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{{Short description|Term in decision theory and general systems theory}}
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{{Other uses}}
[[File:Fixed versus growth mindset.png|thumb|right|A well-known example of opposite mindsets]]
A '''mindset''' (also known as '''mentality''' especially when considered as [[bias]]ed and [[closed-minded]]) refers to an established set of [[Attitude (psychology)|attitude]]s of a person or group concerning [[culture]], [[Value theory|value]]s, [[philosophy]], frame of reference, outlook, or disposition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2022 |title=mindset, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/252842?redirectedFrom=mindset& |website=OED Online |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> It may also develop from a person's [[worldview]] or [[belief]]s about the [[meaning of life]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~funkk/Personal/worldview.html|title=What is a Worldview? |access-date=2019-12-10}}</ref>

A mindset could create an incentive to adopt (or accept) previous [[behavior]]s, choices, or tools, sometimes known as [[cognitive inertia]] or [[groupthink]]. When a prevailing mindset is limiting or inappropriate, it may be difficult to counteract the grip of mindset on analysis and [[decision-making]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Groupthink |website=Ethics Unwrapped| url=https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/groupthink |access-date=2025-09-01 |publisher=McCombs School of Business, The University of Texas at Austin}}</ref>

In [[cognitive psychology]], mindset is the cognitive process activated in a task.<ref name="French2016">French, R. P., II. (2016). The fuzziness of mindsets: Divergent conceptualizations and characterizations of mindset theory and praxis. ''International Journal of Organizational Analysis'', 24(4), 673–691. {{doi|10.1108/IJOA-09-2014-0797}}</ref> In addition to the field of cognitive psychology, the study of mindset is evident in the [[social science]]s and other fields (such as [[positive psychology]]). Characteristic of this area of study is its fragmentation among academic disciplines.<ref name="French2016" />

=={{anchor|History}}History==
Numerous scholars have identified mindset history as being a critical gap in contemporary literature and also in current approaches to mindset education and training.<ref name="French2016" />

=={{anchor|Research}}Research==
Mindset research is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry. Some of the earliest studies to explicitly include mindset as an area of focus were conducted in the 1910s and 1920s, primarily within a psychology and education context. This includes studies by scholars including [[Thaddeus Lincoln Bolton]] (1909), Edward Kellogg Strong and Margaret Hart Strong (1913), [[Edward Lee Thorndike]] (1913), [[Alexander James Inglis]] (1918), [[William Heard Kilpatrick]] (1921), and more.<ref name="Buchanan2023">{{cite journal|last= Buchanan|first= Ash |year=2023|title= Perspectives: The History of Mindset: A Critical Review |journal=Middle East Journal of Positive Psychology |volume= 9 |pages= 79–99 |url=https://www.middleeastjournalofpositivepsychology.org/index.php/mejpp/article/view/166}}</ref>

Between the 1980s and 2000s, mindset research and its applications began to expand into other areas, including Glen Fisher's (1988) studies in international relations, [[Ellen Langer]]'s (1989) research on mindfulness, [[Peter Gollwitzer]]'s (1989) psychology of action phases,<ref>Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). Action phases and mind-sets. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), ''The Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior'' (Vol. 2, pp.&nbsp;52–92). New York, NY: Guilford Press.</ref><ref>Gollwitzer, P. M. (2012). Mindset theory of action phases. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), ''Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology'' (Vol. 1, pp.&nbsp;526–545). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.</ref> [[Donella Meadows]]' (1991) theory of systems change, Stephen Rhinesmith's (1992) work on global mindsets, Ronald Heifetz's (1994) practice of adaptive leadership, [[Carol Dweck]]'s (2006) concept of implicit theories, and [[Robert Kegan]]'s and Lisa Lahey's (2009) theory of adult development.<ref name="Buchanan2023" />

