Italy and southeastern Europe; around 1400 BC it came to central Europe, and from 1200 BC, it arrived in northern Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-01-21 |title=Millet in the Bronze Age: A Superfood conquers the World |url=https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/details/news/081-hirse-superfood |access-date=2025-01-21 |website=[[Kiel University]]}}</ref><ref name="Kirleis 2022"/>

== Agriculture ==

=== Cultivation ===

Pearl millet is one of the two major dryland crops (alongside sorghum<ref name="Masaka 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Masaka |first1=Johnson |last2=Chohunoita |first2=Collen |last3=Mupfiga |first3=Elvis |title=Soil moisture, dryland sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor L.) growth and grain yield responses to in-field rain water harvesting tillage methods |journal=Cogent Food & Agriculture |volume=7 |issue=1 |date=1 January 2021 |article-number=1925004 |issn=2331-1932 |doi=10.1080/23311932.2021.1925004 |bibcode=2021CogFA...725004M |doi-access=free }}</ref>) in the semiarid, impoverished, less fertile agriculture regions of Africa and southeast Asia.<ref name="Baltensperger 2002">{{cite book |last=Baltensperger |first=David D. |chapter=Progress with Proso, Pearl and Other Millets |year=2002 |editor1=Janick, J. |editor2=Whipkey, A. |title=Trends in New Crops and New Uses |publisher=ASHS Press |location=Alexandria, Virginia |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030421033516/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/pdf/baltensperger.pdf |archive-date=2003-04-21 |url-status=live }}</ref> Millets are not only adapted to poor, dry infertile soils, but they are also more reliable under these conditions than most other grain crops.<ref name="Baltensperger 2002"/>

Millets, however, do respond to high fertility and moisture. On a per-hectare basis, millet grain production can be 2 to 4 times higher with use of irrigation and soil supplements. Improved varieties of millet with enhanced disease resistance can significantly increase farm yield. There has been cooperation between poor countries to improve millet yields. For example, 'Okashana 1', a variety developed in India from a natural-growing millet variety in [[Burkina Faso]], doubled yields. This variety was selected for trials in [[Zimbabwe]]. From there it was taken to [[Namibia]], where it was released in 1990 and enthusiastically adopted by farmers. 'Okashana 1' became the most popular variety in Namibia, the only non-[[Sahel]]ian country where pearl millet—locally known as ''mahangu''—is the dominant food staple for consumers. 'Okashana 1' was then introduced to [[Chad]]. The variety has significantly enhanced yields in [[Mauritania]] and [[Benin]].<ref>{{cite web |author=ICRISAT |title=A New Generation of Pearl Millet on the Horizon |publisher=The World Bank |url=http://www.worldbank.org/html/cgiar/newsletter/Oct96/6millet.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204142835/http://www.worldbank.org/html/cgiar/newsletter/Oct96/6millet.html |archive-date=4 December 2010 }}</ref>

=== Pests and diseases ===

Millets are subject to damage by [[List of insect pests of millets|many insect pests]], including [[corn borer]]s, [[Stemborer]]s, the caterpillars of numerous moths in the families [[Erebidae]] and [[Noctuidae]], the [[Geromyia penniseti|millet midge]], many species of flies in the [[Muscidae]], [[Hemiptera]]n bugs of many families including [[aphid]]s, and species of [[thrips]], [[beetle]]s, and [[grasshopper]]s.<ref name="Kalaisekar 2017">{{cite book |last=Kalaisekar |first=A. |title=Insect pests of millets: systematics, bionomics, and management |publisher=Elsevier |publication-place=London |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-12-804243-4 |oclc=967265246}}</ref>

Among the many diseases of millets are serious fungal infections such as [[anthracnose]], [[Blast fungus|blast]], charcoal rot, [[downy mildew]], [[ergot]], grain mould, [[Rust (fungus)|rust]], and [[Sarocladium oryzae|sheath rot]]. Bacterial diseases are generally less serious; they include [[bacterial leaf spot]], leaf stripe and [[bacterial leaf streak|leaf streak]]. Viral diseases are again generally less serious, except for a few diseases such as [[maize stripe virus]], [[maize mosaic virus]], sorghum red stripe virus, and [[maize streak virus]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=I.K. |last2=Nagaraja |first2=A. |last3=Tonapi |first3=Vilas A. |title=Diseases of millets |journal=Indian Farming |volume=12 |pages=41–45 |date=March 2016 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361164140}}</ref>

