View source for Mine reclamation

{{Short description|Restoration of land after mineral extraction}}
{{Globalize|1=article|2=United States, Germany|date=October 2021}}
{{multiple image
| footer    = A surface coal mine in Britain before and during the reclamation process
| width     = 200

| image1    = Opencast Coal Mine Near Plains - geograph.org.uk - 146152.jpg
| alt1      = A large pit of coal
| caption1 = in 2006

| image2    = Opencast near Plains - geograph.org.uk - 896802.jpg
| alt2      = A seeded field
|caption2 = in 2008
}}

'''Mine reclamation''' is the process of [[land modification|modifying land]] that has been [[mining|mined]] to restore it to an ecologically functional or economically usable state.  Although the process of mine reclamation occurs once mining is complete, the planning of mine reclamation activities may occur prior to a mine being permitted or started.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Weyer |first1=Vanessa D. |last2=de Waal |first2=Alta |last3=Lechner |first3=Alex M. |last4=Unger |first4=Corinne J. |last5=O'Connor |first5=Tim G. |last6=Baumgartl |first6=Thomas |last7=Schulze |first7=Roland |last8=Truter |first8=Wayne F. |date=2019-01-24 |title=Quantifying rehabilitation risks for surface-strip coal mines using a soil compaction Bayesian network in South Africa and Australia: To demonstrate the R2AIN Framework |url=https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ieam.4128 |journal=Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=190–208 |doi=10.1002/ieam.4128|pmid=30677215 |bibcode=2019IEAM...15..190W |hdl=2263/70645 |s2cid=59251358 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>  Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet a variety of goals, ranging from the restoration of productive [[ecosystem]]s to the creation of industrial and municipal resources. In the United States, mine reclamation is a regular part of modern mining practices.<ref>[[Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977]]</ref> Modern mine reclamation reduces the [[Environmental impact of mining|environmental effects of mining]].

Many abandoned mine sites have no reclamation works undertaken. The majority of mines throughout history have no stringent regulations applied.<ref name="mar">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Mine Area Remediation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Ecology |year=2008 |last1=Otte |first1=M L |last2=Jacob |first2=D L |pages=2397–2402 |publisher=Academic Press |doi=10.1016/B978-008045405-4.00073-2 |isbn=978-0-08-045405-4 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780080454054000732 |access-date=30 November 2023 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>  As a practice, mine reclamation began at the start of the 20th century.  Returning the [[landscape]] to its original state is not possible in all cases. In most cases the physical and chemical stabilization of mine [[waste]] is the limit of mine remediation.<ref name="mar"/>

==Reclamation processes==
{{missing information|section|german experience {{doi| 10.4141/cjss2010-063}}; repurposing of pit as water area|date=January 2023}}
As part of the life cycle of a [[surface coal mine]], completed mine areas must undergo rehabilitation. When mining ends, operators must restore the land to its approximate original contour (AOC) or leave the land graded and suitable for a “higher and better” post-mining land use (PMLU) that has been approved as part of the original mining permit application. Exceptions are provided when a community or surface owner is in need of flat or gently rolling terrain. Acceptable post-mining land uses include commercial, residential, recreational, agricultural or [[public facility]] improvements.

In [[Open-pit mining|open cut mines]] rocky material is used for backfilling the excavation.<ref name="lroc">{{cite book |last1=O. Valero |first1=Nelson |last2=C. Gómez |first2=Liliana |last3=Ramírez |first3=Ramiro |date=2021 |title=Modern Cartography Series Volume 10 |chapter=Chapter 7 - Land reclamation open cast coal mine under semiarid conditions—a field-based observation |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128238950000117 |publisher=Academic Press |page=155-171 |isbn=9780128238950}}</ref> A layer of soil that was stored in the premining is placed on top of the rocky material.  On top of this layer is placed a layer of [[topsoil]].  The final step is the restoration of [[vegetation]] and long-term development of [[Ecological succession|plant succession]].<ref name="lroc"/>

