View source for Misti

{{short description|Stratovolcano in Peru}}
{{other uses}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Misti
| photo = Volcano_Misti%2C_Peru.jpg
| photo_alt = A brown conical mountain with a white summit rises above houses and parks
| photo_caption = Misti as viewed from [[Arequipa]]
| elevation_m = 5822
| elevation_ref = 
| prominence_m = <!--1785-->
| prominence_ref = <!--<ref name="PeakVisor">{{Cite web|url=https://peakvisor.com/peak/el-misti-1swslh.html|title=El Misti|author=PeakVisor|access-date=6 November 2024}}</ref>-->
| range = [[Andes]]
| parent_peak = 
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| country = [[Peru]]
| region_type = [[Regions of Peru|Region]]
| region = [[Arequipa Region|Arequipa]]
| map = Peru
| map_alt = Misti is in southern Peru
| map_caption = Peru
| label_position = left
| coordinates = {{Coord|16|17|47|S|71|24|38|W|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = 
| topo = 
| type = [[Stratovolcano]]
| volcanic_zone = [[Andean Volcanic Belt#Central Volcanic Zone|Central Volcanic Zone]]
| last_eruption = 
| map_size = 240
}}

'''Misti''' is a [[dormant volcano]] located in the [[Andes]] mountains of southern [[Peru]], rising above Peru's second-largest city, [[Arequipa]]. It is a conical volcano with two [[summit crater]]s, one nested within the other. The inner crater contains a lava structure (either a [[volcanic plug]] or a [[lava dome]]) with active [[fumarole|vents that emit volcanic gases]]. The summit of the volcano lies on the margin of the outer crater at {{convert|5822|m}} above sea level. [[Snow]] covers the summit but does not persist; there are no [[glacier]]s. The upper slopes of the volcano are barren, while the lower slopes are covered by bush vegetation.

The volcano developed over four different stages. During each stage, [[lava flow]]s and lava domes built up a mountain, whose summit then collapsed to form a [[caldera|bowl-shaped depression]]. The volcano is part of a volcano group with [[Chachani]] to the northwest and [[Pichu Pichu]] to the southeast, which developed on top of the debris of other volcanoes. Numerous intense [[explosive eruption]]s took place during the last 50,000 years and covered the surrounding terrain with [[tephra]] (rocks fragmented by volcanic eruptions). The last two significant eruptions were 2,000 years ago and in 1440–1470{{nbsp}}[[AD]]; since then, phases of increased [[fumarolic]]{{efn|Vents that release hot gases.{{sfn|Chen|Ng|Zhang|Tian|2020|loc=Fumarole Landscape}}}} activity have sometimes been mistaken for eruptions.

Misti is one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world, as it lies less than {{convert|20|km}} from Arequipa. The city's population exceeds one{{nbsp}}million people and its northeastern [[suburb]]s have expanded onto the slopes of the volcano. The narrow valleys on western and southern flanks are particularly threatening, as [[mudflow]]s and [[pyroclastic flow|flows consisting of hot volcanic debris]] could be channelled into the urban area and into important infrastructure, like [[hydropower plant]]s. Even moderate eruptions can deposit [[volcanic ash]] and tephra over most of the city. Until 2005, there was little awareness or monitoring of the volcano. Since then, the Peruvian Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Institute ([[INGEMMET]]) has set up a [[volcano observatory]] in Arequipa, and run public awareness campaigns on the dangers of renewed eruptions and published a hazard map. The [[Inca]] viewed the volcano as a threat and during the 1440–1470 eruption offered [[human sacrifice]]s ({{lang|qu|[[capacocha]]}}) on the summit of Misti and neighbouring mountains to placate the volcano; the [[mummies]] on Misti are the largest Inca human sacrifice known.

== Name and settlement history ==

The name "Misti" originates from either the [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan language]] or Spanish. It means 'mixed', '[[mestizo]]' or 'white' and may refer to the volcano's snow cover. The indigenous names are {{lang|qu|Putina}},{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=108}}{{sfn|Holmer|1960|p=206}} which means 'mountain that growls'{{sfn|Love|2017|p=279}} in the [[Puquina language]], while the [[Aymara language]] terms for Misti are ''Anukara''{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=12}} or {{lang|ay|Anuqara}}{{sfn|Love|2017|p=62}} ('dog'). All three terms refer to the dog-like appearance of the volcano when viewed from the Andean Plateau, known as the [[Altiplano]].{{sfn|Love|2017|p=279}} The volcano was originally known as Putina and only became known as Misti beginning in the 1780s.{{sfn|Love|2017|p=25}} Other names for the volcano are Guagua-Putina, El Volcán ('the volcano'), San Francisco and Volcán de Arequipa ('Arequipa volcano').{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Synonyms & Subfeatures}}{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=8}} Some [[Spaniards|Spanish]] chroniclers have confused it with other volcanoes like [[Ubinas]] and [[Huaynaputina]].{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=107}}

Settlement of the region began more than 1,500 years ago.{{efn|In the [[Middle Horizon]] between 400-1130 AD, most likely.{{sfn|Love|2017|p=30}}}} It is unclear whether the [[Inca civilization|Inca]] were the first Altiplano political entities to influence the region or whether previous cultures played a role,{{sfn|Love|2017|p=30}} but by the arrival of the Spanish, the area was densely populated,{{sfn|Love|2017|p=36}} and there were canals, roads and buildings where Arequipa is today.{{sfn|Harpel|Kleier|Aguilar|2021|p=4}} The city itself was founded on 15 August 1540,{{sfn|Love|2017|p=40}} and Misti is featured on its seal.{{sfn|Bailey|Pickering|1906|p=10}} The volcano is the [[Hausberg|house mountain]] of Arequipa,{{sfn|Love|2017|p=26}} whose residents view themselves as the offspring of the mountain.{{sfn|Bailey|Pickering|1906|p=10}}

=== Human geography ===

Misti lies north of Arequipa,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} the second-largest city in Peru,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=1}} and is the best known volcano of Peru.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}} The [[Inca empire]]'s Condesuyos province included the volcano;{{sfn|Ceruti|2015|p=5}} presently Misti is in the [[Arequipa Department]].{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=1}} The mountain is visible from the [[Pacific Ocean]].{{sfn|Boza Cuadros|2022|p=300}}

The volcano rises about {{convert|3.5|km}} above Arequipa.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} Dirt roads heading from Arequipa to [[Chivay]] run along the northern/western foot of Misti, and those to [[Juliaca]] along the southern/eastern foot.{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2012|p=118}} [[Inca road system|Inca roads]] from the Arequipa area passed by the volcano.{{sfn|Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Arequipa – Ministerio de Cultura|2015|p=68}} There are numerous [[dam]]s on the Rio Chili, including the Aguada Blanca Dam and reservoir north of the volcano, El Frayle (both north of the volcano){{sfn|Carpio|Quispe|Peña|Sulca|2022|p=64}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=17}} and Hidroeléctrica Charcani I, II, III, IV, V and VI{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|Antayhua Vera|Espinoza Oscanoa|Ramos Palomino|2009|p=3}} along the northwestern foot of Misti;{{sfn|Carpio|Quispe|Peña|Sulca|2022|p=64}} their [[hydroelectric power plant]]s provide electricity to Arequipa.{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}}

Italian geographer {{Interlanguage link|Gustavo Cumin|it}} in 1925 stated that three small man-made structures in the crater had been known since 1677, but noted that their origin was unknown.{{sfn|Cumin|1925|p=403}} Inca ceremonial platforms on the summit associated with [[human sacrifice]]s were probably destroyed by human activity around 1900.{{sfn|Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Arequipa – Ministerio de Cultura|2015|p=82}} 

In 1893{{efn|Four years earlier, a team headed by Bailey had evaluated Misti as a potential site for an [[astronomical observatory]].{{sfn|Baum|1993|p=86}}}},{{sfn|Bailey|Pickering|1906|p=iii}} professor [[Solon Irving Bailey]] from the [[Harvard College Observatory]] installed what was then the world's highest [[weather station]] on Misti.{{sfn|Ward|1901b|p=814}}{{sfn|Fergusson|1895|p=117}} The Misti observatory was in its time the highest permanently inhabited location on Earth.{{sfn|Hueppe|1903|p=451}} The selection of the volcano was motivated by the clear, calm atmosphere at Misti.{{sfn|Jones|Boyd|1971|p=296}} The station was one of several stations built at the time to investigate the atmosphere at such high altitudes;{{sfn|Süring|1895|p=4}} it was also used for research on the response of the human body to high altitudes{{sfn|Ward|1901b|p=814}} and on the [[Solar eclipse of April 16, 1893|solar eclipse of 16 April 1893]].{{sfn|Harvard College Observatory|1895|p=50}} Another weather station, named "Mt. Blanc Station",{{sfn|Bailey|Pickering|1906|p=vi}} was installed at the base of the volcano{{sfn|Ward|1901a|p=48}}{{sfn|Harvard College Observatory|1895|p=138}} after 1888.{{sfn|Reid|1918|p=752}} Both were shut down in 1901 when Harvard College Observatory decided to only maintain a station in Arequipa;{{sfn|Ward|1901a|p=48}}{{sfn|Harvard College Observatory|1895|p=138}} storms have since erased any trace of the summit observatory.{{sfn|Sekido|Elliot|1985|p=174}} Observation of [[physics]] phenomena, such as [[cosmic ray]] measurements,{{sfn|Compton|1932|p=682}} were sporadically carried out on Misti during the 20th century.{{sfn|Sekido|Elliot|1985|p=174}}