=== Production ===

{{Infobox agricultural production
| year               = 2022
| plant              = millet
| country1           = {{IND}}
| amount1            =11.8
| country2           = {{NIG}}
| amount2            =3.7
| country3           = {{CHN}}
| amount3            =2.7
| country4           = {{NGA}}
| amount4            =1.9
| country5           = {{MLI}}
| amount5            =1.8
| country6           = {{SUD}}
| amount6            =1.7
| country7           = {{ETH}}
| amount7            =1.2
| country8           = {{SEN}}
| amount8            =1.1
| country9           = {{BFA}}
| amount9            =0.9
| country10           = {{CHA}}
| amount10            =0.7
| world              =30.9
| source             =[[FAOSTAT]]<ref name="FAOSTAT2022">{{cite web |title=FAOSTAT |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL/visualize |website=www.fao.org |access-date=28 February 2024}}</ref>
}}

In 2022, global production of millet was 30.9 million [[tonnes]]. [[India]] is the top millet producer worldwide, with 11.8 million tonnes grown annually &ndash; some 38% of the world total and nearly triple its nearest rival. Eight of the remaining nine nations in the top 10 producers are in Africa, ranging from [[Niger]] (at 3.7 million tonnes) to [[Chad]] (0.7 million tonnes); the sole exception is [[China]], number three in global production, at 2.7 million tonnes.<ref name="FAOSTAT2022"/>

<gallery mode=packed widths=130 heights=160>
File:A Woman Threshing Sorghum In Northern Ghana.png|A woman threshing [[pearl millet]] in Northern Ghana
File:Journal of Agricultural Research (1917) (14777745304).jpg|[[Proso millet]] with bacterial stripe disease
File:Milletoutput.png|Production of millet (2008) showing major producing regions of the world
</gallery>

=== Research ===

Research on millets is carried out by the [[International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics]] (ICRISAT)<ref name="icrisat-overview">{{cite web |title=ICRISAT overview |url=https://www.icrisat.org/icrisat-strategic-plan/ |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803225819/https://www.icrisat.org/icrisat-strategic-plan/ |archive-date=3 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="icrisat-pearl">{{cite web |title=Pearl Millet |url=http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Pearl%20Millet/178 |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043747/http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Pearl%2520Millet/178 }}</ref><ref name="icrisat-small">{{cite web |title=Small Millets |url=http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Small%20millets/187 |website=ICRISAT |access-date=17 September 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529043858/http://exploreit.icrisat.org/profile/Small%2520millets/187 }}</ref> and [[ICAR-Indian Institute of Millets Research]]<ref name="ICAR-main">{{cite web |title=Indian Institute of Millets Research |url=https://millets.res.in/ |website=millets.res.in |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref> in [[Telangana]], India, and by the [[Agricultural Research Service|United States Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service]] at [[Tifton, Georgia|Tifton]], Georgia, United States.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hanna |first1=W. |last2=Wilson |first2=J. |title=Pearl Millet Hybrids for Grain |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/southeast-area/tifton-ga/crop-genetics-and-breeding-research/docs/pearl-millet-hybrids-for-grain/ |website=USDA-ARS |access-date=30 July 2021}}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== As food ===

Per capita consumption of millets as food varies in different parts of the world, with consumption being the highest in Western Africa.<ref>{{cite web |title=Millet Industry Statistics in Africa {{!}} SME Blue Pages |url=https://smebluepages.com/millet-industry-statistics-in-africa/ |access-date=2024-08-21}}</ref> In the Sahel region, millet is estimated to account for about 35 percent of total cereal food consumption in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Chad]] and the [[Gambia]]. In [[Mali]] and [[Senegal]], millets constitute roughly 40 percent of total cereal food consumption per capita, while in [[Niger]] and arid [[Namibia]] it is over 65 percent (see ''[[mahangu]]''). Other countries in Africa where millets are a significant food source include [[Ethiopia]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Uganda]]. Millet is also an important food item for the population living in the drier parts of many other countries, especially in eastern and central Africa, and in the northern coastal countries of western Africa. In developing countries outside Africa, millet has local significance as a food in parts of some countries, such as [[China]], [[India]], [[Burma]] and [[North Korea]].<ref name="fao1" />