===Forestry Reclamation Approach===

Reforestation is a dominant way of post mining sites restoration.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|date=2019-01-01|title=Rehabilitating forest soils after disturbance|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444639981000136|journal=Developments in Soil Science|language=en|volume=36|pages=309–343|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-63998-1.00013-6|issn=0166-2481|last1=Prescott |first1=Cindy E. |last2=Frouz |first2=Jan |last3=Grayston |first3=Sue J. |last4=Quideau |first4=Sylvie A. |last5=Straker |first5=Justin |isbn=9780444639981 |s2cid=214319901 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Macdonald|first1=S. Ellen|last2=Landhäusser|first2=Simon M.|last3=Skousen|first3=Jeff|last4=Franklin|first4=Jennifer|last5=Frouz|first5=Jan|last6=Hall|first6=Sarah|last7=Jacobs|first7=Douglass F.|last8=Quideau|first8=Sylvie|date=2015-11-01|title=Forest restoration following surface mining disturbance: challenges and solutions|journal=New Forests|language=en|volume=46|issue=5|pages=703–732|doi=10.1007/s11056-015-9506-4|issn=1573-5095|doi-access=free|bibcode=2015NewFo..46..703M }}</ref> In some situation even spontaneous ecosystem development may result in reasonable forest cover<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2015-11-01|title=Development of canopy cover and woody vegetation biomass on reclaimed and unreclaimed post-mining sites|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0925857415301634|journal=Ecological Engineering|language=en|volume=84|pages=233–239|doi=10.1016/j.ecoleng.2015.09.027|issn=0925-8574|last1=Frouz |first1=Jan |last2=Dvorščík |first2=Petr |last3=Vávrová |first3=Alena |last4=Doušová |first4=Olga |last5=Kadochová |first5=Štěpánka |last6=Matějíček |first6=Luboš |bibcode=2015EcEng..84..233F |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Frouz|first1=Jan|last2=Mudrák|first2=Ondřej|last3=Reitschmiedová|first3=Erika|last4=Walmsley|first4=Alena|last5=Vachová|first5=Pavla|last6=Šimáčková|first6=Hana|last7=Albrechtová|first7=Jana|last8=Moradi|first8=Jabbar|last9=Kučera|first9=Jiří|date=2018-01-01|title=Rough wave-like heaped overburden promotes establishment of woody vegetation while leveling promotes grasses during unassisted post mining site development|journal=Journal of Environmental Management|volume=205|pages=50–58|doi=10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.09.065|issn=1095-8630|pmid=28964974|bibcode=2018JEnvM.205...50F }}</ref> but in most cases specific restoration approaches are used.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Within the past decade, a new approach to [[reforestation]]—the Forestry Reclamation Approach, or FRA—has been promoted by state mining agencies and the [[Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement]] (OSMRE) as an appropriate and desirable method for reclaiming coal-mined land to support forested land uses under SMCRA. This approach was developed through and is supported by research conducted through the [[Powell River (Tennessee River)|Powell River]] Project,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prp.cses.vt.edu/|title=Powell River Project|first=C. E.|last=Zipper|website=www.prp.cses.vt.edu}}</ref> a cooperative research and education program focused on topics relevant to [[coal mining]] and reclamation in [[Appalachia]].<ref>Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative, Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 1 (http://arri.osmre.gov/FRA/Advisories/FRA_No.1.7-18-07.Revised.pdf)</ref>

The FRA establishes guidelines for achieving successful reforestation on mined lands, and can be summarized in the following five steps:

# Create a suitable rooting medium for good tree growth that is no less than four feet deep and made of topsoil, weathered [[sandstone]], and/or the best available material.
# Loosely grade the topsoil or topsoil substitute established in step one to create a non-compacted growth medium.
# Use groundcovers that are compatible with growing trees.
# Plant two types (or more) of trees: early [[ecological succession|successional]] species for wildlife and [[soil stability]], then commercially valuable [[Timber|crop tree]]s.
# Use proper [[tree planting]] techniques.

==United States==
[[File:Northeast from Providence Quaker Chapel.jpg|thumb|right|Reclaimed strip mines in southwestern Pennsylvania]]

Prior to 1977, there were no federal laws regulating the surface mining aspect of the coal [[mining industry]]. Although many states with mining activity had passed laws to regulate operations, the laws varied from state to state and enforcement was inconsistent. Even as states began to enact more stringent regulatory legislation after World War II, they often lacked the funding to administer and enforce the legislation. Guidelines for post-mining reclamation were generally less stringent than they are today. For example, [[Colorado]] began a voluntary reclamation program in 1965, in which the mine operators were expected to act on their own to restore mined lands.<ref>Colorado Division of Minerals and Geography, Mine Reclamation in Colorado: An Overview (http://mining.state.co.us/pdfFiles/reg.pdf)</ref>

=== Under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 ===

The [[Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act]] of 1977 (SMCRA) is the primary federal law that regulates the environmental effects of coal mining in the United States.  It established permitting guidelines for existing and future coal mines as well as a trust fund to finance the reclamation of [[abandoned mine]]s. SMCRA balances the need to protect the environment from the effects of surface coal mining with the Nation's need for coal as an essential energy source. It ensures that coal mining operations are conducted in an environmentally responsible manner and that the land is adequately reclaimed during and following the mining process. Most coal-mining states now have the primary responsibility to regulate surface coal mining on lands within their jurisdiction, with the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement (OSMRE) performing an oversight role.<ref>Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, Regulating Coal Mines (http://www.osmre.gov/rcm/rcm.shtm)</ref>

