View source for Modern Age of Comic Books

{{Short description|Era of American comic books (1985–present)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=October 2009}}
{{original research|date=October 2009}}
{{essay-like|date=April 2015}}
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{{Use American English|date=January 2024}}
{{Ages of subjects
|type       = Modern
|subject    = Comic Books
|image      = Watchmencovers.png
|caption    = ''[[Watchmen]]'' (1986), one of the comics considered to signify the beginning of the Modern Age<br /><small>Cover art by [[Dave Gibbons]]</small>
|date1      = 1985
|date2      = present
|parentage  =
|prevage    = [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]] (1970–1985)
|nextage    =
|subage     =
|see        =
}}
The '''Modern Age of Comic Books''' is a period in the [[history of American superhero comic books]] which began in 1985 and continues through the present day.<ref>{{cite book| title= [[Overstreet Comic Book Price Guide]] | year=2008 |volume=38| page= 1028 | chapter = Glossary}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Narrative Advertising Models and Conceptualization in the Digital Age|last=Kılınç|first=Ugur|publisher=IGI Global|year=2017|isbn=9781522503323|location=United States of America|page=118|chapter=Create It! Extend It! Evolution of Comics Through Narrative Advertising}}</ref> During approximately the first 15 years of this period, many [[comic book]] characters were redesigned, creators gained prominence in the industry, independent comics flourished, and larger publishing houses became more [[commercialized]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://lareviewofbooks.org/article/when-were-superheroes-grim-and-gritty/|title=When Were Superheroes Grim and Gritty? |work=Los Angeles Review of Books|access-date=2017-05-28|language=en-US}}</ref>

A common alternative name for this period is the '''Dark Age of Comic Books'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, due to the popularity and artistic influence of titles with serious content, such as ''[[The Dark Knight Returns|Batman: The Dark Knight Returns]]'' and ''[[Watchmen]]''.<ref>Voger, Mark (2006), p. 6.</ref>

==Developments==
Because the time period encompassing the Modern Age is not well defined, and in some cases disputed by both fans and professionals, a comprehensive history is open to debate. Many influences from the [[Bronze Age of Comic Books]] would overlap with the infancy of the Modern Age. The work of creators such as [[John Byrne (comics)|John Byrne]] (''[[Alpha Flight (comic book)|Alpha Flight]]'', ''[[Fantastic Four (comic book)|Fantastic Four]]''), [[Chris Claremont]] (''[[Iron Fist (character)|Iron Fist]]'', ''[[Uncanny X-Men]]''), and [[Frank Miller]] (''[[Daredevil (Marvel Comics series)|Daredevil]]'') would reach fruition in the Bronze Age but their impact was still felt in the Modern Age. ''The Uncanny X-Men'' is the most definitive example of this impact as Bronze Age characters such as [[Wolverine (character)|Wolverine]] and [[Sabretooth (character)|Sabretooth]] would have a huge influence on the [[Marvel Universe]] in the 1980s and beyond.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

For DC, ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'' is a bridge that joins the two ages. The result was the cancellation of ''[[The Flash (comic book)|The Flash]]'' (with issue 350), ''[[Superman (comic book)|Superman]]'' (with issue 423), and ''[[Wonder Woman (comic book)|Wonder Woman]]'' (with issue 329). The post-Crisis world would have [[Wally West]] as the new Flash, [[John Byrne (comics)|John Byrne]] writing a brand-new Superman series, and [[George Pérez]] working on a new Wonder Woman series. Batman would also get a makeover as the ''[[Batman: Year One]]'' storyline would be one of the most popular Batman stories ever published.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

In rough chronological order by the beginning of the trend, here are some important developments that occurred during the Modern Age, many of which are interrelated:

===Rise of independent publishers===
The late 1970s saw famed creators going to work for new independent publishers. The arrival of [[Jim Shooter]] as editor-in-chief at [[Marvel Comics]] saw the departure of key creators at Marvel such as [[Steve Gerber]], [[Marv Wolfman]], and others. In these new companies ([[Pacific Comics|Pacific]], [[Eclipse Comics|Eclipse]], [[First Comics|First]]) creators were free to create very personal stories. [[Mike Grell]]'s ''[[Jon Sable]] Freelance'', [[Howard Chaykin]]'s ''[[American Flagg!]]'', [[Mike Baron]] and [[Steve Rude]]'s ''[[Nexus (comics)|Nexus]]'', Dave Steven's Rocketeer and [[John Ostrander]]'s ''[[GrimJack]]'' attracted some attention and garnered a number of awards. These creators were brought in by DC editor [[Mike Gold (comics)|Mike Gold]] to create defining works such as ''[[Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters]]'' by Grell, ''[[Blackhawk (DC Comics)|Blackhawk]]'' by Chaykin, and ''[[Hawkworld]]'' by Truman. With [[Alan Moore]], [[Frank Miller]], and [[Art Spiegelman]]'s ''[[Maus]]'' (which would later receive the [[Pulitzer Prize]]), this period marks the summit of the artform per comics expert [[Scott McCloud]].{{Citation needed|reason=No source given for McCloud's statement|date=April 2019}}