== Geography and geomorphology ==

=== Regional ===

The volcanoes of Peru are part of the Andean [[Central Volcanic Zone]] (CVZ),{{sfn|Legros|Thouret|Gourgaud|1995|p=43}} one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes; the others are the [[Northern Volcanic Zone]], the [[Southern Volcanic Zone]] and the [[Austral Volcanic Zone]].{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=2}} The CVZ extends for {{convert|1000|km}}{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=18}} from southern Peru through Bolivia to northern Argentina and Chile.{{sfn|Pritchard|Simons|2004|p=3}} Volcanoes are numerous in the CVZ, but most are poorly known due to the low population density of much of the Central Andes.{{sfn|Pritchard|Simons|2004|p=2}} Several Peruvian volcanoes have been active since the [[Spanish conquest]]: the [[Andagua volcanic field]], Huaynaputina, [[Sabancaya]] and Ubinas, and possibly [[Ticsani]], [[Tutupaca]] and [[Yucamane]].{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} Other Peruvian volcanoes in the CVZ are [[Ampato]], [[Casiri (Tacna)|Casiri]], [[Coropuna]], [[Huambo volcanic field]], [[Purupuruni]] and [[Sara Sara]];{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=18}} in total, there are more than 400 volcanoes in Peru but most are eroded to the point of being hard to recognize.{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=45}} Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru, having erupted more than 23 times since 1550.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2008|p=3}} The 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina claimed more than 1,000 casualties; recent eruptions of Sabancaya 1987–1998 and Ubinas 2006–2007 had severe economic and social impacts on the local populations.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=4}}

=== Local ===

==== General outline ====

The volcano is a young, symmetric{{efn|It has been christened the ''[[Mount Fuji|Fuji]]'' of Peru.{{sfn|McEwan|1922|p=77}} It is notably asymmetric, with the western side more heavily eroded and featuring older rocks than the eastern side.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}}}} cone with 30° degree steep slopes.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} The summit features nested [[summit crater]]s: The outer crater is {{convert|835|to|950|m}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=10}}{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=3}} wide and {{convert|120|m}} deep.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=3}} There is a gap in the southwestern rim, almost to the bottom of the crater;{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=36}} otherwise the inner crater walls are nearly vertical{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=3}} and consist of small sphere-shaped pieces of volcanic debris called [[lapilli]],{{sfn|Chen|Ng|Zhang|Tian|2020|loc=Lapilli}} lava and [[volcanic ash]].{{sfn|Cumin|1925|p=402}} The western rim of the outer crater is about {{convert|150|m}} higher than the southern.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} The {{convert|550|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} and {{convert|200|m|ft|adj=mid|-deep}} inner crater{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=10}} is in the southeastern part of the outer crater.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=4}} The inner crater cuts through metre-thick ash, [[scoria]]{{efn|Scoria are volcanic rocks densely packed with pores.{{sfn|Chen|Ng|Zhang|Tian|2020|loc=Volcanic Scoria}}}} deposits{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} and historical [[lava dome]]s; it is rimmed by scoria.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=10}} In the crater is a {{convert|120|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide}} and {{convert|15|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} [[volcanic plug]]{{efn|A volcanic plug is a body of rock with the shape of a pipe, forming a former volcanic conduit.{{sfn|Manutchehr-Danai|2009|loc=volcanic plug}}}}{{sfn|Tort|Finizola|2005|p=285}} or lava dome{{efn|A mound formed by cooled viscous lava flows.{{sfn|Sigurdsson|Houghton|McNutt|Rymer|2015|p=307}}}}.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} It is covered with cracks,{{sfn|Cumin|1925|p=403}} boulders and fumarolic [[sulfur]] deposits{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=4}} and features active [[fumaroles]]{{efn|Fumaroles are vents that emit volcanic gases.{{sfn|Chen|Ng|Zhang|Tian|2020|loc=Fumarole Landscape}}}}.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} The highest point of the volcano is at {{convert|5822|m}}{{efn|An altitude of {{convert|5850|m}} has also been proposed.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=16}}<!-- Discrepancies between elevation measurements are probably due to different measurement techniques and the use of different [[datum]]s.{{sfn|Cumin|1925|p=401}}{{sfn|Bailey|Pickering|1906|p=3}}-->}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}} on the northwestern outer crater rim; an iron cross marks the highest point.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=3}} Other mountains of the [[Cordillera Occidental (Peru)|Western Cordillera]], including Ubinas and [[Pichu Pichu]], can be seen from the summit.{{sfn|Seltzer|1990|p=139}}

[[File:P1020738 El Misti Krater.jpg|thumb|The inner crater of Misti (2005)|alt=A crater-like depression with grey and white rocks]]
The volcano is about {{convert|20|km}} wide{{sfn|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|Ramos|2004|p=344}} and rises abruptly from the surrounding terrain.{{sfn|Hitchcock|1941|p=500}} Estimates of the mountain's volume range from {{convert|150|km3}} to more likely values of {{convert|90|km3}}{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=4}} or {{convert|40|km3}}.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} The [[stratovolcano]]{{efn|A stratovolcano is a steep cone of volcanic origin formed by rock fragments and viscous material.{{sfn|Pinti|2011|loc=Volcano, Planetary}}}} is made up of [[Pyroclastic rock|pyroclastic]] rocks and stubby [[lava flow]]s, which form a {{convert|2.2|km|mi|adj=mid|-thick}} pile.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} On the northwestern foot, there is an outcrop of [[rhyolite]] named "Hijo de Misti" ("son of Misti"),{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=270}} while an older, eroded stratovolcano ("Misti 1"), lies underneath the Misti cone.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} Misti is surrounded by a fan of volcanic debris,{{efn|This fan consists of [[mudflow]], [[pyroclastic flow]] and [[tephra]]{{efn|Tephra are fragmented rocks produced by volcanic eruptions.{{sfn|Chen|Ng|Zhang|Tian|2020|loc=Pyroclastics; Tephra}}}} deposits.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=4}}}} which covers an area of {{convert|200|km2}} on Misti and extends {{convert|25|km}} from the volcano.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} On the southern side, the volcano is cut by {{convert|20 to 80|m|ft|adj=mid|-deep}} [[ravine]]s,{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2008|p=4}} while the northern side is flatter.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} [[Dune]] fields and volcanic ash deposits extend for {{convert|20|km}} northeast of Misti; they are formed by wind-blown ash.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Photo Gallery}}{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=4}} The terrain between Arequipa and Misti is initially gently sloping, before reaching the steep flanks of the cone.{{sfn|Hatch|1886|p=311}}

Volcanoes often experience the collapse of part of the cone, a so-called [[sector collapse]], which form a landslide ("[[debris avalanche]]").{{sfn|Hargitai|Kereszturi|2015|loc=Composite Volcano}} There are no obvious traces of such on Misti,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} except on its western foot{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=4}} and a narrow chute on the northwestern flank of Misti that reaches its summit.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=5}} Two debris avalanche deposits lie on the southeastern and southwestern-southern side of Misti, extending {{convert|25|km}} and {{convert|12|km}} from the volcano respectively. The first is made up by hummock-shaped hills of mixed debris and covers an area of {{convert|100|km2}}; the second forms a flat-topped terrain with an area of about {{convert|40|km2}} on both sides of the Rio Chili.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}}

==== Hydrology and glaciology ====

The Rio Chili{{efn|A river which carries water year-round.{{sfn|Pallares|Fabre|Thouret|Bacconnet|2015|p=644}}}} rounds the northern and western sides of Misti,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} where it has cut the {{convert|20|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} and {{convert|150|-|2600|m|ft|adj=mid|-deep}}{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=8}} Charcani Gorge.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=4}} From southeast to southwest the Quebrada Carabaya, Quebrada Honda, Quebrada Grande, Quebrada Agua Salada, Quebrada Huarangual, Quebrada Chilca, Quebrada San Lazaro and Quebrada Pastores drain the mountain. They eventually join to the Rio Chili west and Rio Andamayo south of Misti;{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|loc=p.4, figures}} the Andamayo joins the Chili south of Arequipa.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Reports, figure 3}} Quebrada San Lazaro and Quebrada Huarangual have formed [[alluvial fan|fan-like deposits of material carried by the streams]] at the foot of the volcano.{{sfn|Kipfer|2021|loc=Alluvial Fan}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} The quebradas (dry valleys) carry water during the wet season in November–December and March–April.{{sfn|Pallares|Fabre|Thouret|Bacconnet|2015|p=644}}

The [[snowline]] lies above{{efn|In 1990, the [[snowline]] was above {{convert|5800|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Seltzer|1990|p=139}} Mid-20th century sources discuss a snowline below its summit,{{sfn|Hastenrath|1967|p=541}} and differences between the sides of the volcano and their causes,{{sfn|Hastenrath|1967|pp=544-545}} but temporary snow after precipitation can make the snowline appear lower than it actually is.{{sfn|Dornbusch|2000|p=1153}}}} the summit.{{sfn|Dornbusch|1998|p=49}} During December–August,{{sfn|Sandri|Thouret|Constantinescu|Biass|2014|p=8}} snow can cover an area of {{convert|1|-|7|km2}} on the upper cone{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=216}} and be mistaken for [[glacier]]s,{{sfn|Dornbusch|2000|p=1154}} but does not persist over time.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=281}} Unlike neighbouring Chachani, Misti lacks any evidence of [[glacial]] or [[periglacial]]{{efn|Although [[patterned ground]] and [[solifluction]] lobes were observed in the crater.{{sfn|Richter|1981|p=16}}}} processes, probably due to its inner heat.{{sfn|Andrés|Palacios|Úbeda|Alcalá|2011|p=465}} Whether there was past glaciation is unclear;{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=37}}{{sfn|Legros|Thouret|Gourgaud|1995|p=46}} a thin ice cover may not have left traces on the volcano.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=37}} Traces of glacial erosion{{sfn|Legros|Thouret|Gourgaud|1995|p=46}} like [[cirque]]s,{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2014|p=107}} evidence of [[Phreatomagmatic eruption|volcanic activity involving magma-water interaction]] and [[mudflow]]s imply that Misti was [[glaciated]] during the first phase of the [[last glacial maximum]] of the Central Andes 43,000 years ago.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=4}}{{sfn|Thouret|Legros|Navarro|Suni|1997|p=500}}