=={{anchor|In politics}}Politics==
A political example is the "[[Cold War]] mindset" in the [[United States|U.S.]] and the [[USSR]]. This mindset reflects how people globally perceived the levels of security between the two nations. This mindset suggested that if one nation grew in strength and power, the other was threatened and vice versa. The main goal of the Cold War Mindset was to strengthen one's own nation's military and alliances while keeping the other nation's power limited.<ref>{{Citation |title=Cold War Mentality |date=2002-12-31 |work=The Asia-Pacific Security Lexicon |pages=45–47 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1355/9789812307071-009 |access-date=2024-11-21 |publisher=ISEAS Publishing|doi=10.1355/9789812307071-009 |isbn=978-981-230-707-1 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Also included in this mindset is the belief in [[game theory]], in a [[chain of command]] in control of nuclear materials, and in the [[mutual assured destruction]] of both in a nuclear war.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Capie |first1=David |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1355/9789812307071-009/html |title=Cold War Mentality |last2=Evans |first2=Paul |date=2002-01-02 |publisher=ISEAS Publishing |isbn=978-981-230-707-1 |language=en |doi=10.1355/9789812307071-009}}</ref> This mindset prevented an attack by either country, but [[deterrence theory]] has made assessments of the Cold War mindset a subject of controversy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McNaugher |first=Thomas L. |date=June 1, 1996 |title=Planning Future Defense: Time to Confront the Cold War Mindset |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/planning-future-defense-time-to-confront-the-cold-war-mindset/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref>

Modern military theory attempts to challenge entrenched mindsets in [[asymmetric warfare]], [[terrorism]], and the proliferation of [[weapons of mass destruction]]. These threats are "a revolution in military affairs", requiring rapid adaptation to new threats and circumstances.<ref>{{Cite web |last=O'Hanlon |first=Michael E. |date=2018-09-11 |title=A retrospective on the so-called revolution in military affairs, 2000-2020 |url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/a-retrospective-on-the-so-called-revolution-in-military-affairs-2000-2020/ |access-date=2022-05-05 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref>

=={{anchor|In system thinking}}Systems theory==
Building on [[Magoroh Maruyama]]'s concept of mindscape,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maruyama |first= M. |title= Mindscapes and Science Theories|journal= Current Anthropology |volume=21 |issue=5 |date= October 1980|pages=589–608}}</ref><ref>Maruyama, M. (1988). Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion. Cultural Dynamics 1988; 1; 309-335</ref> mindset includes a cultural and social orientation: hierarchical and egalitarian individualism, hierarchical and egalitarian collectivism, hierarchic and egalitarian synergism, and hierarchical and egalitarian populism.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Yolles |first1=Maurice |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108974028 |title=A Configuration Approach to Mindset Agency Theory |last2=Fink |first2=Gerhard |date=2021-07-28 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781108974028 |isbn=978-1-108-97402-8|s2cid=240681258}}</ref>

==Collective mindset==
Collective mindsets are described in [[Edwin Hutchins]]'s ''Cognition in the Wild'' (1995)<ref>Hutchins, Edwin (1995). ''Cognition in the Wild''. Cambridge, Mass.; London: MIT Press.</ref> and Maximilian Senges' ''Knowledge Entrepreneurship in Universities'' (2007).<ref name="Senges2007">Senges, Maximilian (2007). ''Knowledge Entrepreneurship in Universities: Practice and Strategy in the Case of Internet Based Innovation Appropriation''. Thesis. Barcelona: Universitat Oberta de Catalunya. https://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/9117/tesi_msenges.pdf</ref> Hutchins analyzed a team of naval navigators as a cognitive unit or computational system, and Senges explained how a collective mindset is part of university strategy and practice.<ref name="Senges2007" />

Erik H. Erikson's analysis of group-identities and what he calls a "life-plan" is relevant to a collective mindset. Erikson cites Native Americans who were meant to undergo a reeducation process to instill a modern "life-plan" which advocated housing and wealth; the natives' collective historic identity as buffalo hunters was oriented around such fundamentally different motivations that communication about life plans was difficult.<ref>{{cite book |last=Erikson |first=Erik H. |date=1959 |title=Identity and the Life Cycle: Selected Papers |location=New York |publisher=International Universities Press}}</ref>