===Fantasy and horror===
The [[Comics Code Authority]] was established in 1954 and specified that no comic should contain the words "horror" or "terror" in its title. This led [[EC Comics]] to abandon its horror comics line. Publishers such as [[Dell Comics]] and [[Gold Key Comics]] did run an expanding line of silver-age horror and "mystery" titles during the early 1960s, and Charlton maintained a continuous publishing history of them, during the later 1960s, a gradual loosening of enforcement standards eventually led to the re-establishment of horror titles within the DC and Marvel lineups by the end of the decade. 1970s horror anthology series merely continued what had already been established during the late 1960s, and endured into the 1980s until they were markedly transformed into new formats, many of which were greatly influenced by, or directly reprinted, "pre-Code" content and styles of the early 1950s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Starting with [[Alan Moore]]’s groundbreaking work on [[DC Comics|DC]]'s ''[[Swamp Thing (comic book)|Swamp Thing]]'' in 1984–1987, horror comic books incorporated elements of science fiction/fantasy and strove to a new artistic standard. Other examples include [[Neil Gaiman]]’s ''[[The Sandman (comic book)|The Sandman]]'' (followed a few years later by [[Garth Ennis]] and [[Steve Dillon]]’s ''[[Preacher (comics)|Preacher]]''). DC's [[Vertigo Comics|Vertigo]] line, under the editorship of [[Karen Berger]], was launched in 1993, with the goal of specializing in this genre. Existing titles such as ''[[Animal Man (comic book)|Animal Man]]'', ''[[Doom Patrol]]'', ''[[Hellblazer]]'', and ''[[Shade, the Changing Man (Vertigo)|Shade, the Changing Man]]'' were absorbed into this new line. Other titles later were created for the line, which continued successfully into the 2010s.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Starting in the 1990s and throughout the 2000s, a number of successful movie adaptations of comic books, partly due to improvements in special effect technology, helped to extend their market audience, attracting the attention of many new readers who previously had not been interested in comic books. This also led to an avalanche of other movie adaptations which included previously lesser known [[Vertigo Comics|Vertigo]] titles, notably ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' (based on the comic book ''[[Hellblazer]]'') and ''[[V for Vendetta (film)|V for Vendetta]]''.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

===Rise of antiheroes===
In the mid-1980s, Marvel [[antihero]]es such as the X-Men's [[Wolverine (character)|Wolverine]], the [[Punisher]], and writer/artist [[Frank Miller]]'s darker version of [[Daredevil (Marvel Comics character)|Daredevil]] challenged the previous model of the [[superhero]] as a cheerful [[humanitarian]]. Miller also created [[Elektra (character)|Elektra]], who straddled the conventional boundary between love interest and [[villain]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Two artistically influential [[DC Comics]] [[Limited series (comics)|limited series]] contributed to the trend: ''[[The Dark Knight Returns|Batman: The Dark Knight Returns]],'' also by Frank Miller and ''[[Watchmen]]'' by [[Alan Moore]] and [[Dave Gibbons]], both of which were series of psychological depth that starred troubled heroes.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

By the late 1980s, DC had published many mature titles such as ''[[Hellblazer|John Constantine, Hellblazer]]'', ''[[Swamp Thing (comic book)|Swamp Thing]]'', and ''[[Lobo (DC Comics)|Lobo]]''. They featured morally ambiguous characters such as the cynical [[John Constantine]] and the violence-loving Lobo with [[graphic violence]] and adult content that differentiated them from other mainstream titles. DC later separated these titles to their launched [[Vertigo Comics|Vertigo]] imprint that publishes titles outside of the DC Universe.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

By the early 1990s, antiheroes had become the rule rather than the exception; among the most popular were [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Cable (character)|Cable]] and [[Venom (character)|Venom]] and [[Image Comics]]' [[Spawn (character)|Spawn]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

The trend of creating characters with more psychological depth that were less black-and-white, also affected [[supervillain]]s. For example, the [[Joker (character)|Joker]], Batman's nemesis, was portrayed less as an evil criminal and more as a mentally ill psychopath who cannot control his actions, Marvel Comics' galactic planet-eater [[Galactus]] became a force of nature who means no personal malice in his feedings, and the X-Men's nemesis [[Magneto (Marvel Comics)|Magneto]] became more benign and sympathetic as a man who fights for an oppressed people, albeit through means that others deem unacceptable.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

==Development of the X-Men franchise==

By the mid-1980s, ''[[X-Men]]'' had become one of the most popular titles in comics. Marvel decided to build on this success by creating a number of [[Spin-off (media)|spin-off]] titles, sometimes collectively referred to as "X-books". These early X-books included ''[[The New Mutants (comic book)|The New Mutants]]'' (which would later become ''[[X-Force (comic book)|X-Force]]''), ''[[X-Factor (comic book)|X-Factor]]'', ''[[Excalibur (comic book)|Excalibur]]'', and a ''[[Wolverine (comic book)|Wolverine]]'' solo series. There were many new popular additions to the X-Men in the 1990s, including [[Cable (character)|Cable]] and [[Bishop (Marvel Comics)|Bishop]].