== Geology ==

=== Regional setting ===
Off the western coast of Peru, the [[Nazca Plate]] [[subduct]]s (descends) under South America{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} at a rate of {{convert|5|-|6|cm/year|in/year}}.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} The subduction is responsible for the volcanism of the CVZ,{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=18}} as the downgoing [[Slab (geology)|slab]] releases fluids that [[metasomatism|chemically modify]] the [[Earth's mantle|mantle]] situated above the slab, causing it to produce melts.{{sfn|Rivera Porras|Martin|Gourgaud|Le Pennec|2010|p=1144}} Most Peruvian volcanoes have produced [[potassium]]-rich [[andesitic]] magmas, derived from the mantle and further modified by [[Fractional crystallization (geology)|fractional crystallization]]{{efn|The separation of crystals with particular composition from the melt{{sfn|White|2018|loc=Fractional Crystallization and Assimilation}}}} and the entry of material from the often thick [[Earth's crust|crust]] into the magma.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=18}}

Volcanic activity in southern Peru goes back to the [[Jurassic]],{{efn|Between circa 201.3 and 145 million years ago.{{sfn|ICC|2018}}}}{{sfn|Rivera|Martin|Le Pennec|Thouret|2017|p=241}} but the currently recognizable [[volcanic arc]]s in Peru are more recent: the Tacaza Arc formed 30–15 million years ago, the Lower Barroso 9–4 million, the Upper Barroso 3–1 million and the Pleistocene-Holocene Frontal Arc during the past one million years. Two distinct episodes of uplift took place 24–13 and 9–4 million years ago, and were accompanied by the emplacement of numerous large [[ignimbrite]]s{{efn|Ignimbrites are volcanic deposits that consist of [[pumice]] embedded in ash and crystals, and which are deposited by [[pyroclastic flow]]s.{{sfn|de Silva|Bailey|Mandt|Viramonte|2010|p=461}}}}.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=15}}

During the Cretaceous–[[Paleogene]], the Toquepala Group of volcanics was emplaced. The Tacaza Arc is the source of the Huaylillas [[Formation (geology)|Formation]] and the Barroso arc of the Sencca Formation.{{sfn|Lebti|Thouret|Wörner|Fornari|2006|p=252}} The Nazca [[fracture zone]] on the Nazca Plate projects under Misti.{{sfn|Cacya|Mamani|2009|p=92}}

=== Local setting ===

[[File:Ubinas and Misti.jpg|thumb|Aerial picture of Ubinas with Misti in the back (2015)|alt=A landscape with mountains and a lonely cloud, seen from space]]
Misti is part of the Andean Western Cordillera.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=2}} It is the youngest of a group of three [[Plio-Pleistocene]] volcanoes;{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2008|p=4}} the others are the dormant [[Chachani]] {{convert|15|km}} northwest and extinct Pichu Pichu {{convert|20|km}} southeast.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=1}} This group lies at the margin of the Altiplano,{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} next to the {{convert|600|km2|mi2|adj=mid}}{{sfn|Pallares|Fabre|Thouret|Bacconnet|2015|p=643}} [[tectonic depression]] of Arequipa where the city lies.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=3}} The depression has dimensions of {{convert|30|x|15|km}} and appears to be formed by [[Fault (geology)|fault]] activity.{{sfn|Lebti|Thouret|Wörner|Fornari|2006|p=254}} The terrain under Misti slopes south and this might make the mountain slip southward over time.{{sfn|Gonzales|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|2014|p=142}} Another group of volcanoes lies south of Chachani: The Yura volcanic group with [[Cerro Nicholson]].{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=47}}

A northwest-southeast trending fault system includes the Huanca fault at Chachani and the Chili fault on Misti.{{sfn|Cabrera-Pérez|Centeno|Soubestre|D'Auria|2022|p=3}} The faults were active during the [[Holocene]], offsetting [[tephra]] deposits,{{sfn|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|Ramos|2004|p=348}} and may have provided a pathway for magma to ascend and form the volcanoes of Arequipa.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=3}}{{sfn|Cabrera-Pérez|Centeno|Soubestre|D'Auria|2022|p=6}} One of these faults, the Incapuquio fault, produced two earthquakes that coincide with Misti's last eruptions.{{sfn|Benavente|Audin|Palomino|Rosell|2025|p=14}} Other faults include north- and northeast-trending faults, which are inactive but could have influenced the formation of the Rio Chili [[canyon]].{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=1}} The crust under the volcano is {{convert|55|km}} thick.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=4}}

=== Basement ===

The [[basement (geology)|basement]] under Misti is exposed in the Rio Chili gorge. It consists of [[Proterozoic]] rocks of the [[Arequipa-Antofalla|Arequipa Terrane]], which are more than a billion years old, Triassic-Jurassic sediments of the Chocolate Formation, Socosani Formation{{sfn|Cacya|Mamani|2009|pp=93–94}}{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=46}} and Yura Group, and the Cretaceous–Paleogene La Caldera [[batholith]].{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=17}} The batholith forms the hills south of Arequipa.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=21}} These formations are covered by [[rhyodacitic]] ignimbrites{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} known as "sillars".{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=2}} They are between 13.8 and 2.4 million years old;{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} the older ignimbrites are part of the Huaylillas Formation and the younger of the Barroso Arc.{{sfn|Cacya|Mamani|2009|p=94}} Individual ignimbrites are exposed in the Rio Chili gorge{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2009|p=9}} and include the {{convert|300|m|ft|adj=mid}} thick Rio Chili ignimbrite from 13.19 ± 0.09 million years ago, the 4.89 ± 0.02 million-year-old La Joya ignimbrite or "sillar", the 1.65 ± 0.04 million-year-old Aeropuerto or Sencca ignimbrite,{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2008|p=4}} and the 1.02 million-year-old Yura Tuff and Capillune Formation.{{sfn|Lebti|Thouret|Wörner|Fornari|2006|p=258}} These ignimbrites were erupted from multiple [[caldera]]s{{efn|A caldera is a bowl-shaped depression, formed by the collapse of a volcano.{{sfn|Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology|2021|loc=Caldera}}}}, one of which is now buried under Chachani.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=20}}{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=16}} The ignimbrites are covered by volcanic [[sedimentary rock]]s{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} and debris from the sector collapse of Pichu Pichu.{{sfn|Lebti|Thouret|Wörner|Fornari|2006|p=254}}

=== Composition ===

Misti has erupted rocks mainly of [[andesitic]] composition, while [[dacitic]]{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}} and [[rhyolitic]] compositions are less common.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=26}} Rhyolites and dacites are associated with explosive eruptions.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=15}} The volcanic rocks are subdivided into several classes: [[Pyroxene]]-[[amphibole]] andesites, amphibole andesites, amphibole dacites and amphibole rhyolites.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=1}} There are reports of [[trachyandesite]] erupted during the Holocene eruptions.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=7}} [[Mica]] has also been reported.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=26}} The rocks define a potassium-rich [[calc-alkaline]] suite{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=26}} typical for Peruvian volcanoes.{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2008|p=9}} [[Phenocryst]]s{{efn|Volcanic rocks often consist of a mixture of crystals embedded in a non-crystalline solid material; these crystals are known as "phenocrysts".{{sfn|Bobrowsky|Marker|2018|loc=Classification of Rocks (Classification of Igneous Rocks)}}}} include amphibole, [[augite]], [[biotite]], [[enstatite]], [[plagioclase]] and [[titanomagnetite]].{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}} Magma composition has varied over time and the most recent volcanic stage has produced slightly different magmas, but overall the composition of Misti magmas is highly homogeneous.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=15}} The composition of Misti magmas and those of its neighbours Pichu Pichu and Chachani resemble [[adakite]], an unusual kind of volcanic rock formed by the direct melting of a subducting plate.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=26}} Some rocks erupted by the volcano show evidence of [[hydrothermal]] alteration, colouring them yellow.{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2009|p=38}}

==== Magma genesis and storage ====

The formation of the Misti magmas involves the arrival of new magma, assimilation of crustal material and fractional crystallization.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}} Initially [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]-derived melts pool in a reservoir at the base of the [[Crust (geology)|crust]], where they assimilate crustal material and undergo fractional crystallization. Afterwards they ascend to a shallower reservoir,{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=1}} where they interact with Proterozoic [[gneiss]]es.{{sfn|Rivera|Martin|Le Pennec|Thouret|2017|p=257}} Assimilation of basement rocks gave rise to the rhyolitic magmas erupted 34,000–31,000 years ago.{{sfn|Rivera Porras|Martin|Gourgaud|Le Pennec|2010|p=1146}} Crystal-poor magma can form in the magma plumbing system through numerous processes and gives rise to the rhyolites and the volcanic plug.{{sfn|Ruprecht|Wörner|2007|p=160}} The existence of a third magma storage zone hosting [[mafic]] magmas at the base of the crust has been proposed.{{sfn|Takach|Tepley|Harpel|Aguilar|2024|p=20}}

