View source for Mother

{{Short description|Female parent}}
{{Redirect-several|Mother|Mothers|Mom|Mum|Mothering|Motherhood|Maternity}}
[[File:Portrait of a woman holding a baby (I0024828).jpg|upright|thumb|Portrait of a woman holding her young child, {{circa|1900|1920}}]]
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[[File:Cimitero di Staglieno, statue of mother and children-img114.jpg|upright|thumb|Statue of a mother with children at the [[Monumental Cemetery of Staglieno]] in [[Genoa]]]]
A '''mother''' is the [[female]] [[parent]] of a [[child]]. A [[woman]] may be considered a mother by virtue of having given [[childbirth|birth]], by raising a child who may or may not be her biological [[offspring]], or by supplying her ovum for [[fertilisation]] in the case of [[gestational surrogacy]].

A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to the creation of the infant, through [[sexual intercourse]] or [[egg donation]]. A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of [[adoption]]. A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A [[stepmother]] is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child.

A [[father]] is the [[male]] counterpart of a mother. Women who are [[pregnant]] may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be.<ref>{{cite web|title=definition of mother from Oxford Dictionaries Online|url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815101848/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mother?rskey=YplwRN&result=1|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 15, 2011|work=Oxford Dictionaries|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite dictionary|title=Define Mother at Dictionary.com|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mother|dictionary=Dictionary.com}}</ref> The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as "matrescence".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sacks |first1=Alexandra |title=The Birth of a Mother |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/08/well/family/the-birth-of-a-mother.html |access-date=9 September 2018 |date=8 May 2017 |language=en |archive-date=7 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907032325/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/08/well/family/the-birth-of-a-mother.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[adjective]] "maternal" refers to a mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a [[father]]. The [[verb]] "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Definition of MOTHER|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mother|access-date=2022-02-12|website=Merriam-Webster |language=en|archive-date=2022-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416203833/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mother|url-status=live}}</ref> Related [[term of endearment|terms of endearment]] are ''mom'' (''mama'', ''mommy''), ''mum'' (''mummy''), ''mumsy'', ''mamacita'' (''ma'', ''mam'') and ''mammy''. A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a ''mother-figure''.

==Types of motherhood==
[[File:Breast feeding cat.ogv|upright|thumb|A mama cat feeding her kittens]]
[[File:Crude Birth Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of countries by crude birth rate]]
[[File:Total Fertility Rate Map by Country.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Map of countries by fertility rate]]
[[File:Share of births by age of mother, Europe (UN), OWID.png|thumb|Share of births by age of mother in Europe over time<ref>{{cite web |title=Share of births by age of mother |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-births-by-age-of-mother?country=~Europe+%28UN%29 |website=Our World in Data |access-date=25 May 2025 |language=en}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mother and child. Gandola Monastery. Lahaul, India. 2004.jpg|thumb|Mother and child. Gandola Monastery, [[Lahaul]], India.]]<!-- maps should be wrapped with 'mim' template -->

=== Biological mother ===
Biological motherhood for [[human]]s, as in other [[mammal]]s, occurs when a [[pregnant]] female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through [[sexual intercourse]] after she has begun to [[ovulate]]. In well-nourished girls, [[menarche]] (the first [[menstrual cycle|menstrual period]])  usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mishra |first1=Gita D. |last2=Cooper |first2=Rachel |last3=Tom |first3=Sarah E. |last4=Kuh |first4=Diana |year=2009 |title=Early Life Circumstances and Their Impact on Menarche and Menopause |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/589004_3 |website=Medscape |series=5(2) |publisher=Women's Health |pages=175–190 |access-date=2018-08-27 |archive-date=2009-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606093904/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/589004_3 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Typically, a [[fetus]] develops from the viable [[zygote]], resulting in an [[embryo]]. [[Gestation]] occurs in the woman's [[uterus]] until the fetus (assuming it is carried to [[Pregnancy duration|term]]) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born [[preterm birth|prematurely]], late, or in the case of [[stillbirth]], do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces [[milk]] via the [[lactation]] process. The mother's [[breast milk]] is the source of [[antibodies]] for the infant's [[immune system]], and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/pregnancy-and-baby/solid-foods-weaning/|title=Your baby's first solid foods|date=2017-12-21|website=nhs.uk|language=en|access-date=2018-12-17|archive-date=2012-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318105745/http://www.nhs.uk/Planners/birthtofive/Pages/Weaningfirststeps.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Childlessness]] is the state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be [[voluntary childlessness]], which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of [[forced pregnancy]], such as [[pregnancy from rape]]. Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice [[forced marriage]] and [[child marriage]].