By the early 1990s, X-Men had become the biggest franchise in comics, and by the middle of the decade over a dozen X-Men-related comic books, both continuing and [[Limited series (comics)|limited series]], were published each month. On an almost annual basis from 1986 until 1999, one storyline [[fictional crossover|crossed over]] into almost every X-book for two to three months. These "X-overs" usually led to a spike in sales.

This sales boom resulted in a great deal of merchandising, such as [[action figure]]s, [[video game]]s, and [[trading card]]s. This success was thanks in no small part to the Fox Network's [[X-Men: The Animated Series|animated ''X-Men'' series]], which debuted in 1992 and drew in a large number of younger fans.

The sales boom began to wane in the mid to late 1990s, due to the [[Comic market crash|crash of the speculators' market]] and the effect it had on the industry. Marvel declared [[bankruptcy]] in 1996,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Duncan |first1=Randy |last2=Smith |first2=Mathew J. |title=Power of Comics: History, Form and Culture. |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing US |location=London |isbn=9781441159243}}{{page needed|date=June 2021}}</ref> and as a result, scaled back all of their franchises, including X-Men. A number of "X-books" were canceled, and the amount of limited series published, as well as general merchandise, was reduced.

In the early 2000s, a series of blockbuster [[X-Men (film series)|''X-Men'' films]] have kept the X-Men franchise healthy, and have resulted in a larger market presence outside of comics. In 1999–2000, a new animated series, ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]'' debuted, while new toys have been developed and sold since the success of the first ''X-Men'' feature film. The comic books themselves have been reinvented in series such as [[Grant Morrison]]'s ''[[New X-Men (2001 series)|New X-Men]]'' and the ''[[Ultimate X-Men]]'', which, like Marvel's other "[[Ultimate Marvel|Ultimate]]" series, is an alternative universe story, starting the X-Men tale anew. This was done for ''X-Men'', and other books because Marvel feared that the long and complex histories of the established storylines of certain titles were scaring off new readers.

===Effect on other comics===
Many series tried to imitate the model the X-Men carved as a franchise. Marvel and DC expanded popular properties, such as [[Punisher]], [[Spider-Man]], [[Batman]], and [[Superman]] into networks of spin-off books in the mid-to-late 1980s. Like the X-books, some of these spin-offs highlighted a concept or [[supporting character|supporting character(s)]] from a parent series, while others were simply additional monthly series featuring a popular character. In another similarity to the X-books, these franchises regularly featured crossovers, in which one storyline overlapped into every title in the "family" for a few months.

With regards to storylines overlapping, the Superman stories from 1991 to 2000 were written on a weekly basis. One needed to buy ''[[Superman vol. 2|Superman]]'' (Vol. 2), ''[[Adventures of Superman (comic book)|Adventures of Superman]]'', ''[[Action Comics]]'', and ''[[Superman: The Man of Steel]]'' (and eventually, ''[[Superman: The Man of Tomorrow]]'') to keep up with any existing storylines. If a collector only bought ''Action Comics'', they would only get twenty-five percent of the story. A triangle was featured on the cover of every Superman title with a number on it. This number indicated which week of the year the Superman title was released.

==Makeovers and universe reboots==
<!--[[File:Amazing Spider-Man Vol 1 300.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Amazing Spider-man]]'' #300 (May 1988), showing Spider-man's black costume, is the debut of [[Venom (character)|Venom]]. Cover art by [[Todd McFarlane]].]]-->
Complementing the creation of these franchises was the concept of redesigning the characters. The Modern Age of comics would usher in this era of change. The impact of ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'' was the first example as Supergirl died in issue 7, and long-time Flash, [[Barry Allen]] died in issue 8. Specifically, Barry Allen signified the beginning of the [[Silver Age of Comic Books]] and his death was highly shocking at the time. Marvel Comics' ''[[Secret Wars]]'' would usher in a new change as well as Spider-Man would wear a black costume. This costume change led to the development of the character [[Venom (character)|Venom]].

The interest in the speculator market of a new Spider-Man costume led to other changes for Marvel characters in the 1980s. [[Iron Man]] would have a silver-and-red armor in issue 200. [[Captain America]] would be fired and would be reborn as the Captain, wearing a black outfit in issue 337 of the series. [[Hulk|The Incredible Hulk]] would revert to his original grey skin color in issue 325. Issue 300 of the first ''[[The Avengers (comic book)|Avengers]]'' series resulted in a new lineup including [[Mister Fantastic]] and the [[Invisible Woman]], of the [[Fantastic Four]]. Within the decade, [[Wolverine (character)|Wolverine]] would switch to a brown and yellow costume, [[Thor (Marvel Comics)|Thor]] would be replaced by [[Thunderstrike (Eric Masterson)|Thunderstrike]], [[Warren Worthington III]] (Archangel) would emerge as the X-Men's Angel's dark counterpart after serving as one of [[Apocalypse (character)|Apocalypse]]'s Horsemen, and many other Marvel characters would have complete image overhauls. The changes to Spider-Man, Thor, Captain America, Iron Man, Wolverine and most other Marvel characters would be undone in the early 1990s.