In [[Ukraine]], millet was historically a common ingredient in the diet of the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]], in the form of a [[porridge]] called [[kulish]]. This dish, primarily made with millet, served with stewed vegetables and meat, cooked in a cauldron, remains a part of modern [[Ukrainian cuisine]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Kulish |url=https://ukrainefood.info/recipes/soups/28-kulish |website=Discover Ukraine |access-date=2 January 2025}}</ref> <!--In China, millet porridge is eaten without milk or sugar, frequently with beans, [[sweet potato]], and/or various types of [[squash (plant)|squash]].{{cn|date=December 2024}} -->In Germany, it is eaten sweet, for example with milk and berries for breakfast.<ref>{{cite web |title=Süßer Hirsebrei mit Milch und Beeren |url=https://eat.de/rezept/suesser-hirsebrei/ |website=eat.de |access-date=2 January 2025 |language=de |trans-title=Sweet Millet Porridge with Milk and Berries}}</ref> 
In [[Russia]], {{Interlanguage link|millet porridge|ru|3=пшённая каша}} also remains common and is promoted for its health benefits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Пшенная каша (4 секрета приготовления рассыпчатой каши) — Пошаговый рецепт приготовления с фото 2025 {{!}} Простые и вкусные рецепты в домашних условиях |trans-title=Millet porridge (4 secrets of making crumbly porridge) - Step-by-step recipe with photos 2025 {{!}} Simple and delicious recipes at home |url=https://www.edimdoma.ru/retsepty/42638-pshennaya-kasha-4-sekreta-prigotovleniya-rassypchatoy-kashi |website=EdimDoma.ru |date=14 September 2009}}</ref> Millet porridge made with pumpkin is particularly common. In the [[Lipetsk Oblast]], ritual and daily meals from millet include {{Lang|ru-latn|chichi}} ({{langx|ru|чичи}}). These are millet [[fritters]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Рязанские чичи, сыроеги и калинники |trans-title=Ryazan chichi, syryogi and viburnum |url=https://rv-ryazan.ru/ryazanskie-chichi-syroegi-i-kalinniki/ |website=Рязанские ведомости (Ryazan News) |language=ru |date=4 April 2019}}</ref>

Millet is the main ingredient in {{lang|vi|bánh đa kê}}, a Vietnamese sweet snack. It contains a layer of smashed millet and [[mung bean]] topped with sliced dried [[coconut]] meat wrapped in a crunchy rice cake.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://dulich.vnexpress.net/tin-tuc/dau-chan/ba-nh-da-ke-mo-n-qua-va-t-cu-a-nguo-i-ha-no-i-3467611.html |access-date=7 December 2018 |title=Bánh đa kê - món quà vặt của người Hà Nội |language=vi |trans-title=Rice paper rolls - a snack of Hanoi people}}</ref> In [[Karnataka]], India, [[finger millet]] is made into ''[[ragi rotti]]'' flatbread<ref>{{cite news |date=4 December 2018 |title=Ragi Roti Recipe |url=https://recipes.timesofindia.com/recipes/ragi-roti/rs57534900.cms |access-date=2 January 2025 |work=Times of India}}</ref> and ''[[ragi mudde]]'' [[swallow (food)|dough lumps]].<ref>{{cite news |date=2008-06-21 |title=Ragi Sangati |url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/article1419117.ece |access-date=2016-03-25 |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> 

In parts of Africa, millet is mixed with milk to make a drink called [[brukina]].<ref name="ghanaweb.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/Burkina-Latest-millet-smoothie-in-town-278294 |title=Burkina: Latest millet smoothie in town |website=www.ghanaweb.com |access-date=2019-06-22 |archive-date=2019-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622103555/https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/business/Burkina-Latest-millet-smoothie-in-town-278294 }}</ref> Dough lumps are eaten as [[Fura (food)|fura]] in the [[Sahel]] region of West Africa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-11 |title=Relish The Fulani's fura |url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/relish-the-fulanis-fura/ |access-date=2022-06-22 |website=Tribune Online}}</ref>