It is not clear whether Misti has a single [[magma chamber]] or multiple magma reservoirs at depth, although the rock composition implies that only one large magma system is present.{{sfn|Ruprecht|Wörner|2007|p=159}} The reservoir appears to be {{convert|6|-|15|km}} underground{{sfn|Macedo Sánchez|Masías Alvarez|Palacios Estremera|Machacca Puma|2012|p=4}} and has a volume of several cubic kilometres.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}} Every few millennia, a secondary rhyolitic reservoir forms at about {{convert|3|km}} depth;{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=9}} it was last reactivated during the eruption 2,000 years ago.{{sfn|Rivera|Martin|Le Pennec|Thouret|2017|p=241}} The magma system is periodically recharged, but such an influx of new magma does not trigger eruptions;{{sfn|Ruprecht|Wörner|2007|p=160}} instead multiple recharges are necessary to cause activity.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}}{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=1}} Numerous mixing and decompression events can happen to each magma batch before it is erupted,{{sfn|Ruprecht|Wörner|2007|p=158}} with mixing particularly important during the last 21,000 years.{{sfn|Takach|Tepley|Harpel|Aguilar|2024|p=2}} A recharge of the magma chamber may have occurred at some point before 2000 AD.{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=11}} The overall rate of magma supply is {{convert|0.63|km3/kyr|mi3/kyr}}, comparable to other stratovolcanoes in volcanic arcs, but with brief surges reaching about {{convert|2.1|km3/kyr|mi3/kyr}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} and an increased rate during the last 21,000 years.{{sfn|Takach|Tepley|Harpel|Aguilar|2024|p=21}}

== Eruption history ==

Misti is a young volcano.{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}} It developed in four stages, numbered 1 through 4; a pre-Misti volcano may have formed the southwestern debris avalanche{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} and the older volcanic structures lie mainly in the western sector of Misti.{{sfn|Thouret|Legros|Navarro|Suni|1997|p=499}} On average, sub-[[Plinian eruption]]s take place every 2,000–4,000 years, while ash fallout occurs every 500–1,500 years{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} and large [[ignimbrite]]-producing eruptions every 20,000–10,000 years.{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=213}} Rock formations showing the [[stratigraphy]] of Misti are found mainly in the ravines on the southern side{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=15}} and the Rio Chili gorge;{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2009|p=11}} only a few eruptions have been thoroughly investigated.{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=2}} [[Seismic tomography]] has identified solidified buried magma bodies from the early stages of volcanism.{{sfn|Cabrera-Pérez|Centeno|Soubestre|D'Auria|2022|p=5}}

Long andesitic lava flows and ignimbrites, which reach a thickness of more than {{convert|400|m}}, form the oldest part of the volcano.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} They have an age of 833,000 years, but it is not clear if the ignimbrites and lava flows should be considered part of "Misti 1" or of a pre-Misti volcano.{{sfn|Ruprecht|Wörner|2007|p=145}} Sometimes, they are considered the first stage of Misti activity, with all the subsequent activity making up the second stage.{{sfn|Legros|Thouret|Gourgaud|1995|p=46}} After the south-southwestern collapse, the present stratovolcano began to grow 112,000 years ago. During the following 42,000 years lava flows and lava domes built a mountain with an elevation of {{convert|4000|-|4500|m}}, in the southern and eastern sectors of present-day Misti.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} During the subsequent 20,000 years, repeated collapses of lava domes deposited blocks, fallout deposits and [[scoria]] on the southern side of Misti and on Chachani to the northwest.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|pp=2–3}} 

Between 50,000 and 40,000 years ago, the summit of Misti collapsed one or more times above {{convert|4400|m}} elevation,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=6}} forming a {{convert|6|x|5|km|mi|adj=mid}} caldera.{{sfn|Tort|Finizola|2005|p=293}} Intense [[pyroclast]]ic eruptions yielded ignimbrites with volumes of {{convert|3|-|5|km3}}, which cover an area of {{convert|100|km2}} on the southern side of Misti.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=6}} This activity brought "Misti 2" to an end;{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=7}} subsequently lava domes built "Misti 3" to an elevation of {{convert|5600|m}}, almost entirely erasing the caldera.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|pp=7–8}} Between 36,000 and 20,000 years ago, collapses of lava domes produced numerous [[block-and-ash flow]]s of dacitic to andesitic composition, which reach thicknesses of several tens of metres on the southern side of Misti.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=8}} The activity between 50,000 and 20,000 years ago has been christened "Cayma stage",{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=3}} and several eruption deposits from this time have been named:{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=26}}
* The 44,900–38,700{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=16}} or 34,000–33,000 year old "Fibroso I",{{sfn|Cacya|Mamani|2009|p=98}} also known as "Cogollo".{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=4}}
* The 43,200–38,300 year old "Anchi".{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=16}}
* The 38,500–32,400 year old{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=16}} "Sacarosa", "Sacaroso" or "Sacaroide".{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=4}} This eruption produced two layers of [[pumice]]{{sfn|Cuno|Harpel|Rivera|García|2021|p=883}} from a {{convert|22|km|mi|adj=mid}} high [[eruption column]]. The total volume of tephra is about {{convert|0.5|-|1.5|km3}}, equivalent to a [[volcanic explosivity index]] of 4{{sfn|Cuno|Harpel|Rivera|García|2021|p=882}} or 5. It was a two-stage event, with a change of magma dynamics or intensity occurring during the eruption.{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=13}}
* The 37,100–30,500 year old "Conchito"{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=16}} or "Fibroso II".{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=4}}
* The 30,300–28,800 year old "Chuma". Several additional eruptions took place between the "Conchito" and "Chuma" events.{{sfn|Harpel|Cuno|Takach|Rivera|2023|p=18}}
* The 15,000 years old{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2006|p=657}} "Autopista"{{efn|"[[Highway]]", referring to the appearance of the deposits in a stratigraphic section.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=26}}}}.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=26}} This eruption three layers of (mostly) pumice with smaller quantities of [[Lithic fragment (geology)|lithic]]s.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=28}} During its eruption about {{convert|0.16|km3}} of volcanic ash fell west of the volcano.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2006|p=660}} The "Autopista" eruption with a volcanic explosivity index of 4 produced about {{convert|0.6|km3}} of tephra; a similar eruption today would cover parts of Arequipa with {{convert|10|cm}} of pumice.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=41}} The "Autopista" deposit is the best preserved of the late Pleistocene tephra layers.{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=26}} 
* Deposits of eruptions after "Autopista" have been named according to two schemes: One spans the Pleistocene and Holocene{{sfn|Cacya|Mariño|Rivera|2007|p=26}} and lists "Blanco", "La Zebra", "Espuma gris", "Espuma iridiscente" and "Rosado",{{sfn|Escobar|2023|p=107}} the other includes tephra layers up to the eruption 2,000 years ago and lists "Ponche Iridescente", "Ponche Gris", "Sandwich Inferior", "Sandwich Superior", "Sancayo", "La Rosada", "Apo" and "Misquirichi".{{sfn|Takach|Tepley|Harpel|Aguilar|2024|p=4}}

Eruptions 43,000 and 14,000 years ago [[lava dam|dammed]] the Rio Socabaya and Rio Chili, forming temporary lakes south and north of the volcano that were later affected by earthquakes.{{sfn|García|Benavente|Delgado|Aguirre|2016|pp=2–3}} Between 24,000 and 12,000 years ago, ice fields formed on Chachani and Misti during the last glacial maximum; tephra fell on ice and was reworked by meltwater.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=8}} Two eruptions 13,700 and 11,300 years ago produced [[pyroclastic surge]]s that extended {{convert|12|km}} away from the volcano; a {{convert|2|km|mi|adj=mid}} wide caldera formed at an elevation of {{convert|5400|m}}.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|pp=8,10}}

=== Holocene ===

More than 10 eruptions took place during the last 11,000 years,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=10}} with only brief pauses in activity.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=13}} The activity between 21,000 and 2,000 years ago is known as the "Pacheco" stage.{{sfn|Takach|Tepley|Harpel|Aguilar|2024|p=1}} Holocene activity filled the younger caldera with scoria and lava flows, forming the "Misti 4" volcanic structure with the nested summit craters. Tephra forms {{convert|5|-|6|m|ft|adj=mid}} thick deposits around the volcano, and pyroclastic surges reached distances of many kilometres more than 6,400 and 5,200 years ago.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=10}} The 9,000 and 8,500 years old eruptions produced the "Sándwich" deposits.{{sfn|Escobar|2023|p=105}} They extend for more than {{convert|15|km}} on the southwestern flank of Misti{{sfn|Escobar|2023|p=105}} produced ash fall over the Pacific Ocean and Lake Titicaca.{{sfn|Escobar|2023|p=109}} [[Radiocarbon dating]] has identified eruptions 8,140, 6,390, 5,200, 4,750, 3,800 and 2,050 years ago;{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=45}} the 3,800 eruption deposited fallout on [[Nevado Mismi]]{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=71}} more than {{convert|90|km}} northwest of Misti.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=64}} The [[Global Volcanism Program]] lists eruptions in 310 [[BCE]] ± 100 years, 2230 BCE ± 200 years, 3510 BCE ± 150 years, 4020 BCE ± 200 years, 5390 BCE ± 75 years and 7190 BCE ± 150 years.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Eruptive History}}

==== Eruption 2,000 years ago and later activity ====

The last major [[explosive eruption]] took place about 2,000 years ago in one or multiple events.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=13}} The date is constrained to 2,060–1,920 years [[before present]]; ages of 2,300 BP are probably too old.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=7}} It produced about {{convert|0.4|km3}} [[dense rock equivalent]]s of rock{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=51}} and probably lasted a few hours.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=52}} The event had a volcanic explosivity index of 4 or 5.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=47}}

The eruption was probably triggered when fresh andesitic magma entered a pre-existent rhyolitic body.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=8}} Magma rose through the volcano and expelled part of the hydrothermal system,{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=53}} causing initial [[phreatic eruption]]s{{efn|A phreatic eruption is the emission of water steam and rocks, but without new magma.{{sfn|Hargitai|Kereszturi|2015|loc=Hydrovolcanic Feature}}}}.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=56}} [[Tephra]] rained down around the mountain,{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=9}} with pumice falling {{convert|25|km}} from the volcano.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=13}} Owing to magma mixing, the pumice deposits have an appearance resembling chocolate and vanilla swirls.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=7}} Eventually, the conduit fully cleared and a {{convert|29|km|mi|adj=mid}} high eruption column rose above the volcano.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=56}} [[Pyroclastic flow]]s{{efn|Flows consisting of hot volcanic debris.{{sfn|Hargitai|Kereszturi|2015|loc=Pyroclastic Deposits}}}} emanated from the column and descended the southern flanks of the volcano, possibly through the gap in the crater rim.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=54}} During the course of the eruption, collapses of the crater and conduit walls caused a temporary decline in the intensity of the column.{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2012|p=119}} The eruption column periodically collapsed and reformed, until the eruption ended with [[phreatomagmatic]]{{efn|Phreatomagmatic activity is volcanic activity involving magma-water interactions.{{sfn|Hargitai|Kereszturi|2015|loc=Hydrovolcanic Feature}}}} explosions.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=58}}