The 1990s would bring similar changes to the [[DC Universe]], including [[The Death of Superman|the death of Superman]]<ref>''Superman'' vol 2 #75</ref> and the [[Batman: Knightfall|crippling of Bruce Wayne]]<ref>''Batman'' #497</ref> in 1993. The only lasting change was [[Kyle Rayner]] replacing [[Hal Jordan]] as [[Green Lantern]].

In addition to individual character or franchise/family-wide makeovers, ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' ushered in a popular trend of "rebooting", "remaking" or greatly reimagining the publisher-wide universes every 5–10 years on varying scales. The practice of rebooting entire universes occurred frequently enough that this era has also been referred to as The Iron Age. This often resulted in origins being retold, histories being rewritten, and so forth. These reinventions could be on as large a scale as suddenly retconning seminal story points and rewriting character histories, or simply introducing or killing off/writing out various important and minor elements of a universe. ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'' resulted in several miniseries which explicitly [[retcon]]ned character histories, such as ''[[Batman: Year One]]'', ''[[The Man of Steel (comics)|The Man of Steel]]'' and ''[[Wonder Woman: Gods and Mortals]]''. An example of a less ambitious scale of changes is ''[[Green Arrow: The Longbow Hunters]]'', which did not explicitly retcon or retell Green Arrow's history, but simply changed his setting and other elements of the present, leaving the past largely intact. This trend of publisher-wide reinventions, which often consists of a new miniseries and various spinoff storylines in established books, continued for decades, with DC's [[The New 52]] in 2011 and Marvel's "[[Secret Wars (2015 comic book)|Secret Wars]]" in 2015.

==Image Comics and creator rights disputes==
{{Main|Image Comics}}
[[File:Spawn.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''[[Spawn (character)|Spawn]]'' #1 – cover art by [[Todd McFarlane]]]]
In the mid-1980s, artist [[Jack Kirby]], co-creator of many of Marvel's most popular characters, came into dispute with Marvel over the disappearance of original pages of artwork from some of his most famous titles. [[Alan Moore]], [[Frank Miller]], and many other contemporary stars became vocal advocates for Kirby.

By the early 1990s, these events, as well as the influence of vocal proponents of independent publishing, helped to inspire a number of Marvel artists to form their own company, [[Image Comics]], which would serve as a prominent example of [[creator ownership|creator-owned]] comics publishing. Marvel artists such as ''[[X-Men: Legacy|X-Men]]''{{'}}s [[Jim Lee]], ''[[New Mutants (comic book)|The New Mutants]]'' / ''[[X-Force (comic book)|X-Force]]''{{'}}s [[Rob Liefeld]] and ''[[Peter Parker: Spider-Man|Spider-Man]]''{{'}}s [[Todd McFarlane]] were extremely popular and were idolized by younger readers in ways more common to professional athletes and rock musicians than comic book artists. Propelled by star power and upset that they did not own the popular characters they created for Marvel, several illustrators, including the above three formed [[Image Comics]] in 1992, an umbrella label under which several autonomous, creator-owned companies existed.<ref name="TCJ">"Bye Bye Marvel; Here Comes Image: Portacio, Claremont, Liefeld, Jim Lee Join McFarlane's New Imprint at Malibu," ''The Comics Journal'' #148 (February 1992), pp. 11–12.</ref> Image properties, such as ''[[WildC.A.T.s]]'', ''[[Gen¹³|Gen<sup>13</sup>]]'', ''[[Witchblade]]'', and especially McFarlane's ''[[Spawn (character)|Spawn]]'' provided brisk competition for long-standing superheroes. Image in particular is singled out by some critics for contributing to the conditions which led to the [[Comic market crash|speculator market crashing]], as Image titles favored alternative covers, foil covers, and other "collectible" comics.<ref>"Newswatch: Industry Sales Records in 1993 Shadowed by Collapse of Speculator Boom: Image Receives Brunt of Criticism for Their Role in Market Crash," ''The Comics Journal'' #166 (February 1994), pp. 27–33.</ref>

Many popular creators followed Image's lead and attempted to use their star power to launch their own series; ones for which they would have licensing rights and editorial control. [[Chris Claremont]], famous for his long run as the writer of ''[[Uncanny X-Men]]'', created ''[[Sovereign Seven]]'' for [[DC Comics|DC]]; [[Joe Madureira]], also made popular by ''Uncanny X-Men'', launched ''[[Battle Chasers]]'' for [[WildStorm Productions]]; and [[Kurt Busiek]], [[Alex Ross]], and [[Brent Anderson (comics)|Brent Anderson]] created ''[[Astro City]]'' for Image.