An institution is related to collective mindset; an [[entrepreneurial mindset]] refers to a person who "values uncertainty in the marketplace and seeks to continuously identify opportunities with the potential to lead to important innovations".{{sfn|Hitt|2011|p=371}} An institution with an entrepreneurial philosophy will have entrepreneurial goals and strategies. It fosters an entrepreneurial milieu, allowing each entity to pursue emerging opportunities. A collective mindset fosters values which lead to a particular practice. Hitt cites the five dimensions of an entrepreneurial mindset as "autonomy, innovativeness, risk taking, proactiveness, and competitive aggressiveness".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hitt |first=Michael A. |title=Strategic Management |publisher=Cengage Learning. |year=2011 |location=Mason, Ohio: South-Western |language=English|page=354}}</ref>

=={{anchor|Specific theories|Types and theories}}Theories==
The study of mindsets includes definition, measurement, and categorization. Scholars in the same discipline differ.<ref name="French2016" />

=== {{anchor|Mindset agency theory|Sagiv-Schwarts cultural values}}Mindset agency ===
Sagiv and Schwarts defined cultural values<ref name="Sagiv">{{Cite journal|last1=Sagiv|first1=Lilach|last2=Schwartz|first2=Shalom H.|date=2007|title=Cultural values in organisations: insights for Europe|journal=European Journal of International Management|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=176|doi=10.1504/EJIM.2007.014692|issn=1751-6757}}</ref> to explain the nature, functions, and variables which characterize mindset agency.<ref>{{Cite SSRN|last=Yolles|first=Maurice|last2=Fink|first2=Gerhard|date=2016-11-20|title=Maruyama Mindscapes, Myers-Briggs Type Indicators and Cultural Agency Mindset Types|language=en|ssrn=2873082}}</ref><ref>{{Cite SSRN|last=Yolles|first=Maurice|last2=Fink|first2=Gerhard|date=2013|title=Exploring Mindset Agency Theory|ssrn=2369874}}</ref> They posited three bipolar dimensions of culture, based on values:<ref name="Sagiv" /> cognitive (embedded or autonomous), figurative (mastery or harmony), and operative (hierarchical or egalitarian).

=== Mindscape theory ===
The [[Myers–Briggs Type Indicator]] (MBTI) measures psychological functions which, paired with social attitudes, combine to generate personality types that may be evaluated by exploring individual preferences. Maruyama's mindscape theory measures individuals on a scale of characteristics and places them into one of four personality categories.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maruyama|first=Magoroh|date=July 1988|title=Dynamics among Business Practice, Aesthetics, Science, Politics and Religion|journal=Cultural Dynamics|volume=1|issue=3|pages=309–335|doi=10.1177/092137408800100304|s2cid=143782277|issn=0921-3740}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Maruyama|first1=Magoroh|last2=Beals|first2=Kenneth L.|last3=Bharati|first3=Agehananda|last4=Fuchs|first4=Helmuth|last5=Gardner|first5=Peter M.|last6=Guilmet|first6=George M.|last7=Hahn|first7=Robert A.|last8=Kamau|first8=Lucy Jayne|last9=Kronenfeld|first9=David B.|last10=Kursh|first10=Charlotte O.|last11=Meeker|first11=Joseph W.|date=October 1980|title=Mindscapes and Science Theories [and Comments and Reply]|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=21|issue=5|pages=589–608|doi=10.1086/202539|s2cid=147362112 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref>

=== Fixed and growth mindsets {{anchor|Fixed and growth mindset<!-- This anchor is used by [[Goal orientation]]. -->|Classroom Implications|Fixed and growth mindsets in males vs. females|Implications for at risk students|Criticism}} ===
{{See also|Self-actualization#Abraham Maslow's concept of self-actualization|Kaizen}}
{{Further|Carol Dweck#Criticism}}
According to [[Carol Dweck]], individuals can be placed on a continuum according to their views about where ability originates, from a fixed to a growth mindset. An individual's mindset affects the "motivation to practice and learn".<ref name="Yousefi">Yousefi, H., & Khalkhali, V. (2020). The Effects of Mastery Versus Social-Comparison Praise on Students' Persistence: A Role of Fixed Versus Growth Mindset. ''Education Sciences & Psychology'', ''55''(1), 3–9.</ref>