=== Non-biological mother ===
''Mother'' can often apply to a woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an [[adoptive]] mother or a [[stepmother]] (the biologically unrelated [[Significant other|partner]] of a child's [[father]]). The term "[[othermother]]" or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother.

Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization.<ref name="Conn2013">{{cite book|author=Peter Conn|title=Adoption: A Brief Social and Cultural History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DoUh9LvIzRcC&pg=PA25|date=28 January 2013|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-137-33390-2|pages=25–64}}</ref> Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive [[statutes]] and [[regulations]]. In recent decades, [[international adoption]]s have become more and more common.

[[Adoption in the United States]] is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries).<ref>{{cite news|last=Jardine|first=Cassandra|title=Why adoption is so easy in America|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3354960/Why-adoption-is-so-easy-in-America.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/3354960/Why-adoption-is-so-easy-in-America.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=Telegraph|date=31 Oct 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf |title=Child Adoption : Trends and Policies |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2022-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324001923/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/policy/child-adoption.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Surrogate mother===
{{Main|Surrogacy}}
A surrogate mother is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in [[reproductive technologies]], such as [[In vitro fertilisation|in vitro fertilization]].

Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both a genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term.

=== Lesbian and bisexual motherhood ===
The possibility for [[lesbian]] and [[bisexual]] women in [[same-sex relationship]]s to become mothers has increased over the past few decades{{when|date=October 2014}} due to technological developments. Modern [[LGBT parenting|lesbian parenting]] originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers is through adopting, [[foster parent]]ing or in vitro fertilization.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lesbian parenting: issues, strengths and challenges|url=http://find.galegroup.com/gtx/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T002&prodId=AONE&docId=A96237890&source=gale&userGroupName=wash_main&version=1.0|access-date=2011-01-25}}</ref><ref name="hooks2000">{{Cite book|author=Mezey, Nancy J|url=https://archive.org/details/newchoicesnewfam0049meze|title=New Choices, New Families: How Lesbians Decide about Motherhood|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8018-9000-0|location=Baltimore|url-access=registration}}</ref>

=== Transgender motherhood ===
{{about|transgender women who are parents|pregnancy in transgender men and nonbinary people|Transgender pregnancy|section=yes}}
[[Trans woman|Transgender women]] may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Halim|first=Shakera|date=2019-08-05|title=Study shows sperm production for transgender women could still be possible|url=https://www.healtheuropa.eu/sperm-production-transgender-women/92733/|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Health Europa|language=en-GB|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212232143/https://www.healtheuropa.eu/sperm-production-transgender-women/92733/|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite web|title=Reproductive Options for Transgender Individuals|url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/transgender-reproductive-options|access-date=2021-12-12|website=Yale Medicine|language=en|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212214702/https://www.yalemedicine.org/conditions/transgender-reproductive-options|url-status=live}}</ref> For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on [[Uterus transplantation|uterus transplants]], which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through [[Caesarean section]]. Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kinkler|first1=Lori A.|last2=Goldberg|first2=Abbie E.|date=2011-10-01|title=Working With What We've Got: Perceptions of Barriers and Supports Among Small-Metropolitan Same-Sex Adopting Couples|journal=Family Relations|volume=60|issue=4|pages=387–403|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00654.x|issn=0197-6664|pmc=3176589|pmid=21949461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montero|first=Darrel|date=2014-05-20|title=Attitudes Toward Same-Gender Adoption and Parenting: An Analysis of Surveys from 16 Countries|url=https://advancesinsocialwork.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/16139|journal=Advances in Social Work|volume=15|issue=2|pages=444–459|doi=10.18060/16139|issn=2331-4125|access-date=2021-12-12|archive-date=2021-12-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212232142/https://advancesinsocialwork.iupui.edu/index.php/advancesinsocialwork/article/view/16139|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Social role==
{{See also|Sociology of the family#Sociology of motherhood}}
[[File:Sikkim 1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sikkimese people|Sikkimese]] mother with child]]
[[File:Percentage of birth to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007.png|upright|thumb|Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007<ref name="non_mar1">{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db18.htm|title=Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States|work=CDC/National Center for Health Statistics|date=May 13, 2009|access-date=September 24, 2011|archive-date=September 6, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906063823/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db18.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mother and children. Mahabalipuram.jpg|upright|thumb|Mother and children ([[Mahabalipuram]], India)]]
The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.01192.x | volume=62 | title=Conceiving and Investigating Motherhood: The Decade's Scholarship | journal=Journal of Marriage and Family | year=2000 | pages=1192–1207| last1=Arendell | first1=Terry | issue=4 }}</ref> Historically, the role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf |title=The Changing Role of Women in North American Mammalogy |publisher=Biology.unm.edu |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2016-03-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104934/http://biology.unm.edu/fasmith/Web_Page_PDFs/Smith_Brown_1996.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Olga Engdahl 1951.jpg|thumb|upright|Olga Pearson Engdahl was ''American Mother of the Year'' in 1963.<ref>[http://www.americanmothers.org/past-national-mothers-of-the-year Website list] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323130748/http://www.americanmothers.org/past-national-mothers-of-the-year |date=2011-03-23 }}</ref>]]