==Milestone Comics and ethnic diversity==
{{Main|Milestone Media}}
In 1993, a coalition of African-American writers and artists started [[Milestone Comics]], believing that minority characters were underrepresented in American superhero comics. Some of the company's better-known series include ''[[Static (DC Comics)|Static]]'', about an African-American teen who became Milestone's key character; ''[[Hardware (character)|Hardware]]'', an example of [[Afrofuturism]]; ''[[Icon (character)|Icon]]'', about an alien mimicking the appearance of an African-American; and ''[[Blood Syndicate]]'', a series about a multicultural gang of superheroes. All of these flagship titles were co-created by [[Dwayne McDuffie]]. In 1997, the Milestone Universe merged with the [[DC Universe]].

==Rise and fall of the speculator market==
{{Main|Comic book collecting}}

By the late 1980s, important comic books, such as the first appearance of a classic character or the first issue of a long-running series, were sold for thousands of dollars. Mainstream [[newspaper]]s ran reports that comic books were good financial investments and soon [[Comic book collecting|collectors]] were buying massive amounts of comics they thought would be valuable in the future.

Publishers responded by manufacturing collector's items, such as [[trading cards]], and “limited editions” of certain issues featuring a special or variant cover. The first issues of [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[X-Force (comic book)|X-Force]], [[X-Men: Legacy|X-Men]]'' vol. 2, and ''[[Peter Parker: Spider-Man|Spider-Man]]'' became some of the first and most notorious examples of this trend. Another trend which emerged was foil-stamped covers. The first Marvel comic book with a foil-stamped cover was the third volume of the ''[[Silver Surfer (comic book)|Silver Surfer]]'', issue 50 (June 1991). A glow-in-the-dark cover for ''[[Ghost Rider (comic book)|Ghost Rider]]'', volume 3, issue 15 appeared as well. This led a market boom, where retail shops and publishers made huge profits and many companies, large and small, expanded their lines. [[Image Comics]] in particular became notorious for this, with many of its series debuting with alternative covers, wide use of embossed and foil covers and other "collectible" traits.

This trend was not confined to the books themselves, and many other pieces of merchandise, such as toys, particularly "chase" [[action figure]]s (figures made in smaller runs than others in a particular line), [[trading card]]s, and other items, were also expected to appreciate in value. McFarlane Toys was notable for this, as it created many variations in its high-quality toys, most of which were main characters or occasional guest stars in the Spawn series.

But few, in the glut of new series, possessed lasting artistic quality and the items that were predicted to be valuable did not become so, often because of huge print runs that made them commonplace. The speculator market began to collapse in summer of 1993 after ''Turok'' #1 (sold without cover enhancements) badly underperformed and Superman's return in ''Adventures of Superman'' #500 sold less than his death in ''Superman'' #75, something speculators and retailers had not expected. Companies began expecting a contraction and [[Marvel UK]]'s sales director, Lou Marks, stated on September 29 that retailers were saying there was "simply no room to display all the comics being produced".<ref>[http://starlogged.blogspot.co.uk/2014/10/1993-comic-world-reports-industry-crash.html STARLOGGED] reprinting ''Comic World'' #22, December 1993</ref> The resulting [[comic market crash]] devastated the industry: sales plummeted, hundreds of retail stores closed and many publishers downsized. Marvel made an ill-judged decision during the crash to buy [[Heroes World Distribution]] to use as its own exclusive distributor,<ref name="DuinCC">{{cite book|last1=Duin|first1=Steve|last2=Richardson|first2=Mike|title=Comics: Between the Panels|date=1998|publisher=Dark Horse Comics|location=Milwaukie, Or.|isbn=1-56971-344-8|page=69|edition=1.}}</ref> which resulted in both distribution problems for Marvel and the industry's other major publishers making exclusive distribution deals with other companies, which would lead to [[Diamond Comic Distributors Inc.]] becoming the only distributor of note in North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milehighcomics.com/tales/cbg131.html|last=Rozanski|first=Chuck|title=Diamond Ended Up With 50% of the Comics Market|publisher=MileHighComics.com|date=n.d.|access-date=April 27, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716200256/http://www.milehighcomics.com/tales/cbg131.html|archive-date=July 16, 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="bNet">{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_1996_July_26/ai_18526328 |title=Diamond Comic Distributors acquires Capital City Distribution; Comic distribution industry stabilized by purchase|publisher=bNet: Business Wire via Findarticles.com|date=July 26, 1996 | access-date=April 27, 2010}}</ref> In 1996, Marvel Comics, the largest company in the industry and hugely profitable just three years before, declared [[bankruptcy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/33907/marvel-files-for-bankruptcy|title=Marvel Files for Bankruptcy|date=December 27, 1996|website=E! Online}}</ref>

The crash also marked the relative downfall of the large franchises and inter-connected "families" of titles that led to a glut of merchandising. While the big franchise titles still have a large amount of regular titles and merchandising attached to them, all of these things were notably scaled back after the crash.