People with a fixed mindset believe that "intelligence is static", and little can be done to improve ability.<ref name="Bates">{{Cite book |last=Bates |first=Bob |title=Learning theories simplified : 100+ theories and models from great thinkers...and how to apply them to teaching |date=2016 |isbn=978-1-4739-2533-5 |publisher=SAGE Publications Ltd|location=London |oclc=926667644}}</ref> Feedback is seen as "evaluation of their underlying ability" and success is seen as a result of this ability, not any effort expended. Failure is intimidating, since it "suggests constraints or limits they would not be able to overcome".<ref name="Yousefi" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=Dario |title=MindSet (Motivate Academy) |publisher=Create Space Independent Publishing Platform (December 20, 2016) |date=December 20, 2016 |isbn=978-1540868220 |edition=3 |location=USA |pages=84 |language=English}}</ref> Those with a fixed mindset tend to avoid challenges, give up easily, and focus on the outcome. They believe that their abilities are fixed, and effort has little value.<ref name="mylearningtools">{{Cite web |title=The Growth Mindset VS The Fixed Mindset - Social Emotional Learning (SEL) Tools |url=https://mylearningtools.org/the-growth-mindset-vs-fixed-mindset/ |access-date=2022-07-08 |website=mylearningtools.org}}</ref>

Those with a growth mindset believe that "intelligence can be developed", and their abilities can be increased by learning.<ref name="Bates" /> They tend to embrace challenges, persevere in the face of adversity, accept and learn from failure, focus on process rather than outcome, and see abilities as skills which are developed through effort.<ref name="mylearningtools" /> Feedback and failure are seen as opportunities to increase ability, signaling the "need to pay attention, invest effort, apply time to practice, and master the new learning opportunity".<ref name="Yousefi" />

[[Grit (personality trait)|Grit]], a personality trait combining determination and perseverance, is related to a growth mindset.<ref>Keown, S. R., & Bourke, B. (2019). A Qualitative Investigation of Fixed Versus Growth Mindsets of Third and Fourth Grade Students. ''Education'', ''140''(2), 51–58.</ref> Keown and Bourke discussed the importance of a growth mindset and grit. Their 2019 study found that people with lower economic status had a greater chance of success if they had a growth mindset and were willing to work through tribulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keown |first1=Stacey R. |last2=Bourke |first2=Brian |date=2019-12-22 |title=A Qualitative Investigation of Fixed Versus Growth Mindsets of Third and Fourth Grade Students. |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=00131172&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA611547960&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=Education |language=English |volume=140 |issue=2 |pages=51–59}}</ref>

Much of Dweck's research was related to the effect of a student's mindset on classroom performance. For students to develop a growth mindset, a nurturing classroom culture must be established with appropriate praise and encouragement.<ref name="Dweck1">{{cite journal |last1=Dweck |first1=Carol S. |title=Even Geniuses Work Hard |journal=Educational Leadership |date=September 2010 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=16–20}}</ref> According to Dweck, "Praising students for the process they have engaged in—the effort they applied, the strategies they used, the choices they made, the persistence they displayed, and so on—yields more long-term benefits than telling them they are 'smart' when they succeed".<ref name="Dweck1" /> Teachers need to design meaningful learning activities for their students: "The teacher should portray challenges as fun and exciting, while portraying easy tasks as boring and less useful for the brain".<ref name="Dweck1" />

A second strategy to promote a growth mindset in the classroom is more explicit, establishing personal goals, and having students "write about and share with one another something they used to be poor at and now are very good at."<ref name="Dweck1" /> Hinda Hussein studied the positive effect of reflective journal writing on students' growth mindset; journaling can improve a student's conceptual knowledge and enhance the understanding of their thoughts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hussein |first1=Hinda |title=Examining the Effects of Reflective Journals on Students' Growth Mindset: A Case Study of Tertiary Level EFL Students in the United Arab Emirates |journal=IAFOR Journal of Education |date=2018 |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=33–50|doi=10.22492/ije.6.2.03 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Dweck has identified the word "yet" as a valuable tool to assess learning. If a teacher hears students saying that they are not good at something or cannot do something, they should interject "not yet" to reinforce the idea that ability and motivation are fluid.<ref name="Dweck1" />