Mudflows descended the mountain,{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=56}} although their importance relative to the pyroclastic flows is contentious.{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2014|p=103}}  The water source for the mudflows is unclear, but the eruption took place during the [[neoglacial]] between 2,500 and 1,000 years ago. Thus Misti may have featured a snow or ice cap at the time of the eruption; its melting would have given rise to mudflows.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=37}} Rainfall generated further mudflows after the eruption.{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2012|p=111}} The outer summit crater probably formed during this eruption.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=51}} Tephra layers in the Sallalli and (in this case with less certainty) Mucurca [[peat bog]]s close to Sabancaya,{{sfn|Juvigné|Thouret|Loutsch|Lamadon|2008|loc=41–42}} and (tentatively) in an [[ice core]] in the [[Antarctic Plateau]] in [[Antarctica]], are attributed to this eruption.{{sfn|Ren|Li|Hou|Xiao|2010|p=9}} The 2,000 years eruption is the only Plinian eruption during the Holocene at Misti.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=24}}

After the eruption 2,000 years ago, activity was limited to small [[Vulcanian eruption]]s, mudflows and tephra fallout, including scoria and volcanic ash. Dating has yielded ages of 330, 340, 520, 620, 1035 and 1,300 years before present for several such events.{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|pp=14–15}} Pyroclastic flows and ash falls were emplaced 1,290 ± 100 and 620 ± 50 years ago.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=56}} Mudflows{{endash}}not all associated with eruptions{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|pp=14–15}}{{endash}}took place 1,035 ± 45, 520 ± 25, 340 ± 40 and 330 ± 60 years ago{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=47}} and left {{convert|5|-|15|m|ft|adj=mid}} thick deposits.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=50}} {{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=56}}

==== Historical activity and seismicity ====

The last eruption took place in AD 1440–1470{{efn|The exact date is uncertain due to possible inaccuracies in the Inca chronologies.{{sfn|Harpel|Kleier|Aguilar|2021|p=2}}}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} and produced about {{convert|0.006|km3}} of ash.{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=213}} It was probably a prolonged eruption that lasted for months or years,{{sfn|Rivera Porras|2009|p=25}} depositing ash in the Peruvian [[Laguna Salinas]]{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=24}} and possibly as far as [[Siple Dome]]{{sfn|Kurbatov|Zielinski|Dunbar|Mayewski|2006|p=7}} and [[Law Dome]] in Antarctica.{{sfn|Zielinski|2006|p=3}} It is the oldest eruption of a South American volcano for which historical records exist.{{sfn|Love|2017|p=24}} The eruption was severe enough that Mama Ana Huarque Coya,{{sfn|Ceruti|2015|p=3}} the wife of the [[Sapa Inca|Inca emperor]] [[Pachacutec]],{{efn|After who the deposit of the eruption was named.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=33}}}} came to [[Chiguata]]{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=14}} to provide assistance.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=14}} There is no evidence that a supposed Inca settlement was destroyed by this eruption,{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=24}} but the local population fled and the Inca had to resettle the area.{{sfn|Ceruti|2014|p=117}} Along with other volcanic eruptions around that time and the beginning [[Spörer Minimum|Spörer solar minimum]], the AD 1440–1470 eruption of Misti may have affected global climate conditions.{{sfn|Atwell|2001|p=51}} In 1600, the volcano was covered by ash from Huaynaputina.{{sfn|Cobeñas|Thouret|Bonadonna|Boivin|2012|p=108}}

Most sources state that there is no clear evidence of eruptions after the arrival of the [[Spaniards]],{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=5}}{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=14}} while the Global Volcanism Program reports a last eruption in 1985.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=General Information}} Mudflows descended the southern valleys until the 17th century.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} The mountain is sometimes reported to be "smoking" at its summit,{{sfn|Bailey|Shapley|1923|p=178}} including [[water vapour]] clouds.{{sfn|Bailey|Shapley|1923|p=177}} Phreatic eruptions may have taken place in 1577,{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=57}} 2 May 1677, 9 July 1784, 28 July 1787 and 10 October 1787. Questionable eruptions are recorded in 1542, 1599, 1826, 1830, 1831, 1869, 1870. They probably constitute fumarolic activity{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=15}} and often took place after heavy precipitation; the water would have infiltrated the mountain and evaporated from the volcanic heat.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=58}} There is no record of the structure of the summit craters changing in historical records, implying that the craters and volcanic plug were emplaced in prehistoric times.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=24}} Comparisons between 1967 photos of the volcanic plug and more recent images show no changes.{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=5}}

The volcano is seismically active, with long-period earthquakes, tremors, "tornillos"{{efn|Tornillos are a type of earthquake with long period and long coda; their [[waveform]]s have shapes resembling screws, which in Spanish translates to "tornillo".{{sfn|De Angelis|2006|p=1}}}} and [[volcano tectonic earthquake]]s recorded.{{sfn|Macedo|Centeno|2010|p=1125}} The [[hypocentre]]s, the actual sites of the earthquakes, are found within the volcanic structure of Misti{{sfn|Macedo|Centeno|2010|p=1126}} and cluster on the northwest flank of the volcano. The seismic activity appears to be linked to Misti's hydrothemal system.{{sfn|Macedo|Centeno|2010|p=1127}} [[Seismic swarm]]s were recorded in August 2012, May 2014 and June 2014.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Latest Activity Reports}} No deformation of the volcano is evident in satellite images.{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=7}}{{sfn|Pritchard|Simons|2004|p=10}} Clouds rising from the mountain are sometimes mistaken for renewed activity.{{sfn|Agassiz|1875|p=108}}

== Hazards ==

[[File:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|This [[mosaic]] of two [[astronaut]] [[photographs]] illustrates the proximity of Arequipa to Misti, just 17 km away (2009)|alt=A mountain seen from above, next to green parks and cities]]
Misti is Peru's most dangerous volcano and one of the most dangerous in the world,{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Vela Valdez|2014|p=7}}{{sfn|Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico|2021|p=3}} owing to its location just {{convert|12|km}} from Arequipa,{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}} a city of over one million residents.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Vela Valdez|2014|p=3}} Over time the city has expanded and new{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=71}} and neighbouring towns such as Chiguata get within {{convert|11|km}} of Misti.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} About 8.6% of Peru's GDP depends on Arequipa and would be impacted by a future eruption of Misti.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=110}} The city is constructed on mudflow and pyroclastic flow deposits of the volcano{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=5}} and all the valleys that drain Misti pass directly or indirectly through Arequipa.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=4}} At least 220,000 people south of Misti are threatened by floods, mudflows and pyroclastic flows{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=2}} channelled through the ravines.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=27}}

Individual threats from Misti include:
* The eruptions 2,000 years ago and 1440–1470 AD eruptions deposited tephra over what today is Arequipa.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=17}} Tephra fallout{{efn|The rarity of tephra deposits within Arequipa is probably due to erosion and the dense urban environment and does not reflect an absence of tephra falls.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=27}} }} can cause health problems, pollute water resources, cause roofs to collapse, bury fields,{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=37}} and cause [[road accident]]s and accidents during cleanup.{{sfn|Harpel|de Silva|Salas|2011|p=59}} Much closer to the volcano, [[volcanic bomb|large rock]]s can fall.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=81}}
* Mudflows are mixtures of rocks and water. They are caused by rainfall or the melting of snow and ice and can happen without volcanic activity.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=38}}{{sfn|Legros|Thouret|Gourgaud|1995|p=49}} At Misti, they occur on average every century or two.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=42}} Small mudflows can reach the city{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=223}} and bury and destroy everything in their path.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=271}} Eruptions of Misti could generate mudflows on Chachani, thus threatening settlements that are on the other side of the Rio Chili.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Vela Valdez|2014|p=14}}
* Pyroclastic flows are hot {{convert|300|-|800|C|sigfig=1|disp=semicolon}} masses of gas and rocks that can descend the slopes at speeds of {{convert|200|-|400|km/h|m/s|sigfig=1}}; they can flow over topographic obstacles and reach large distances from the volcanic vent.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=38}} Pyroclastic flows and surges can extend {{convert|13|km}} from the volcano,{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=16}} although denser flows are likely to stop before reaching the city.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=28}}
* The steep slopes put Misti at risk of sector collapses. Debris avalanches from the collapse of volcanoes can reach large distances, larger than that between Arequipa and Misti.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=28}}{{sfn|Thouret|Legros|Navarro|Suni|1997|p=503}} Debris flows, like mudflows, can destroy everything in their path.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=38}} Such collapses could also dam the Rio Chili, producing mudflows{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=6}} and threatening neighbourhoods like Vallecito, Av. La Marina and Club Internacional.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|Antayhua Vera|Espinoza Oscanoa|Ramos Palomino|2009|p=3}} Small landslides on the western side of the volcano could threaten the water supply of Arequipa.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=271}}
* [[Toxic gas]]es can accumulate in closed spaces to dangerous concentrations, or interact with precipitation to form [[acid rain]]. Lava flows are highly destructive, but their slow speed does not constitute a major threat to life.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=39}}

Hazards at Misti not related to volcanic activity include flooding during the [[wet season]] in Arequipa.{{sfn|Legros|2001|p=28}} [[Heavy metals]], presumably from Misti and Chachani, have been found in river water.{{sfn|Espirilla|Gómez|2022|p=5}}