==Rise of the trade paperback format==
{{Main|Trade paperback (comics)#Readers and sales}}
Although sales of individual comic periodicals dropped in the late 1990s and the early 2000s, sales rose for [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperbacks]],<ref name=":222">{{Cite book|last=Phoenix|first=Jack|title=Maximizing the Impact of Comics in Your Library: Graphic Novels, Manga, and More|year=2020|isbn=978-1-4408-6886-3|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=4–12|oclc=1141029685}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Serchay|first=David S.|title=The Librarian's Guide to Graphic Novels for Children and Tweens|date=2008|publisher=Neal-Schuman Publishers|isbn=978-1-55570-626-5|location=New York|pages=3–24|oclc=212375709}}</ref> collected editions in which several issues are bound together with a spine and often sold in bookstores as well as comic shops. Comic book publishers began releasing trade paperbacks of collected story arcs directly after those stories' original periodical publication because a new reader could purchase the trade paperbacks and access the entire series' stories to date. ''The Librarian's Guide to Graphic Novels for Children and Tweens'' by David S. Serchay explains: "At first it was the most popular stories that were being collected, but more and more comic book stories are now being put into trades, sometimes less than two months after the 'newest' issue is sold. And [...] not only recent material but a great deal of older material is finally being collected into trades".<ref name=":7" />{{rp|15}} In 2015, ''[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]]'' highlighted that "though this was far less common a decade ago, pretty much every monthly comic out there right now is eventually collected into trade paperback or hardcover edition that prints several issues in one package".<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Polo|first=Susana|date=2015-05-01|title=Free Comic Book Day is here: Your best excuse to start reading comics|url=https://www.polygon.com/2015/5/1/8523979/free-comic-book-day|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Polygon}}</ref> Trade paperbacks are often even given volume numbers, making them a serialization of sorts. Due to this, many writers now consider their plots with the trade paperback edition in mind, scripting stories that last four to twelve issues, which could easily be read as a "[[graphic novel]]."

In addition, the publishing format has gained such respectability as literature that it became an increasingly prominent part of both [[book store]]s and [[public library]] collections.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Trade paperbacks and graphic novels are the preferred format for circulating library collections, since these collections are created to be read, and not to be retained as collector's items or as investments.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=O'English|first1=Lorena|last2=Matthews|first2=J. Gregory|last3=Lindsay|first3=Elizabeth Blakesley|date=2006|title=Graphic Novels in Academic Libraries: From Maus to Manga and Beyond|journal=Journal of Academic Librarianship|volume=32|issue=2|pages=173–182|doi=10.1016/j.acalib.2005.12.002|hdl-access=free|hdl=2376/743}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Bruggeman|first1=Lora|date=1997|title=Zap! Whoosh! Kerplow! Build High-Quality Graphic Novel Collections with Impact|volume=43|page=27|work=[[School Library Journal]]|issue=1}}</ref> Attempts to catalog and circulate single-issue comics can pose difficult problems<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Markham|first1=Gary W.|date=2009|title=Cataloging the Publications of Dark Horse Comics: One Publisher in an Academic Catalog|journal=Journal of Academic Librarianship|volume=35|issue=2|pages=162–169|doi=10.1016/j.acalib.2009.01.008}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title=Beinecke Cataloging Manual - Comics and Graphic Novels|url=http://beinecke1.library.yale.edu/info/bookcataloging/comics.htm|access-date=2021-04-02|website=beinecke1.library.yale.edu}}</ref> and the durability of the trade paperback format is an important consideration for longevity and collection development in public and school libraries. Trade paperbacks "are also the primary culprit in people's confusion of the lexicon, since 'TPBs make up 95% of what many librarians refer to as graphic novels'".<ref name=":222"/>

Despite the growing popularity of the trade paperback, the serialized, individual issues are still considered the primary mode of sale by comics publishers, and a poorly selling series may face cancellation irrespective of trade paperback sales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Plummer|first=Jessica|date=2016-09-14|title=Does Trade-Waiting "Hurt" a Comic?|url=https://bookriot.com/does-trade-waiting-hurt-a-comic/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=Book Riot}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web|date=2018-01-27|title=Comic Sales Figures Prove To Marvel: Diversity Isn't The Problem|url=https://screenrant.com/marvel-diversity-comic-sales-single-issue/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=ScreenRant}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|date=November 12, 2019|title=Does the Comics Industry Need Disrupting Too?|url=https://bleedingcool.com/comics/comics-industry-need-disrupting/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=bleedingcool.com}}</ref> However, some series<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-04-03|title=No, Diversity Didn't Kill Marvel's Comic Sales|url=https://www.cbr.com/no-diversity-didnt-kill-marvels-comic-sales/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=CBR}}</ref> "survive on the popularity of their trades sales, not just in the direct market and local comic shops, but in book stores across the world" and at "[[Scholastic Corporation|Scholastic]] [book] fairs and the like".<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 21, 2017|title=On the Victims of the Marvel Cancellation Bloodbath|url=https://bleedingcool.com/comics/victims-marvel-cancellation-bloodbath/|access-date=2021-04-02|website=bleedingcool.com}}</ref>