Dweck and [[Jo Boaler]] indicate a fixed mindset can lead to [[sex differences in education]], which can partially explain low achievement and participation by minority and female students.<ref name="Boaler">{{Cite journal|last=Boaler|first=Jo|date=2013|title=Ability and Mathematics: the mindset revolution that is reshaping education|url=http://www.youcubed.org/wp-content/uploads/14_Boaler_FORUM_55_1_web.pdf|journal=Forum|volume=55| issue = 1|pages=143–152|doi=10.2304/forum.2013.55.1.143}}</ref> Boaler builds on Dweck's research to show that "gender differences in mathematics performance only existed among fixed mindset students".<ref name="Boaler" /> Boaler and Dweck say that people with growth mindsets can gain knowledge. Boaler said, "The key growth mindset message was that effort changes the brain by forming new connections, and that students control this process. The growth mindset intervention halted the students' decline in grades and started the students on a new pathway of improvement and high achievement".{{sfn|Boaler|2013|p=5}}

L. S. Blackwell presented research in 2015 exploring whether growth mindsets can be promoted in minority groups.<ref name="Blackwell">{{Citation |last1=Blackwell |first1=Lisa S. |title=Intelligence as a Malleable Construct |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_18 |work=Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts |pages=263–282 |editor-last=Goldstein |editor-first=Sam |place=New York, NY |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4939-1562-0_18 |isbn=978-1-4939-1562-0 |access-date=2022-05-05 |last2=Rodriguez |first2=Sylvia |last3=Guerra-Carrillo |first3=Belén |editor2-last=Princiotta |editor2-first=Dana |editor3-last=Naglieri |editor3-first=Jack A.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Blackwell builds on Dweck's research, observing minority groups and finding that "students with a growth mindset had stronger learning goals than the fixed mindset students." These students "had much more positive attitudes toward effort, agreeing that 'when something is hard, it just makes me want to work more on it, not less{{'"}}. Students with a fixed mindset were more likely to say that "if you're not good at a subject, working hard won't make you good at it" and "when I work hard at something, it makes me feel like I'm not very smart".<ref name="Blackwell" />