== Monitoring and hazard management ==

In 2001, there was neither emergency planning nor land-use planning around Misti;{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=17}} the 2002–2015 development plan mentioned volcanic hazards but did not envisage specific measures.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=266}} The last eruption of Misti had taken place shortly before the foundation of Arequipa, and thus{{emdash}}unlike for earthquakes{{emdash}}there is no memory of the hazards of volcanic activity.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Vela Valdez|2014|p=9}} Before the eruption of Ubinas in 2006–2007, volcanic hazards drew little attention from the Peruvian state and there was little awareness in Arequipa.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=4}} The volcano is frequently considered a protective figure and not as a threat.{{sfn|Mérour|2023|p=325}} A number of people associate volcanoes with [[lava flow]]s and neglect other volcanic hazards.{{sfn|Instituto Geológico Minero y Metalúrgico|2021|p=3}}

Beginning in 2005, [[INGEMMET]] began monitoring volcanoes in Peru;{{sfn|Calderón Vilca|2019|p=1}} the first monitoring equipment was at the Charcani V [[hot spring]]. Later the monitoring was extended to other hot springs, and the crater fumaroles were surveilled both from Arequipa and from the crater.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|Antayhua Vera|Espinoza Oscanoa|Ramos Palomino|2009|p=2}} Monitoring of [[seismic]] activity commenced in 2005.{{sfn|Macedo Sánchez|2014|p=7}} Beginning in 2008, [[geodesic]] measurement stations were installed on the northeastern and southern slopes of the volcano,{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|Antayhua Vera|Espinoza Oscanoa|Ramos Palomino|2009|p=2}} and a new monitoring station for the volcano was inaugurated in 2012.{{sfn|Calderón Vilca|2019|p=1}} In May 2009 and April 2010, two exercise evacuations of several suburbs of Arequipa were carried out.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Amache Cutipa|Alfaro Gómez|Pareja|2010|p=1120}} The Peruvian Volcano Observatory (OVI) was inaugurated in Arequipa in 2013; it monitors Misti, Ubinas, Ticsani and other Peruvian volcanoes.{{sfn|Contreras|Maquerhua|Vera|Gonzales|2021|p=74}} {{As of|2021}}, the monitoring network on Misti includes [[seismometer]]s, equipment that measures the composition and temperature of hot springs and fumaroles, and sensors for movements or deformations of the mountain.{{sfn|Contreras|Maquerhua|Vera|Gonzales|2021|p=77}} These efforts have yielded an increased awareness of the dangers posed by Misti, which is now being increasingly perceived as an active volcano.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=144}} Efforts have been made to slow the growth of the northern suburbs of Arequipa, which are closest to Misti.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=145}}

A volcano hazard map was developed in 2005 by numerous local and international organizations,{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=6}} and officially presented in early 2008.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=111}} It defines three hazard categories: a red "high risk" zone, an orange "intermediate risk" zone and a yellow "low risk" zone.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|2006|p=6}} These are defined by the risk of [[debris flow]]s, lava flows, mudflows, pyroclastic flows and tephra fallout.{{sfn|Mariño|Macedo|Rivera|Cacya|2008|p=72}} The "high risk" zone encompasses the entire volcanic cone, its immediate surroundings and the valleys that emanate from it. Parts of Arequipa lie in the "high risk" zone. The "intermediate risk" zone surrounds the "high risk" zone, including the lower slopes of neighbouring mountains and most of the northeastern parts of Arequipa. The "low risk" zone in turn surrounds the "intermediate risk" zone and includes the rest of the city.{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=40}}{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=99}} Additional maps show areas at risk of [[tephra]] fallout{{sfn|Mariño Salazar|Rivera Porras|Cacya Dueñas|2008|p=43}} and of being flooded by mudflows.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=104}} The hazard map of Misti is the first hazard map of a Peruvian volcano.{{sfn|Contreras|Maquerhua|Vera|Gonzales|2021|p=74}} These maps serve to mitigate volcano hazards and to inform local development.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=2}} A 3D map was published in 2018.{{sfn|Contreras|Maquerhua|Vera|Gonzales|2021|p=78}} In 2010, the municipality of Arequipa decreed that the hazard map would have to be considered in future city zoning decisions.{{sfn|Macedo Franco|Vela Valdez|2014|p=9}}

=== Scenarios ===

Three different scenarios of future eruptions have been evaluated.{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=216}} The first envisages a small eruption, similar to recent activity at Sabancaya,{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=216}} or the 1440–1470 AD eruption of Misti.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=1}} Ash fall would occur around the volcano, reaching {{convert|5|cm}} in the urban area and shutting down the [[Arequipa Airport]], landslides could damage the dams on the Rio Chili, and mudflows would descend the southern slopes. The second scenario involves an eruption like the eruption 2,000 years ago. Thicker ash falls (exceeding {{convert|10|cm|disp=semicolon}}) could cause building collapse and pyroclastic flows down the steep slopes south of Misti, reaching the suburbs of Arequipa and Chiguata.{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=219}}{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=268}} Most [[risk assessment]]s are based on these two scenarios.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=271}}

The third scenario is a Plinian eruption like the "Fibroso" and "Sacaroso" events or the 1600 Huaynaputina eruption;{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=1}} pyroclastic flows would sweep all the flanks of Misti and past Arequipa, blocking the Rio Chili. Thick ash fall would occur over the entire region,{{sfn|Delaite|Thouret|Sheridan|Labazuy|2005|p=220}} including over the cities of [[El Alto, Peru|El Alto]], [[La Joya District|La Joya]] and agricultural areas.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=268}} A Plinian eruption would require the evacuation of Arequipa.{{sfn|Franco|Thouret|Delaite|van Westen|2010|p=271}} Other hazard scenarios are the emissions of short [[lava flow]]s, the formation and collapse of [[lava dome]]s and the collapse of part of the mountain.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=2}}

== Fumarolic and geothermal system ==

[[Fumarole]]s exist in several places: the volcanic plug; the northern and northeastern walls of the volcano's inner crater; and the volc southeastern flank of the volcano.{{sfn|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|Ramos|2004|p=348}} They make noises,{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Reports}} produce visible clouds of water vapour and the smell of [[hydrogen sulfide]]. The smell reaches the crater rim,{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=4}} and, at times, the gas becomes so concentrated that it causes irritations to the eyes, nose and throat.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Reports}} Fumarolic activity has been reported since the 1440–1470 eruption.{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=7}} In 1948–1949 and 1984–1985, it was intense enough that it could be seen from Arequipa.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=15}} The fumarolic activity is visible in [[satellite image]]s as a temperature anomaly of about {{convert|6|K-change}}.{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=2}}

Water is the most important component of the fumarole gases, followed by [[carbon dioxide]], [[sulfur dioxide]], hydrogen sulfide and [[hydrogen]].{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=4}} The [[hydrogen chloride]] and hydrogen sulfide content makes them highly acidic.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=7}} Fumarole temperatures have varied through the years, generally they are between {{convert|125|-|310|C}}{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=1}} with peaks of {{convert|430|C}}.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2008|p=5}} The present-day (21st century) fumarole gases appear to derive directly from magma, with no interaction with a hydrothermal system.{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=1}} The fumaroles outside of the summit crater are colder, with temperatures of {{convert|50|-|80|C}},{{sfn|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|Ramos|2004|p=348}} and do not smell of sulfur.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=4}}

Fumarolic vents are surrounded by concentric deposits of [[anhydrite]] close to the vent, [[gypsum]] at some distance and sulfur in the colder vents. Other minerals are [[ammonium sulfate]], [[hematite]], [[ralstonite]], [[soda alum]] and [[sodium chloride]].{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=11}} Elemental compositions and [[Stable isotope ratio|isotope ratios]] indicate that the fumarole deposits are derived from the [[Leaching (chemistry)|leaching]] of volcanic rocks and the water from precipitation.{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|pp=7,13}} The chemistry of the deposits changed between 1967 and 2018, with decreasing [[zinc]] and increasing [[lead]] concentrations, alongside with a warming of the fumarolic system{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|pp=4–5}} that may have been due to the arrival of new magma in the volcano during the 20th century.{{sfn|Vlastelic|Apaza|Masias|Rivera|2022|p=10}} Sometimes the temperature of the fumaroles is high enough to melt the sulfur{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=5}} and the fumarolic gases can ignite.{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Reports}}

Hot springs occur at the foot of the volcano. To the north is the Humaluso (Umaluso) spring, while to the south and southwest lie Agua Salada, Bedoya (La Bedoya), Calle Cuzco, Charcani V, Chilina Norte, Chilina Sur, Jésus, Ojo de Milagro, Puente de Fierro, Sabandia, Tingo, Yumina, and Zemanat{{sfn|Masías|Cruz|2008|p=2}}{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=3}} south and southwest of Misti.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=4}} The hottest of these is the Charcani V spring{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=3}} in the Rio Chili gorge;{{sfn|Cruz|Finizola|Macedo Sánchez|Sortino|2001}} it is also the closest to the volcano, being only {{convert|6|km}} from the crater.{{sfn|Masías|Cruz|2008|p=1}} The Jésus and Umaluso springs produce gas bubbles. The springs are fed by a low-temperature geothermal system that mostly produces alkaline waters containing [[bicarbonate]], [[chloride]] and [[sulfate]].{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=3}} Their waters appear to originate through the mixing of freshwater, magmatic water and chloride-rich deep water.{{sfn|Masías|Cruz|2008|p=6}} Many of these springs form artificial pools or have water intakes,{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2008|p=8}} and several are monitored by INGEMMET for changes in activity.{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|Antayhua Vera|Espinoza Oscanoa|Ramos Palomino|2009|p=4}}