The popularity of trade paperbacks has resulted in older material being reprinted as well. The [[Essential Marvel]] line of trade paperbacks has reprinted heroes such as Spider-Man and the Fantastic Four and has been able to introduce these [[Silver Age of Comic Books|Silver Age]] stories to a new generation of fans. These editions tend to resemble a phone book in that these are very thick books and are black-and-white (to help keep the cost down). DC Comics has followed suit by introducing a line called [[Showcase Presents]]. The first four have included Superman, [[Green Lantern]], [[Jonah Hex]], and [[Metamorpho]] the Elemental Man. Other characters have included [[Green Arrow]], the [[Superman]] Family, the [[Teen Titans]] and the [[Elongated Man]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

In 2018, ''[[Screen Rant]]'' highlighted, "publishers and retailers traditionally ignore the sales of trade paperbacks when it comes to deciding whether or not a specific title is doing well. For decades, the single issue has been king, even though those sales figures are far from helpful. [...] Trade paperbacks are increasingly important as a marker of what sells, with 2016 seeing a 12% jump in trade sales over 2015 – a period when single-issue sales fell. Even 2017, which saw both trades and single issue sales fall compared to 2016, trades were down 9.38%, compared to single issues dropping 10.4%".<ref name=":4" /> In 2019, ''[[Bleeding Cool]]'' emphasized, "in recent years, collected issues/trade paperbacks are more popular and profitable than monthly comic book periodicals. As single-issue sales have consistently plummeted, trade paperbacks and graphic novels have filled in the gaps. From 2013 to 2018, graphic novels were the highest-selling format for comic books".<ref name=":5" /> According to industry reports,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-07-13|title=Comics And Graphic Novels Shattered Sales Records In 2019|url=https://screenrant.com/comics-sales-broke-records-year-2019/|access-date=2021-04-03|website=ScreenRant}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=MacDonald|first=Heidi|date=2020-07-15|title=Comics and Graphic Novel Sales top $1.21B in 2019 — the biggest year ever|url=https://www.comicsbeat.com/comics-and-graphic-novel-sales-top-1-21b-in-2019-the-biggest-year-ever/|access-date=2021-04-03|website=The Beat}}</ref> "the massive shift to graphic novels as the preferred format for comics continued in 2019 bringing sales in the book channel above the comic store channel in North America for the first time in the history of the medium"<ref>{{Cite web|title=Comics and Graphic Novel Sales Top $1.2 Billion in 2019|url=https://icv2.com/articles/markets/view/46094/comics-graphic-novel-sales-top-1-2-billion-2019|access-date=2021-04-03|website=icv2.com}}</ref> and that "the sales of graphic novels were growing faster in the book trade than in comics shops".<ref>{{Cite web|title=2019 North American Comics Sales Rose 11%|url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/comics/article/84755-2019-north-american-comics-sales-grow-to-1-21-billion.html|access-date=2021-04-03|website=PublishersWeekly.com}}</ref>

==Comics creators' mainstream success==
{{original research|section|date=September 2011}}
While many comic book artists and writers had become well known by their readership as early as the 1940s,<!--DC put Simon & Kirby's on the covers as a marketing tool; and many comic-strip artists were nationally famous--> some comics creators in the late 1980s and the 1990s became known to the general population. These included [[Todd McFarlane]], [[Neil Gaiman]], [[Alan Moore]], and [[Frank Miller]]. Some, such as Gaiman, went on to write critically and commercially successful novels. Others, like Miller, became Hollywood screenwriters and directors.

Conversely, film and TV directors and producers became involved with comics. [[J. Michael Straczynski]], creator of TV's ''[[Babylon 5]]'', was recruited to write Marvel Comics' ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' and, later ''[[Fantastic Four (comic book)|Fantastic Four]]'' filmmaker [[Reginald Hudlin]] became the writer of Marvel's ''[[Black Panther (character)|Black Panther]]''. [[Joss Whedon]], creator of TV's ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series)|Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'', wrote Marvel's ''[[Astonishing X-Men]]'' and ''[[Runaways (comics)|Runaways]]'', among other series. [[Richard Donner]], who directed the Superman films of the 1970s and 1980s, became a writer on the Superman feature in ''[[Action Comics]]'' in 2006, co-writing with comics writer (and Donner's former [[production assistant]]) [[Geoff Johns]]. [[Paul Dini]], producer and writer of ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' and ''[[Superman: The Animated Series]]'', started writing for DC in 1994 on special projects and took the helm as writer of ''[[Detective Comics]]'' in 2006.