Dweck's research on growth and fixed mindsets is useful in intervening with at-risk students, dispelling negative stereotypes in education held by teachers and students, understanding the impacts of self-theories on resilience, and understanding how praise can foster a growth mindset and positively impact student motivation.<ref>Veronikas, S., Shaughnessy, M.F. (2004). A reflective conversation with Carol Dweck. Gifted Education International, 19(1), 27-33.</ref> There has also been movement towards the application of Dweck's mindset research in non-academic environments, such as the workplace.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dweck |first=Carol S. |title=Mindset: The New Psychology of Success |publisher=Random House |year=2016}}</ref> Other scholars have conducted research building on her findings. A 2018 study by Rhew et al. suggested that a growth-mindset intervention can increase the motivation of adolescent special-education participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhew |first1=Emily |last2=Piro |first2=Jody S. |last3=Goolkasian |first3=Pauline |last4=Cosentino |first4=Patricia |date=2018 |title=The effects of a growth mindset on self-efficacy and motivation |journal=Cogent Education |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1080/2331186X.2018.1492337|doi-access=free}}</ref> A 2019 study by Wang et al. suggested that substance use has adverse effects on adolescent reasoning.<ref name="Wang">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cuicui |last2=Luo |first2=Jie |last3=Nie |first3=Peixin |last4=Wang |first4=Daoyang |title=Growth Mindset Can Reduce the Adverse Effect of Substance Use on Adolescent Reasoning |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=10 |pages=1852 |date=2019 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01852|pmid=31474906 |pmc=6705219 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Developing a growth mindset in these adolescents was shown to reduce this adverse effect. These studies illustrate how educators can intervene, encouraging a growth mindset, by allowing students to see that their behavior can be changed with effort.<ref name="Wang" /> Criticism has been directed at "growth mindset" and related research, however. Moreau et al. (2019) suggest "that overemphasizing the malleability of abilities and other traits can have negative consequences for individuals, science, and society."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moreau|first1=David|last2=Macnamara|first2=B|last3=Hambrick|first3=D|date=2019-02-01|title=Overstating the Role of Environmental Factors in Success: A Cautionary Note|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=28–33|doi=10.1177/0963721418797300|s2cid=149536001|url=http://psyarxiv.com/sv9pz/|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 2019 a larger [[randomized controlled trial]] by the [[Education Endowment Foundation]] for growth mindset training showed no significant increase in numeracy or literacy.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.niesr.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Changing-Mindsets_0-4.pdf |title=Changing Mindsets: Effectiveness Trial—Evaluation Report |author1=Folioano, Francesca |author2=Rolfe, Heather |author3=Buzzeo, Jonathan |author4=Runge, Johnny |author5=Wilkinson, David |date=July 2019 |publisher=The Education Endowment Foundation |location=London, England |page=43}}</ref> A 2024 study showed that growth mindset scales by Carol Dweck have [[psychometric]] comparability, however this study showed no connection between growth mindset and goal achievement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rammstedt |first1=Beatrice |last2=Grüning |first2=David J. |last3=Lechner |first3=Clemens M. |date=2024 |title=Measuring Growth Mindset |journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment |volume=40 |pages=84–95 |doi=10.1027/1015-5759/a000735 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Follow up research after the release of her book led Dweck to be quoted as saying "Nobody has a growth mindset in everything all the time." along with the acknowledgement of the reality of the false growth mindset, and the truer growth mindset.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gross-Loh |first=Christine |date=2016-12-16 |title=Don't Let Praise Become a Consolation Prize |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2016/12/how-praise-became-a-consolation-prize/510845/ |access-date=2023-08-09 |website=The Atlantic |language=en}}</ref> One of Dweck's concerns was that educators were giving praise based on effort alone, when the results gained did not merit praise. Researchers noted adults within a study "who agree with growth mindset, but do not behave as though they believe ability can change" as holding a false growth mindset.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barger |first1=Michael M. |last2=Xiong |first2=Yu |last3=Ferster |first3=Amanda E. |date=2022-07-01 |title=Identifying false growth mindsets in adults and implications for mathematics motivation |journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology |language=en |volume=70 |article-number=102079 |doi=10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102079 |issn=0361-476X|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Reshaping mindsets in students and educators}}Students and teachers ===
Elements of personality (such as sensitivity to mistakes and setbacks) may predispose toward a particular mindset, which can be developed and reshaped through interactions.<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008">Aldhous, P. (2008). Free your mind and watch it grow. New Scientist, 199(2670), 44-45.</ref> In a number of studies, Dweck and her colleagues noted that alterations in mindset could be achieved through "praising the process through which success was achieved",<ref>Cimpian, A., Aree, H.C., Markman, E.M., Dweck, C.S. (2007). Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivation. Association for Psychological Science, 18(4), 314-316.</ref> "having [college aged students] read compelling scientific articles that support one view or the other",<ref name="Aldhous, P. 2008" /> or teaching junior-high-school students "that every time they try hard and learn something new, their brain forms new connections that, over time, make them smarter."<ref>Dweck, C.S. (2007). The perils and promises of praise. Early Intervention at Every Age, 65(2), 34-39.</ref>

Much research in education focuses on a student's ability to adopt a growth mindset, and less attention is paid to teachers' mindsets and their influence on students. Hattie writes, "Differing mindsets, or assumptions, that teachers possess about themselves and their students play a significant role in determining their expectations, teaching practices, and how students perceive their own mindset."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hattie |first1=John |title=Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. |date=2012 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |location=New York}}</ref>

A study by Patrick and Joshi explored how teachers explain growth and fixed mindsets, with two major findings in 150 semi-structured interviews. First, they found that teachers' prior beliefs about learning and students influenced how they engaged with their mindsets.<ref name="Patrick">{{cite journal |last1=Patrick |first1=Susan Kemper |last2=Joshi |first2=Ela |title="Set in Stone" or "Willing to Grow"? Teacher sensemaking during a growth mindset initiative |journal=Teaching and Teacher Education |date=2019 |volume=83 |pages=156–167|doi=10.1016/j.tate.2019.04.009 |s2cid=155196575}}</ref> Second, they found that many teachers oversimplified growth and fixed mindsets as positive and negative traits.<ref name="Patrick" />