High soil temperatures on the cone,{{sfn|Andrés|Palacios|Úbeda|Alcalá|2011|p=469}} hot springs and fumaroles indicate that Misti contains a hydrothermal system.{{sfn|Masías|Cruz|2008|p=1}} [[Electric potential]] measurements indicate that the system appears to be confined between faults{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=4}} or to the older caldera.{{sfn|Finizola|Lénat|Macedo|Ramos|2004|p=358}} The activity has not been stable over time; after the [[2001 southern Peru earthquake]], flow at the Charcani V spring and the temperature of the crater emissions increased noticeably.{{sfn|Cruz|Finizola|Macedo Sánchez|Sortino|2001}} Water temperatures decreased after the [[2007 Peru earthquake]].{{sfn|Masías Alvarez|2007|p=15}} Over time old fumarolic vents shut down and new vents develop,{{sfn|GVP|2023|loc=Bulletin Reports}} but the configuration of the dome vents is stable over time.{{sfn|Moussallam|Peters|Masias|Apaza|2017|p=7}} The fumarolic activity is correlated to [[earth tide]]s,{{sfn|Macedo Sánchez|Masías Alvarez|Palacios Estremera|Machacca Puma|2012|p=4}} the deformation of the [[Earth]] caused by the [[Moon]]'s and Sun's gravity.{{sfn|Gupta|2021|loc=Earth Tides}}

== Climate and vegetation ==

The region has a [[semi-arid]] climate with mild temperatures.{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=3}} In Arequipa, temperatures are stable throughout the year, with minima of {{convert|6.9|-|11.2|C}} and maxima of {{convert|23.2|-|22.1|C}}.{{sfn|SENAMHI|2025}} Temperatures decrease with elevation:{{sfn|Mariño|Rivera|Thouret|Macedo|2016|p=3}} In 1910, monthly mean temperatures at the summit ranged from {{convert|-6|C}} in January to {{convert|-9.7|C}} in May, June and August.{{sfn|Reports on Climates|1910|p=377}} In 1968 temperatures at the summit rose above freezing for a few days per year.{{sfn|Seltzer|1990|p=139}} 

The summit is often covered in [[cloud]]s.{{sfn|Bailey|Shapley|1923|pp=191-192}} For most of the year, dry westerly winds blow over the Western Cordillera; during summer [[convection]] over the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazon]] forces easterly flow that draws moisture to the Cordillera.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=60}} Wind speeds at the summit can reach {{convert|5|m/s}}, with gusts to {{convert|16|m/s}}.{{sfn|Holtmeier|2003|p=96}} Most precipitation falls during the austral summer (December to March); according to a 1974 publication, it reached {{convert|90|mm/year|in/year}}{{sfn|Birnie|Hall|1974|p=1}} and a 1910 study found most precipitation to be in the form of snow or hail.{{sfn|Reports on Climates|1910|p=377}} During the wet season, [[rainstorm]]s and [[flash flood]]s erode the volcanic debris deposits.{{sfn|Thouret|Finizola|Fornari|Legeley-Padovani|2001|p=13}} The snow cover rapidly melts away during the dry season.{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=132}} The [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]] and [[sea surface temperature]]s in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans govern annual rainfall.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=61}} After a wet and cold start to the Holocene, the climate in the Western Cordillera may have been moist until 5,200–5,000 years ago. A subsequent dry period lasted until the 16th century AD, when the [[Little Ice Age]] began.{{sfn|Engel|Skrzypek|Chuman|Šefrna|2014|p=64}}

The region west of the Andes, including the terrain at the foot of Misti,{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=132}} is mostly desert with [[cacti]] and [[dwarf shrub]]s as the principal vegetation forms.{{sfn|Polk|Young|Crews-Meyer|2005|p=316}} The vegetation belt is known as the "Misti zone". There is an altitudinal gradation: vegetation is dominated by ''[[Franseria]]'' bushes between {{convert|2200|-|2900|m}}{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=132}} and by the bush{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=126}} ''[[Diplostephium tacorense]]'' above {{convert|3000|m}}.{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=133}} Other bushes occur mainly in creeks and valleys.{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=133}} At higher elevations, other genera such as ''[[Adesmia (plant)|Adesmia]]'' and ''[[Senecio idiopappus]]'' become more frequent, and at an elevation of about {{convert|3900|m}} ''[[Lepidophyllum quadrangulare]]'' becomes the dominant plant.{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=134}} Cacti, herbs, [[yareta]] [[cushion plant]]s, ichu (''[[Jarava ichu]]''), as well as [[pioneer plant|pioneer specie]]s like [[lichen]]s and [[moss]]es, are important above {{convert|3500|m}}.{{sfn|Hill|1905|p=257}}{{sfn|Gałaś|Panajew|Cuber|2014|p=66}} ''[[Polylepis]]'' species form woodlands.{{sfn|Rauh|1958|p=134}} Vegetation cover decreases above {{convert|4000|m}} elevation.{{sfn|Gałaś|Panajew|Cuber|2014|p=66}}

[[Insect]]s are the most important animals in the Peruvian mountains, and include [[beetle]]s and [[hymenopteran]]s ([[ant]]s, [[bee]]s, [[sawflies]] and [[wasp]]s). Birds include the [[Andean condor]].{{sfn|Gałaś|Panajew|Cuber|2014|p=67}} 358 plant, 37 mammal and 158 bird species have been recorded{{efn|The [[Bolivian grass mouse]]{{sfn|Oldfield|1901|p=14}} and two plant species, the stonecrop ''[[Sedum ignescens]]''{{sfn|Pino|Montesinos-Tubée|Matuszewski|2019|p=117}} and ''[[Cantua volcanica]]'', were discovered at Misti; the latter was named after where it was found.{{sfn|Porter|Prather|2008|p=34}} }} in the region, including [[alpaca]]s, [[guanaco]]s, [[llama]]s and [[vicuña]]s.{{sfn|SERNANP|2019}} Most of the volcano is within the [[Salinas y Aguada Blanca National Reserve]], which extends northwest of Misti{{sfn|Polk|Young|Crews-Meyer|2005|p=314}} and includes the volcano among its main attractions.{{sfn|SERNANP|2019}}

== Religious importance ==

[[File:Volcán Misti desde Arequipa, Perú, 2015-08-02, DD 03.JPG|thumb|Misti, as seen from Arequipa (2015)|alt=A conical mountain rises above a brown slope]]
The mountain was considered the ''[[Apu (god)|apu]]''{{efn|A form of deity.{{sfn|Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Arequipa – Ministerio de Cultura|2015|p=83}}}}{{sfn|Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Arequipa – Ministerio de Cultura|2015|p=21}} and "volcano of the city".{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=105}} It was venerated by the inhabitants of Arequipa, a common practice for inhabitants of the Andes.{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=8}} The [[Aymara people]] viewed it as an abode of deceased souls,{{sfn|Lorenzo Romero|2020|p=1238}} with different regions regarding it as either a friendly or [[Hell|hellish]] final destination.{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=12}} According to the late 16th-century chronicler Cristóbal de Albornoz,{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=8}}{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=105}} Misti was one of the important mountains ({{lang|qu|waqa}}, a kind of deity or idol{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=207}}) of the Arequipa area of the [[Inca Empire]], along with Ampato, Coropuna, Sara Sara and [[Solimana (volcano)|Solimana]].{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=74}} This tradition probably originated with the previous inhabitants of the area and was taken over by the Inca when they conquered the region.{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=144}} The [[Middle Horizon]]{{sfn|Nigra|Rosas|Lozada|Barnard|2017|p=44}} Millo [[archeological site]] in the [[Rio Vitor]] valley was constructed in a manner that allowed a good view of Misti, which was probably the ''apu'' of this place.{{sfn|Nigra|Rosas|Lozada|Barnard|2017|p=54}} [[Petroglyph]]s at [[Toro Muerto]] may represent astronomical alignments of Misti and Chachani.{{sfn|Zborover|Badillo|Lozada|Lozada|2023|p=117}} 

The Inca gave the ''apus'' cups of gold and silver{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=101}} and settled people around Misti that would continue the mountain veneration.{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=123}} People used to [[Artificial cranial deformation|alter the shape of the skulls of their infant children]] so that they resembled the volcano.{{sfn|Schijman|2005|p=947}} Misti was considered to be an aggressive mountain that was always demanding sacrifices,{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=143}} and the mountain had to be exorcised in colonial times.{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=144}} After the Spanish conquest, the mountain was consecrated to [[Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]].{{sfn|Bouysse-Cassagne|Chacama|2012}} According to the Jesuit College of Arequipa, "Indian sorcerers" thought that Huaynaputina volcano had asked Misti for assistance in expelling the Spaniards; Misti however had turned down, saying it was already Christianised, so Huaynaputina had proceeded alone.{{sfn|Bandelier|1906|p=62}} During episodes of increased activity, the inhabitants of Arequipa carried out religious ceremonies, including public penance and flagellations, to discourage the volcano.{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=14}} A group of converts and [[Franciscan]]s in 1600 climbed on Misti and threw saints' relics and a cross into its crater to discourage the volcano.{{sfn|Vélez|2017|p=454}} Another expedition was launched in 1784, after [[1784 Peru earthquake|an earthquake]] had destroyed Arequipa, and planted a cross on the summit. This cross was replaced twice: first a decade later and then in 1900{{sfn|Love|2017|pp=24–25}} as a celebration of the new century.{{sfn|Bailey|Shapley|1923|p=183}} The cross on the summit of Misti supposedly protects the city.{{sfn|Jones|Boyd|1971|p=315}} To this day, religious ceremonies are carried out on the volcano.{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=14}} Peasants believe that after offering gifts to Misti will bear boys, while the same offers to Chachani will make them bear girls.{{sfn|Lorenzo Romero|2020|p=1242}} Geologists are known to offer objects to the volcano before carrying out investigations.{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=58}}