People affected by [[gluten-related disorders]] who need a [[gluten-free diet]], such as [[coeliac disease]], [[non-celiac gluten sensitivity]] and [[wheat allergy]] sufferers,<ref name="LudvigssonLeffler2013">{{cite journal |last1=Ludvigsson |first1=Jonas F |last2=Leffler |first2=Daniel A |last3=Bai |first3=Julio C |last4=Biagi |first4=Federico |last5=Fasano |first5=Alessio |last6=Green |first6=Peter H R |last7=Hadjivassiliou |first7=Marios |last8=Kaukinen |first8=Katri |last9=Kelly |first9=Ciaran P |last10=Leonard |first10=Jonathan N |last11=Lundin |first11=Knut Erik Aslaksen |last12=Murray |first12=Joseph A |last13=Sanders |first13=David S |last14=Walker |first14=Marjorie M |last15=Zingone |first15=Fabiana |display-authors=5 |date=2013 |title=The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms |url=https://gut.bmj.com/content/gutjnl/62/1/43.full.pdf |journal=Gut |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=43–52 |doi=10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346 |pmc=3440559 |pmid=22345659 |access-date=3 January 2025 |doi-access=free |last16=Ciacci |first16=Carolina}}</ref><ref name="MulderWanrooij">{{cite journal |last1=Mulder |first1=Chris J.J. |last2=van Wanrooij |first2=R.L.J. |last3=Bakker |first3=S.F. |last4=Wierdsma |first4=N. |last5=Bouma |first5=G. |date=2013 |title=Gluten-Free Diet in Gluten-Related Disorders |journal=Digestive Diseases |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=57–62 |doi=10.1159/000347180 |pmid=23797124}}</ref><ref name="VoltaCaio2015">{{cite journal |last1=Volta |first1=Umberto |last2=Caio |first2=Giacomo |last3=De Giorgio |first3=Roberto |last4=Henriksen |first4=Christine |last5=Skodje |first5=Gry |last6=Lundin |first6=Knut E. |date=2015 |title=Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: A work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders |journal=Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=477–491 |doi=10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006}}</ref> can replace [[gluten]]-containing cereals in their diets with millet.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rai |first1=Sweta |last2=Kaur |first2=Amarjeet |last3=Singh |first3=Baljit |date=2014 |title=Quality characteristics of gluten free cookies prepared from different flour combinations |journal=Journal of Food Science and Technology |volume=51 |issue=4 |pages=785–789 |doi=10.1007/s13197-011-0547-1 |pmc=3982011 |pmid=24741176 |doi-access=free}}</ref> There remains a risk of contamination with [[gluten]]-containing cereals.<ref name="SaturniFerretti2010">{{cite journal |last1=Saturni |first1=Letizia |last2=Ferretti |first2=Gianna |last3=Bacchetti |first3=Tiziana |date=14 January 2010 |title=The Gluten-Free Diet: Safety and Nutritional Quality |journal=Nutrients |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=16–34 |doi=10.3390/nu2010016 |issn=2072-6643 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Koerner |first1=Terence B. |last2=Cleroux |first2=Chantal |last3=Poirier |first3=Christine |last4=Cantin |first4=Isabelle |last5=La Vieille |first5=Sébastien |last6=Hayward |first6=Stephen |last7=Dubois |first7=Sheila |date=2013 |title=Gluten contamination of naturally gluten-free flours and starches used by Canadians with celiac disease |journal=Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=2017–2021 |doi=10.1080/19440049.2013.840744 |pmid=24124879}}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=160 heights=160>
File:Ragi Rotti & Chutney.jpg|''[[Ragi rotti]]'', finger millet flatbread, [[Karnataka]], India
File:RAGI MUDDE.JPG|''[[Ragi mudde]]'', dough lumps of finger millet
File:Awaokoshi 01.jpg|''{{visible anchor|Awaokoshi}}'', candied millet [[puffed grain|puffs]], are a specialty of [[Osaka]], Japan.
File:Bánh đa kê.jpg|Bánh đa kê, a specialty sweet snack in [[Hanoi]], Vietnam
File:Tongba.jpg|''[[Tongba]]'', a millet-based alcoholic brew from [[Nepal]] and [[Sikkim, India|Sikkim]]
</gallery>

=== Alcoholic beverages ===

In the Himalayas, including in Nepal, Sikkim, and Darjeeling, millet is fermented into [[tongba]], an alcoholic drink.<ref>{{cite news |last=Easen |first=Nick |title=Mountain High |publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]
|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,596307,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015071154/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,596307,00.html |archive-date=October 15, 2009 |access-date=2009-08-29 | date=2004-03-01}}</ref>

In India, alcoholic beverages including [[rakshi]] are produced from millets.<ref name="Kumar-2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Kumar |first1=Ashwani |last2=Tomer |first2=Vidisha |last3=Kaur |first3=Amarjeet |last4=Kumar |first4=Vikas |last5=Gupta |first5=Kritika |date=2018-04-27 |title=Millets: a solution to agrarian and nutritional challenges |journal=Agriculture & Food Security|volume=7|issue=1 |page=31 |doi=10.1186/s40066-018-0183-3 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018AgFS....7...31K }}</ref>