A study conducted by Fiona S. Seaton (2018) examined the impact of teacher training to influence mindset. The teachers in this study had six training sessions, and Seaton found that the sessions had an impact on their mindsets which was sustained three months afterward.<ref name="Seaton">{{cite journal |last1=Seaton |first1=Fiona S. |title=Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset |journal=Educational Psychology in Practice |date=2018 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=41–57|doi=10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333 |s2cid=149189021}}</ref> The results of this study suggest that adult mindsets are malleable, and can shift with appropriate supports.<ref name="Seaton" />

=== Benefit mindset ===
In 2015, Ash Buchanan and Margaret L. Kern proposed a ''benefit mindset'': an evolution of the fixed and growth mindsets.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buchanan|first1=Ashley|last2=Kern|first2=Margaret L.|date=2017-06-08|title=The benefit mindset: The psychology of contribution and everyday leadership|journal=International Journal of Wellbeing|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–11|doi=10.5502/ijw.v7i1.538|issn=1179-8602|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Global mindset ===
Originating from the study of organizational leadership and coinciding with the growth of [[multinational corporation]]s during the 1980s, organizations observed that executive effectiveness did not necessarily translate cross-culturally. A global mindset emerged as an explanation.<ref>Javidan, M., & Walker, J. L. (2013). ''Developing Your Global Mindset: The Handbook for Successful Global Leaders''. Edina, MN: Beaver's Pond Press.</ref> Cross-cultural leaders were hypothesized to need an additional skill, ability, or proficiency (a global mindset) to be effective regardless of culture or context.<ref>Perlmutter, H. V. (1969). The tortuous evolution of the multinational corporation. ''Columbia Journal of World Business'', 4(1), 9–18.</ref><ref>Rhinesmith, S. H. (1992). Global mindsets for global managers. ''Training & Development'', 46(10), 63–68.</ref> [[Cultural agility]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Caligiuri|first=Paula|title=Build Your Cultural Agility : the nine competencies you need to be a successful global professional.|date=2021|publisher=Kogan Page|isbn=978-1-78966-661-8|location=[S.l.]|oclc=1152067760}}</ref> refers to such a need. A defining characteristic of the study of global mindset is the variety with which scholars define it, but they typically agree that global mindset and its development increase global effectiveness for individuals and organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=French |first1=Robert P. |last2=Chang |first2=Heewon |date=2016 |title=Conceptual re-imagining of global "mindset": Knowledge as prime in the development of global leaders |url=http://journal-iostudies.org/sites/journal-iostudies.org/files/JIOS-ReviewEssay_GlobalMindset.pdf |journal=Journal of International Organizations Studies |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=49–62 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712211434/http://journal-iostudies.org/sites/journal-iostudies.org/files/JIOS-ReviewEssay_GlobalMindset.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> For instance, a study of Chinese SMEs found that managers with a strong global mindset tended to favour shared-control or integrated export channels, providing a concrete example of the importance of global mindset in business.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brouthers |first1=Keith D. |last2=Nakos |first2=George |last3=Lindlbauer |first3=Niklas |last4=Kalinić |first4=Igor |year=2025 |title=Export Channel Choice for SMEs: A Cognitive Perspective |journal=Thunderbird International Business Review |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=449–464 |doi=10.1002/tie.22436 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/tie.22436 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Abundance and scarcity ===
{{See also|The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Abundance mentality|l1=Abundance mentality}}
People with an abundance mindset believe that there are enough resources for everyone, and see the glass as half-full; those with a scarcity mindset believe that there is a limited number of resources, and see the glass as half-empty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hope |first=Joan |date=January 2022 |title=Adopt an abundance mindset to boost your leadership potential |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/dhe.31204 |journal=Disability Compliance for Higher Education |language=en |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=8 |doi=10.1002/dhe.31204 |s2cid=245376446 |issn=1086-1335|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Mehta and Zhu found that an "abundance mindset makes people think beyond established functionalities to explore broadly for solutions, thereby heightening creativity. In contrast, a scarcity mindset induces functional fixedness, thereby reducing creativity."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mehta |first1=Ravi |last2=Zhu |first2=Meng |date=2012 |editor-last=Gürhan-Canli |editor-first=Zeynep |editor2-last=Otnes |editor2-first=Cele |editor3-last=Zhu |editor3-first=Rui (Juliet) |title=Do the worst of times increase creativity?: Scarcity vs. abundance psychology and creativity |url=http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/1011833/volumes/v40/NA-40 |journal=NA - Advances in Consumer Research |volume=40 |pages=58–61}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Productive and defensive}}Productive and defensive mindsets ===
According to [[Chris Argyris]], organizations have two dominant mindsets: productive and defensive.<ref>{{cite book |last=Argyris |first=Chris |date=2004 |title=Reasons and Rationalizations: The Limits to Organizational Knowledge |location=Oxford; New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref name="Argyris">{{cite web|url=http://hbswk.hbs.edu/archive/4456.html|last1=Stark|first1=Mallory|last2=Argyris|first2=Chris|title=Surfacing Your Underground Organization |website=hbswk.hbs.edu |publisher=Baker Library, Harvard Business School|date=2004-11-01}} Interview with Chris Argyris.</ref> The productive mindset is hinged in logic, focused on knowledge and its certifiable results{{snd}}a decision-making mindset which is transparent and auditable.<ref name="Argyris" />