Regarding [[women in the workforce]], mothers are said to often follow a "[[mommy track]]" rather than being entirely "[[career women]]". Mothers may be [[Housewife|stay at home mothers]] or [[Working parent|working mothers]]. In recent decades there has been an increase in [[Stay-at-home dad|stay at home fathers]] too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/26128/540.population.societies.2017.january.en.pdf|title=Has childlessness peaked in Europe?|website=Ined.fr|access-date=17 December 2017|archive-date=21 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170221105932/https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/26128/540.population.societies.2017.january.en.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.<ref>[http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cisep/conferencias/conferencia_20021016/Papers/kjeldstad55.PDF] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815170110/http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cisep/conferencias/conferencia_20021016/Papers/kjeldstad55.PDF|date=August 15, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/gn/gn064/fathersimportant.htm |title=ucgstp.org |publisher=Ucgstp.org |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225030354/http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/gn/gn064/fathersimportant.htm |archive-date=2008-02-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. [[Mothers' rights]] within the workforce include [[maternity leave]] and [[parental leave]].

The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ann M. Berghout Austin1 and T.J. Braeger2 |url=http://fla.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/30/181 |title=Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: implications for the construction of a personal premise system |journal=First Language |publisher=Fla.sagepub.com |date=1990-10-01 |volume=10 |issue=30 |pages=181–197 |doi=10.1177/014272379001003001 |access-date=2011-10-27 |archive-date=2008-09-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080904200612/http://fla.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/30/181 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation.<ref name=speech/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hladik |first1=E. |last2=Edwards |first2=H. |year=1984 |title=A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment |journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research |volume=13 |pages=321–332 |doi= 10.1007/bf01068149|s2cid=144226238 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Leaper |first1=C. |last2=Anderson |first2=K. |last3=Sanders |first3=P. |year=1998 |title=Moderators of gender effects on parents' talk to their children: A meta-analysis |journal=Developmental Psychology |volume=34 |issue= 1|pages=3–27 |doi= 10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.3|pmid=9471001 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/07x9h9vv }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mannle |first1=S. |last2=Tomasello |first2=M. |year=1987 |chapter=Fathers, siblings, and the bridge hypothesis |editor-first=K. E. |editor-last=Nelson |editor2-first=A. |editor2-last=vanKleeck |title=Children's language |volume=6 |pages=23–42 |location=Hillsdale, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum }}</ref> The way mothers speak to their children ([[Baby talk|"motherese"]]) is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.<ref name=speech>{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fathers%27+speech+to+their+children:+perfect+pitch+or+tin+ear%3F-a0107202406 |title=Fathers' speech to their children: perfect pitch or tin ear? |publisher=Thefreelibrary.com |access-date=2011-10-27 |archive-date=2012-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019065505/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fathers%27+speech+to+their+children:+perfect+pitch+or+tin+ear%3F-a0107202406 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since the 1970s, [[in vitro fertilization]] has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacob-m-appel/motherhood-is-it-ever-too_b_233916.html |title=Motherhood: Is It Ever Too Late? &#124; Jacob M. Appel |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date=2009-08-15 |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2015-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702113016/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacob-m-appel/motherhood-is-it-ever-too_b_233916.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/17/getting-pregnant-after-50_n_238704.html |title=Getting Pregnant After 50: Risks, Rewards |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date=2009-08-17 |access-date=2015-07-01 |archive-date=2015-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702101334/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/07/17/getting-pregnant-after-50_n_238704.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This is, however, a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as [[polio]], [[typhus]] and [[malaria]].

Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a [[married]] woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying a strong [[social stigma]]. Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see [[Legitimacy (family law)]] and [[single parent]].

The total fertility rate (TFR), that is, the number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in [[Niger]] (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in [[Singapore]] (0.79 children/woman).<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003803/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 13, 2007|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman.<ref name="cia.gov"/> In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm|title=FastStats|work=cdc.gov|date=20 October 2021|access-date=10 September 2017|archive-date=12 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112144911/https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/births.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Health==
{{main|Maternal mortality}}
[[File:Maternal mortality rate worldwide.jpg|thumb|upright|Maternal mortality map, given as the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births in 2012]]
[[File:Infant mortality map of the world.svg|thumb|upright|Infant mortality rates under age 1, per 1,000 live births in 2013]]<!--maps should be grouped with 'mim' template-->

A ''maternal death'' is defined by [[World Health Organization|WHO]] as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/indmaternalmortality/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507115424/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/statistics/indmaternalmortality/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 7, 2013|title=WHO - Maternal mortality ratio (per 100 000 live births)|work=who.int}}</ref>

About 56% of maternal deaths occur in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and another 29% in [[South Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/news/over-99-percent-of-maternal-deaths-occur-in-developing-countries|title=Over 99 percent of maternal deaths occur in developing countries|work=worldbank.org|access-date=2013-09-21|archive-date=2013-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002211837/http://data.worldbank.org/news/over-99-percent-of-maternal-deaths-occur-in-developing-countries|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2006, the organization [[Save the Children]] has [[Save the Children State of the World's Mothers report|ranked]] the countries of the world, and found that [[Scandinavia]]n countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth.<ref>[http://www.savethechildren.net/alliance/what_we_do/newsdesk/2006-05-08b.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012211639/http://www.savethechildren.net/alliance/what_we_do/newsdesk/2006-05-08b.html|date=October 12, 2007}}</ref> This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to [[maternal mortality|die in pregnancy or childbirth]], compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to [[infant mortality|see her child die]] before reaching their first birthday.

The most recent data suggests that [[Italy]], [[Sweden]] and [[Luxembourg]] are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and [[Afghanistan]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[Malawi]] are the most dangerous.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newser.com/story/86023/safest-place-to-give-birth-italy.html|title=Safest Place to Give Birth? Italy|author=Kevin Spak|work=Newser|date=14 April 2010|access-date=1 March 2012|archive-date=20 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220045654/http://www.newser.com/story/86023/safest-place-to-give-birth-italy.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/12/maternal-mortality-rates-millennium-development-goals | work=The Guardian | first=Simon | last=Rogers | title=Maternal mortality: how many women die in childbirth in your country? | date=2010-04-13 | access-date=2016-12-15 | archive-date=2017-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051923/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/12/maternal-mortality-rates-millennium-development-goals | url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Childbirth]] can be a dangerous process in the absence of effective measures to reduce death. When none of these measure are taken, the maternal death rate has been estimated as being within the order of magnitude of 1,500 deaths per 100,000 births.<ref name="vanlerberghe">Van Lerberghe W, De Brouwere V. ''Of blind alleys and things that have worked: history's lessons on reducing maternal mortality.'' In: De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W, eds. ''Safe motherhood strategies: a review of the evidence''. Antwerp, ITG Press, 2001 (Studies in Health Services Organisation and Policy, 17:7–33).  "Where nothing effective is done to avert maternal death, "natural" mortality is probably of the order of magnitude of 1,500/100,000."</ref> Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births.<ref>''ibid'', p10</ref>

==Religious==
[[File:Parvati Ganesha.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Hindu]] mother goddess [[Parvati]] feeding her son, the elephant-headed wisdom god [[Ganesha]]]]

Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either [[religious law]] or through the [[glorification]] of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women.