Under SMCRA, prior to receiving a mining permit, operators must present a detailed and comprehensive plan for reclaiming the land after mining has been completed. The reclamation plan must include, among other criteria, the pre-mining condition and use of the land to be mined; the proposed use of the land after reclamation; an estimated time table for the reclamation; and the steps that will be taken to comply with the relevant [[air quality|air]] and [[water quality]] laws. In addition to providing the reclamation plan, operators must also post a performance bond to ensure that monies will be available to complete the reclamation if the operator goes out of business prior to finishing the reclamation or is otherwise unable to complete the reclamation. The amount of the bond must equal the amount of the proposed reclamation plan.<ref>U.S. Code, Title 30 – Mineral Lands and Mining, Subchapter 1258. Reclamation Plan Requirements (http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/search/pagedetails.action;jsessionid=JpQ3T3CRlm3vc0Vn2ynLGRMN9nj1VkTTvhs9K8GdKM6mbGcXdQWh!1067014512!-1849986691?browsePath=Title+30%2FChapter+25%2FSubchapter+V%2FSec.+1258&granuleId=USCODE-2010-title30-chap25-subchapV-sec1258&packageId=USCODE-2010-title30&collapse=true&fromBrowse=true)</ref> The bond is not released to the operator until after the state or federal regulatory office has concluded that the reclamation is successful, which could be over 10 years after the reclamation process has been completed.

===Abandoned Mine Lands Program===
Funding for the reclamation of abandoned mines is accomplished through a coal production tax. Mine operators must pay a tax of $0.12 per ton for underground mined coal and $0.28 per ton for surfaced mined coal; the proceeds from this tax are put into the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Fund (created by SMCRA) to pay for the reclamation of abandoned mines. A percentage of the fund is distributed to states with approved reclamation programs for their projects, and the remaining monies are used by the federal government through the OSMRE to reclaim abandoned mines in states without active programs. As of December 15, 2011, OSMRE has provided more than $7.2 billion to reclaim more than 295,000 acres of hazardous high-priority abandoned mine sites and for other purposes of abandoned mine lands have been reclaimed through the OSMRE fund since 1977.<ref>Department of the Interior: December 15, 2011 News Release (http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/Secretary-Salazar-and-Director-Pizarchik-Announce-485-Million-in-Grants-to-States-and-Tribes-to-Clean-Up-Abandoned-Coal-Mines.cfm)</ref>

==Germany==
{{missing information|section|legal status, extent of practice|date=January 2023}}
{{cleanup section|reason=Undue? weight on a single institute|date=January 2023}}
In view of the end of coal mining in [[Germany]] in 2018, the ''Research Institute of Post-Mining'' (FZN) was set up at the [[Technische Hochschule Georg Agricola]] (THGA) in [[Bochum]] in 2015.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.thga.de/en/research-and-transfer/research-facilities/research-institute-of-post-mining/profile/|title=Research Institute of Post-Mining|website=www.thga.de|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902132524/https://www.thga.de/en/research-and-transfer/research-facilities/research-institute-of-post-mining/profile/|archive-date=2019-09-02|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rag-stiftung.de/foerderung/wissenschaft/forschungszentrum-nachbergbau|title=RAG-Stiftung: Forschungszentrum Nachbergbau|website=www.rag-stiftung.de|language=de|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref> It is the very first institute of its kind in the world, which takes a holistic view of the consequences of mining, and pools the know-how required, in order to shape the post-mining period from a technical, economic and environmental perspective. Here, the focus is placed on the scientific accompaniment of the so-called eternity tasks of coal-mining in the areas of the [[Ruhr]], the [[Saarland|Saar]] as well as in [[Ibbenbüren]], where mining, geology, geotechnical engineering, hydrogeology, electrical and information technology experts as well as mining surveyors work together across the different disciplines.<ref name=":0" />

The Research Institute of Post-Mining develops monitoring processes both at the pithead and below ground and prepares the scientific principles for a sustainable pit water concept. In this respect, the institute works closely with mining and old companies, as well as authorities, water boards and regional authorities, industrial firms and universities. It also runs its own knowledge management project, which is intended to make mining and post-mining know-how available in a database.<ref name=":0" />

Every two years the Research Institute of Post-Mining, together with the Arnsberg local council, organise the “NACHBergbauzeit in NRW” conference (POST-mining era in NRW).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://idw-online.de/en/news711748|title=NACHBergbauzeit in NRW: THGA und Bezirksregierung Arnsberg diskutieren Aufgaben und Perspektiven|website=idw-online.de|access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref>

Within the Research Institute of Post-Mining, the THGA also currently offers the world's only [[Master's degree]] course in ''Geotechnical Engineering and Post-Mining'', which combines science and engineering, and encompasses rock mechanics, [[economic geology]] as well as hydrology, surveying and legal issues.

==See also==

* [[Clean Water Act]]
* [[Mine closure]]
* [[Environmental remediation]]
* [[Holistic management]]
* [[Land rehabilitation]]
* [[Mine closure planning]]
* [[Office of Surface Mining]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.osmre.vid-009|name=A Page In Time}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060718170400/http://www.mii.org/recl.php Mineral Information Institute (reclamation stories)]
*[http://www.osmre.gov/osmaml.htm Abandoned Mine Land Reclamation (US Dept. of the Interior)]
*[http://www.asmr.us/ American Society of Mining & Reclamation]
*[https://purl.fdlp.gov/GPO/gpo35893 Interim Inventory and Assessment of Abandoned Mineral Lands in the National Park System]

{{Mining techniques}}

[[Category:Mine reclamation| ]]
[[Category:Environmental mitigation]]