The defensive mindset is closed, self-protective and self-deceptive. It does not see the greater good, but centers on individual defense; truth, if perceived as harmful to the person concerned, would be denied. This may allow personal growth, but no organizational growth or development.<ref name="Argyris" />

=== Deliberative and implemental mindsets ===
The deliberative and implemental mindsets are part of the decision making process in goal setting and goal striving. When someone has a deliberative mindset, they are considering a variety of actions and have not yet settled on what they are going to do. This person will tend to be open to alternative options when presented and will explore ideas until they have decided upon a course of action. This mindset is connected to the idea of goal setting.<ref name="Reeve">{{Cite book |last=Reeve |first=Johnmarshall |title=Understanding Motivation and Emotion |publisher=Wiley |year=2018 |edition=7th |pages=203–211}}</ref>

After someone narrows down their options and makes a commitment to follow a particular path, they will have an implemental mindset. People with an implemental mindset are less open to alternative courses of action because they have already decided what they are going to do and now focus more energy on goal striving, rather than goal setting.<ref name="Reeve" />

The deliberative mindset has been recognized as important for coming to conclusions in order to make a well-planned goal, but it has negative consequences for goal striving once a goal is already in place. On the other hand, the implemental mindset helps people to focus their behavior in a particular direction; this can be detrimental for someone who has not spent sufficient time with a deliberative mindset.<ref name="Reeve" />

=== Promotion and prevention mindsets ===
The promotion and prevention mindsets are motivational orientations that are focused on the outcomes or consequences of behavior. People with a promotion mindset focus on achievement and accomplishment. Those with a prevention mindset pay closer attention to avoiding negative outcomes. They act more out of a sense of obligation and the fulfillment of duty than to seek any sort of reward. Both of these mindsets can be caused or influenced by individual disposition or by environmental stimuli. Those who are dispositional in a promotion mindset seek to make good things happen, and situations that encourage a promotion mindset are those in which there is a promise of gain. Those with a dispositional prevention mindset believe that they need to keep bad things from happening, and situations conducive to the prevention mindset are those in which the idea of duty is emphasized.<ref name="Reeve" />

Those with a promotion mindset are characterized as being eager and quick to act. They take initiative and move to cause improvements towards their ideal state. People with a prevention mindset are characterized as being cautious and careful, avoiding risks and any course of action that could potentially cause failure in reaching a goal.<ref name="Reeve" />

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=18em|
* [[Attitude (psychology)|Attitude]]
* [[Autonomous agency theory]]
* [[Basic belief]]
* [[Belief#Belief systems]]
* [[Einstellung effect]]
* [[Entrepreneurship]]
* [[Implicit theories of intelligence]]
* [[Intentionality]]
* [[Mental model]]
* [[Mental representation]]
* [[Paradigm]]
* [[Philosophy of life]]
* [[Propositional attitude]]
* [[Schema (psychology)]]
* [[Set (psychology)]]
* [[Viable system theory]]
* [[Victim mentality]]
* [[Worldview]]
}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{World view}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cognitive biases]]