Comics writer [[Peter David]]'s career as a novelist developed concurrently with his comic book career.<ref name=Q&A2>{{cite web|url=http://www.peterdavid.net/index.php/2003/10/21/whatcha-wanna-know-3/ |title=Peter David. "WHAT'CHA WANNA KNOW?" peterdavid.net; October 21, 2003 |publisher=Peterdavid.net |access-date=2009-09-10}}</ref><ref name=Trades>{{cite web|url=http://www.the-trades.com/article.php?id=1306|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130325074805/http://www.the-trades.com/article.php?id=1306|archive-date=2013-03-25 |title=R.J. Carter. "Interview: Peter David: An Apropos Conversation" The Trades; August 14, 2002 |publisher=The-trades.com |date=2002-08-14 |access-date=2009-09-10}}</ref> ''Sandman'' writer [[Neil Gaiman]] has also enjoyed success as a fantasy writer and number one [[New York Times Bestseller]]. [[Michael Chabon]] who won the Pulitzer Prize with ''[[The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay]]'', a novel about the start of the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]], then went on to write comics for DC and Dark Horse. Novelist [[Brad Meltzer]] saw success in the comics field with the controversial miniseries ''[[Identity Crisis (DC Comics)|Identity Crisis]]'', as well as runs on ''[[Green Arrow]]'' and ''[[Justice League of America (comic book)|Justice League of America]]''.

==Influence of other countries, genres, media and markets==
Interest in anime and manga into the United States has been known to date back as far as the mid 1970s around the American West Coast, though the mid to late 1980s would see the quiet introduction of various translated Japanese manga into North America. While not the first to release translated [[manga]], the first company to do so to a large degree was Eclipse which introduced ''[[Area 88]],'' ''[[Legend of Kamui]],'' and ''[[Mai the Psychic Girl]]'', the three titles that are generally associated with the first wave of manga translated into English. With social trends and influences like the [[Japanese asset price bubble|Japan Bubble Economy]] of the 1980s and corporate promoted business study focuses on Japanese relations and business in universities, interest and knowledge of [[Japanese pop culture in the United States|Japanese popular culture]] including anime and manga soon began to slowly but steadily spread by fans into the United States by the mid-1990s. In the aftermath of the bankruptcy of Marvel and DC and the languishing of American comics after 1996, and with the rise of the alternative media boom of the decade, interest in manga greatly increased by the 2000s. The consensus by both older and newer fans of manga often spoke of how manga's lexicon of works ranged greatly than the often restricted variety limited to superhero stories on the American market, and provided better quality by not subjecting themselves to the censorship and oppressive standards such as the [[Comics Code Authority]] or highly conservative; predominantly white American influence that was prominent years before. During the 1990s, publishers such as [[Dark Horse Comics]], [[Kodansha USA]], and [[Viz Media]] were established to meet the demand for manga. Upon the 2000s, [[Jump (magazine line)|Shonen Jump]] would establish a North American branch by 2001. While manga translations were previously presented in the traditional American comic magazine format, the [[digest size]] publications traditional to manga have become common. As a result of demand and to respect their cultural origins, the books are presented in the original form intended to be read from right to left.

[[Original English-language manga]], or OELs, have been prominent since before even the anime and manga boom of the dawn of the 2000s. OELs are original material written by non-Japanese authors who directly emulate manga style in both storytelling and art and openly identify their works as manga. In the 1980s, along with [[Comico: The Comic Company|Comico]] and [[Eternity Comics]]'s adaptation of the ''[[Robotech]]'' animated series, various other companies would release manga-style comics such as Ben Dunn's ''[[Ninja High School]]'' and [[Barry Blair]]'s ''Samurai''. [[Tokyopop]] was the first company on paper to contract non-Japanese artists to produce and market ([[Original English-language manga]]). Though previous manga-style comics consisted mostly of selective borrowing of manga or anime elements for a work that was not intended to be regarded as manga, their inspirations and artistic methods categorize them under the term.

In October 2019 industry analyst [[Milton Griepp]] presented data at an [[ICv2]] conference in New York showing that for the first time in decades, the market was dominated not by traditionally American monthly comics of the superhero genre, but graphic novels and trade paperbacks of other genres, particular those aimed at younger readers, such [[Dav Pilkey]]’s ''[[Dog Man]]'' and [[Raina Telgemeier]]’s ''[[Guts (graphic novel)|Guts]]'', and Japanese manga and manga-inspired books. These books see high sales in bookstores, though the shift was also reflected in comics shops. According to data by [[Bookscan]], child-oriented comics and graphic novels accounted for 41% of sell-through at bookstores, and manga is 28%, while books of the superhero genre constituted less than 10%, a drop of 9.6% year-over-year.<ref>{{cite web|author=Salkowitz, Rob|title=Surprising New Data Shows Comic Readers Are Leaving Superheroes Behind|magazine=[[Forbes]]|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/robsalkowitz/2019/10/08/surprising-new-data-shows-comic-readers-are-leaving-superheroes-behind|date=October 8, 2019|access-date=June 29, 2020|archive-date=October 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010165005/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robsalkowitz/2019/10/08/surprising-new-data-shows-comic-readers-are-leaving-superheroes-behind/}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Comics|1980s|1990s|2000s|2010s|2020s}}
* [[Events from the Modern Age of Comic Books]]
* [[Portrayal of women in American comics]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book | author=Voger, Mark| title=The Dark Age: Grim, Great & Gimmicky Post-Modern Comics | year=2006 | publisher=TwoMorrows Publishing | isbn=1-893905-53-5 }}

{{Comics}}

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