== Mummies ==

Eight or nine [[mummies]] were found on Misti by the North American anthropologist [[Johan Reinhard]]{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=144}}{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=16}} and the Arequipan archaeologist José Antonio Chávez{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=16}} in 1998, inside the crater and below the summit.{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=139}} The mummies were of children, mostly boys around six years old{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=147}} and some infants, which were sometimes buried one on top of the other.{{sfn|Reinhard|Ceruti|2010|p=16}} Unusually, the mummies were buried in shared tombs.{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=141}} Along with the mummies were figurines, ceramics and other objects;{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=144}} the high number of figurines found on Misti (47) indicates that the site was important to the Incas.{{sfn|Reinhard|Ceruti|2006|p=6}}{{sfn|Reinhard|Ceruti|2010|p=16}} These mummies were Inca human sacrifices, called ''[[capacocha]]s'',{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=139}} and the Misti ''capacocha'' is the largest known.{{sfn|Ceruti|2014|p=117}}{{sfn|Socha|Reinhard|Perea|2021|p=151}} However, the hostile conditions within the crater had seriously damaged the mummies.{{sfn|Reinhard|Ceruti|2006|p=6}} 

The sacrifices on Misti, and others on Chachani and Pichu Pichu, were probably motivated by the 1440–1470 eruption of Misti,{{sfn|Dirección Desconcentrada de Cultura de Arequipa – Ministerio de Cultura|2015|p=82}}{{sfn|Ceruti|2014|p=117}}{{sfn|Ceruti|2024|p=22}} which may explain the unusual location within the crater rather than on a summit.{{sfn|Reinhard|Ceruti|2010|pp=96-97}} <!--Which section - eruption history or religious importance?{{sfn|Ceruti|2015|p=3}} implies it's about the same as the Pachacutec -->According to the 16th-century chronicler [[Martín de Murúa]],{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=105}} the Inca emperor [[Topa Inca Yupanqui|Thupa Yapanki]] sacrificed [[llama]]s to calm a volcano Putina close to Arequipa (probably Misti),{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=85}} going as closely as possible to the summit.{{sfn|Besom|2009|p=86}} According to stories, previous ceremonies had failed to calm the volcano and only the emperor's direct intervention quelled its anger.{{sfn|Lorenzo Romero|2020|pp=1235–1236}} This description most likely refers to the 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina, rather than of eruptions at Misti.{{sfn|Julien|2011|p=109}}

== Climbing and recreation ==

Misti was first ascended by [[pre-Columbian]] people, who left [[archaeological]] evidence around the summit.{{sfn|Bailey|1897|p=329}} The first documented ascent was by Álvaro Meléndez, a priest from Chiguata, on 1 May 1667.{{sfn|Zuñiga|Champi|Amaro|2024|pp=72-73}} Numerous ascents of the volcano were made already during the 18th and 19th centuries.{{sfn|Hatch|1886|p=312}} On 9 July 1988, U.S. cyclist Terry Powers went to the summit of Misti with a mountain bike from the southern slopes and rode down the northern slopes.{{sfn|El Comercio|1988}}{{sfn|El Pueblo|1988}} The main ascent route according to mountaineer [[John Biggar (mountaineer)|John Biggar]] is from the Aguada Blanca dam; a permit is needed to cross the dam. There are campsites at around {{convert|4600|m}} elevation, accessible from the Aguada Blanca dam and the town of Chihuata south of Misti. The ascent to the summit takes about one long day. A less common route starts at Apurimac San Luis on the southern flank, through Tres Cruces and Los Pastores.{{sfn|Biggar|2015|loc=MISTI}} Ascent from Chiguata takes a few days.{{sfn|Zuñiga|Champi|Amaro|2024|p=80}} Climbers report difficulties due to the loose ground, noxious gases{{sfn|Hatch|1886|p=312}} and [[altitude sickness]].{{sfn|Bailey|1897|p=329}} John Biggar cautioned that there is no source of potable water on the mountain.{{sfn|Biggar|2015|loc=MISTI}} 

The volcano is frequently visited by tourists,{{sfn|Erfurt-Cooper|2014|p=4}} who come for the sight of the landscape surrounding Misti.{{sfn|Zuñiga|Champi|Amaro|2024|pp=79-80}} Tourist activities at Misti include [[mountaineering]],{{sfn|Zuñiga|Champi|Amaro|2024|p=79}} [[trekking]]{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=58}} and running down [[scree]] slopes.{{sfn|Sigurdsson|Houghton|McNutt|Rymer|2015|p=1308}} Ascents take place almost year-round.{{sfn|Zuñiga|Champi|Amaro|2024|p=78}} Misti and its neighbouring volcanoes have been investigated as potential [[geosite]]s.{{sfn|Arias|de Vries|Aguilar|Mariño|2025|p=48}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Andes}}
*[[List of volcanoes in Peru]]

== Notes ==

{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|3}}

=== Sources ===
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* {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Geochemistry|editor-first=William M.|editor-last=White|series=Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-39312-4|publisher=Springer Cham|isbn=978-3-319-39312-4|date=17 July 2018|issn=1871-756X|edition=1}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vélez |first1=Karin |title=Stones and bones: Catholic responses to the 1812 collapse of the mission church of Capistrano |journal=Material Religion |date=2 October 2017 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=437–460 |doi=10.1080/17432200.2017.1379375 |s2cid=194781171 |language=en |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Vlastelic |first1=Ivan |last2=Apaza |first2=Fredy |last3=Masias |first3=Pablo |last4=Rivera |first4=Marco |last5=Piro |first5=Jean-Luc |last6=Gannoun |first6=Abdelmouhcine |title=Probing the hidden magmatic evolution of El Misti volcano (Peru) with the Pb isotope composition of fumaroles |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |date=February 2022 |volume=84 |issue=2 |page=17 |doi=10.1007/s00445-021-01521-9 |bibcode=2022BVol...84...17V |s2cid=246040740 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-021-01521-9 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zborover |first1=Danny |last2=Badillo |first2=Alex Elvis |last3=Lozada |first3=Maria Cecilia |last4=Lozada |first4=Erika Simborth |last5=Huashuayo Chávez |first5=Damaso Wile |title=Petroglyphs in context: Another look at the Chillihuay Archaeological Complex in Southern Peru |journal=Andean Past |date=2023 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=9 |url=https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/andean_past/vol14/iss1/9/ |language=en |issn=1055-8756}}
* {{cite report |last=Zielinski |first=Gregory A. |title=Collaborative Research: A 700-Year Tephrochronology of the Law Dome Ice Core, East Antarctica |year=2006 |publisher=University of Maine Office of Research Administration: Grant Reports |volume=199 |url=https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/orsp_reports/199}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Zuñiga |first1=Luis Enrique Vargas |last2=Champi |first2=Jesús Estanislao Mamani |last3=Amaro |first3=Amelia Álvarez |title=Turismo sostenible, una propuesta para su aplicación y factibilidad: estudio detallado de la localidad Chiguata en Arequipa |journal=Revista Veritas et Scientia – Upt |date=31 July 2024 |volume=13 |issue=1 |doi=10.47796/ves.v13i01.975 |url=https://revistas.upt.edu.pe/ojs/index.php/vestsc/article/view/975 |language=es |issn=2617-0639|doi-access=free|trans-title=Sustainable tourism, a proposal for its application and feasibility: detailed study of the town of Chiguata in Arequipa }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Reinhard |first=Johan |title=The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes |url=https://archive.org/details/icemaidenincamum0000rein |url-access=registration |year=2005 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=National Geographic Society |isbn=0-7922-6838-5|ref=none}}

== External links ==
<!---It's unclear how reliable Frontiers is for FA-class articles, hence it's here now-->
* {{cite journal |last1=Charbonnier |first1=Sylvain |last2=Thouret |first2=Jean-Claude |last3=Gueugneau |first3=Valentin |last4=Constantinescu |first4=Robert |title=New Insights Into the 2070calyrBP Pyroclastic Currents at El Misti Volcano (Peru) From Field Investigations, Satellite Imagery and Probabilistic Modeling |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |date=2020 |volume=8 |article-number=557788 |doi=10.3389/feart.2020.557788 |bibcode=2020FrEaS...8..398C |issn=2296-6463 |ref=none |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lièvre |first1=Pascal |last2=Mérour |first2=Eléonore |last3=Morin |first3=Julie |last4=Macedo Franco |first4=Luisa |last5=Ramos Palomino |first5=Domingo |last6=Rivera Porras |first6=Marco |last7=Masías Alvarez |first7=Pablo |last8=van Wyk de Vries |first8=Benjamin |title=Volcanic risk management practice evolution between vulnerability and resilience: The case of Arequipa in Peru |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |date=2022 |volume=10 |article-number=877161 |doi=10.3389/feart.2022.877161 |bibcode=2022FrEaS..10.7161L |issn=2296-6463 |ref=none |doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.12816/5308 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thouret |first1=J.-C. |last2=Arapa |first2=E. |last3=Charbonnier |first3=S. |last4=Guerrero |first4=A. |last5=Kelfoun |first5=K. |last6=Cordoba |first6=G. |last7=Rodriguez |first7=D. |last8=Santoni |first8=O. |title=Modeling Tephra Fall and Sediment-Water Flows to Assess Their Impacts on a Vulnerable Building Stock in the City of Arequipa, Peru |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |date=2022 |volume=10 |article-number=865989 |doi=10.3389/feart.2022.865989 |bibcode=2022FrEaS..10.5989T |issn=2296-6463 |ref=none |doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.12816/5240 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=40968 |title=El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru |date=2 November 2009 |website=Earth Observatory |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=3 June 2016}}
* {{cite web |url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=2055 |title=El Misti Volcano and the City of Arequipa, Peru |date=31 December 2001 |publisher=[[NASA]] |work=Earth Observatory |access-date=3 June 2016}}

{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Misti}}
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Five-thousanders of the Andes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Mountains of the Department of Arequipa]]
[[Category:Quaternary South America]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Peru]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]