Major world religions which have specific religious law or [[religious texts]] that comment on mothers include: [[Women in Christianity|Christianity]],<ref>{{cite web |title=What The Bible Says About Mother |url=http://www.mothersdayworld.com/mothers-day-quotes/bible-verses-on-mother.html |publisher=Mothers Day World |access-date=2008-11-24 |archive-date=2008-12-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219234224/http://www.mothersdayworld.com/mothers-day-quotes/bible-verses-on-mother.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Women in Judaism|Judaism]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Religious Obligations of Jewish women |url=http://judaism.about.com/cs/women/f/women_mitzvot.htm |publisher=About.com |first=Lisa |last=Katz |access-date=2008-11-24 |archive-date=2008-09-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926164154/http://judaism.about.com/cs/women/f/women_mitzvot.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[gender roles in Islam|Islam]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Ideal Muslimah: The True Islâmic Personality of the Muslim Woman as Defined in the Qur'ân and Sunnah |first=Muhammad |last='Ali Al-Hashimi |url=http://www.wefound.org/texts/Ideal_Muslims_files/herchildren.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020302034316/http://www.wefound.org/texts/Ideal_Muslims_files/herchildren.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2002-03-02 |publisher=Wisdom Enrichment Foundation, Inc. |access-date=2008-11-24 }}</ref> Some examples of honoring motherhood include the veneration of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] as [[Mother of God]] and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the [[Book of Proverbs]].

[[Hindu]]'s [[Mother Goddess#Hinduism|Mother Goddess]] and [[Demeter]] of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers.

==Mother-offspring violence==
{{main|Matricide|Filicide}}
[[Image:Orestes Pursued by the Furies by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1862) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Orestes Pursued by the Furies]]'' by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]], 1862. [[Clytemnestra]] was murdered by [[Orestes]] and the [[Furies]] torment him for his crime.]]

History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in [[murder]], such as the conflict between [[Cleopatra III of Egypt]] and her son [[Ptolemy X]].

In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide (the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. [[Psychosis]] and [[schizophrenia]] are common causes of both,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bourget|first1=Dominique|last2=Gagné|first2=Pierre|last3=Labelle|first3=Mary-Eve|title=Parricide: A Comparative Study of Matricide Versus Patricide|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law|date=September 2007|volume=35|issue=3|pages=306–312|pmid=17872550|url=http://www.jaapl.org/content/35/3/306.full|access-date=2 July 2015|archive-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016134324/http://www.jaapl.org/content/35/3/306.full|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=West>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Sara G.|title=An Overview of Filicide|journal=Psychiatry|date=Feb 2007|volume=4|issue=2|pages=48–57|pmid=20805899|pmc=2922347}}</ref> and young, indigent mothers with a history of [[domestic abuse]] are slightly more likely to commit filicide.<ref name="West" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Friedman|first1=SH|last2=Horwitz|first2=SM|last3=Resnick|first3=PJ|title=Child murder by mothers: a critical analysis of the current state of knowledge and a research agenda.|journal=American Journal of Psychiatry|date=Sep 2005|volume=162|issue=9|pages=1578–87|pmid=16135615|doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.162.9.1578}}</ref> Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger.<ref>Greenfeld, Lawrence A., Snell, Tracy L. (1999-02-12, updated 2000-03-10). "Women Offenders". NCJ 175688. US Department of Justice</ref> Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heide|first1=KM|title=Matricide and stepmatricide victims and offenders: an empirical analysis of U.S. arrest data.|journal=Behavioral Sciences & the Law|date=Mar 2013|volume=31|issue=2|pages=301–14|pmid=23558726|doi=10.1002/bsl.2056}}</ref>