=== As forage ===

Millet is sometimes used as a [[forage crop]], to produce animal feed. Compared to forage sorghum, animals including [[sheep|lambs]] gain weight faster on millet, and it has better [[hay]] or [[silage]] potential, although it produces less dry matter.<ref name="Collett 2004"/> Millet does not contain toxic [[prussic acid]], sometimes found in sorghum.<ref name="Robson 2007"/> The rapid growth of millet as a [[grazing]] crop allows flexibility in its use. Farmers can wait until sufficient late spring / summer moisture is present and then make use of it. It is ideally suited to [[irrigation]] where livestock finishing is required.<ref name="Collett 2004">{{cite web |last=Collett |first=Ian J. |title=Forage Sorghum and Millet |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/146616/forage-sorghum-and-millet.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080822230144/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/146616/forage-sorghum-and-millet.pdf |archive-date=2008-08-22 |url-status=live |work=District Agronomist, Tamworth |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries |access-date=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Robson 2007">{{cite web |last=Robson |first=Sarah |title=Dr |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111190/prussic-acid-poisoning-in-livestock.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0013/111190/prussic-acid-poisoning-in-livestock.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |work=primefact 417, Prussic Acid Poisoning in Livestock |publisher=NSW Department of Primary Industries |access-date=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="Lonewood Trust">{{cite web |last=Lonewood Trust |url=http://aussiesapphire.com/documents/SHIROHIE_MILLET_GROWING_GUIDE.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://aussiesapphire.com/documents/SHIROHIE_MILLET_GROWING_GUIDE.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title = Shirohie Millet Growing Guide | access-date = 7 November 2013}}</ref>

=== Nutrition ===

The table shows the nutrient content of the grains of different species of millet, raw, compared to other staples.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;"
|+ Nutrient content of raw millets compared to other grains (per 100g)<ref name="millets-2009">{{cite book |title=Millets 2009 |publisher=National Forum for Policy Dialogues |location=India |page=4 |url=https://milletindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/II_National_Consulate.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917051422/https://milletindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/II_National_Consulate.pdf |archive-date=2021-09-17 |url-status=live |access-date=17 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
! Crop !! Protein<br/>(g) !! Fibre<br/>(g) !! Minerals<br/>(g) !! Iron<br/>(mg) !! Calcium<br/>(mg)
|-
| [[Sorghum]] || 10 || 4 || 1.6 || 2.6 || 54
|-
| [[Pearl millet]] || 10.6 || 1.3 || 2.3 || 16.9 || 38
|-
| [[Finger millet]] || 7.3 || 3.6 || 2.7 || 3.9 || 344
|-
| [[Foxtail millet]] || 12.3 || 8 || 3.3 || 2.8 || 31
|-
| [[Proso millet]] || 12.5 || 2.2 || 1.9 || 0.8 || 14
|-
| [[Kodo millet]] || 8.3 || 9 || 2.6 || 0.5 || 27
|-
| [[Little millet]] || 7.7 || 7.6 || 1.5 || 9.3 || 17
|-
| [[Barnyard millet]] || 11.2 || 10.1 || 4.4 || 15.2 || 11
|-
| [[Urochloa ramosa|Brown top millet]] || 11.5 || 12.5 || 4.2 || 0.65 || 0.01
|-
| [[Quinoa]] || 14.1 || 7 || * || 4.6 || 47
|-
| [[Teff]] || 13 || 8 || 0.85 || 7.6 || 180
|-
| [[Fonio]] || 11 || 11.3 || 5.31 || 84.8 || 18
|-
| [[Rice]] || 6.8 || 0.2 || 0.6 || 0.7 || 10
|-
| [[Wheat]] || 11.8 || 1.2 || 1.5 || 5.3 || 41
|}

== See also ==

* [[List of ancient dishes|List of ancient dishes and foods]]

== References ==

{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==

{{Commons category|Millet}}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/millet.html |title=Alternative Field Crops Manual
|chapter=Millets }}
* [https://www.allesbleibtanders.com/en/modules/rispenhirse/ Digital exhibition of European prehistory of Millet]

{{Cereals}}
{{Agriculture country lists}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Millets|*]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Plant common names]]