In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Crime in the United States: Murder Circumstances by Relationship, 2012|url=https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.-2012/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement/expanded-homicide/expanded_homicide_data_table_10_murder_circumstances_by_relationship_2012.xls|publisher=U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation|access-date=3 July 2015|archive-date=4 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704202449/https://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2012/crime-in-the-u.s.-2012/offenses-known-to-law-enforcement/expanded-homicide/expanded_homicide_data_table_10_murder_circumstances_by_relationship_2012.xls|url-status=live}}</ref>

==In art==
[[File:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Charity (1878).jpg|thumb|upright|''Charity'', by French painter [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]], 1878]]
[[File:Gallen Kallela Lemminkainens Mother.jpg|upright|thumb|''[[Lemminkäinen's Mother]]'', an 1897 painting by [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]]: She is shown having just gathered her son's [[Lemminkäinen]]'s broken body from the dark river.]]
[[File:Brooklyn Museum 50.124 Mother with Child Lupingu lwa Cibola (3).jpg|upright|thumb|This Congolese figure was used to protect women who had lost successive children to miscarriages or infant death and is considered one of the great masterpieces of African Art. [[Brooklyn Museum]].]]

Throughout history, mothers have been depicted in a variety of art works, including paintings, sculptures and written texts, that have helped define the cultural meaning of 'mother', as well as ideals and [[taboo]]s of motherhood.

Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of [[Rhodes]] depicted mothers with children.<ref>{{Google books |plainurl= |id=3fnsWhZkq74C |page=234 |title=Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society }}</ref>

Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in [[France]]. In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and the relation between mothers and children.<ref>{{Google books |plainurl= |title=Intimate Encounters: Love and Domesticity in Eighteenth-century France |id=DQ_8S3iJPa4C |page=87 }}</ref>

At the end of the nineteenth century, [[Mary Cassatt]] was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers.

American poet, essayist and feminist [[Adrienne Rich]] has noted "the disjuncture between motherhood as [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] institution and motherhood as complexly and variously lived experience".<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Heath |first=Joanne |date=December 2013 |title=Negotiating the Maternal: Motherhood, Feminism, and Art |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00043249.2013.10792867 |journal=Art Journal |volume=72 |issue=4 |pages=84–86 |doi=10.1080/00043249.2013.10792867 |s2cid=143550487 |issn=0004-3249|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The vast majority of works depicting motherhood in western art history have been created by artists who are men, with very few having been created by women or mothers themselves, and these often focus on the "institution of motherhood" rather than diverse lived experiences.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Epp Buller |first=Rachel |title=Reconciling Art and Mothering |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4094-2613-4 |editor-last=Epp Buller |editor-first=Rachel |location=Burlington, VT, USA |pages=1–12 |language=English |chapter=Introduction}}</ref> At the same time, art concerning motherhood has been historically marginalized within the [[feminist art movement]], though this is changing with an increasing number of [[Feminism|feminist]] publications addressing this topic.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last1=Chernick |first1=Myrel |title=The M Word: Real Mothers in Contemporary Art |last2=Klein |first2=Jennie |publisher=Demeter Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-9866671-2-1 |editor-last=Chernick |editor-first=Myrel |location=Bradford, Canada |pages=1–17 |language=English |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Klein |editor-first2=Jennie}}</ref>

The institution of motherhood in western art is often depicted through "the myth of the all-loving, all-forgiving and all-sacrificing mother" and related ideals.<ref name=":12"/> Examples include works featuring the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], an archetypal mother and a key historical basis for depictions of mothers in western art from the [[Renaissance|European Renaissance]] onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Shari |last=Thurer |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/780801259 |title=The myths of motherhood : how culture reinvents the good mother |date=1995 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=0-14-024683-5 |oclc=780801259}}</ref> Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive.<ref name=":03"/>

These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art is [[Mary Kelly (artist)|Mary Kelly's]] ''Post-Partum Document''. Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mary Kelly, Post-Partum Document (article) |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/conceptual-and-performance-art/conceptual-performance/a/mary-kelly-post-partum-document |access-date=2022-03-03 |website=Khan Academy |language=en |archive-date=2022-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303233638/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-1010/conceptual-and-performance-art/conceptual-performance/a/mary-kelly-post-partum-document |url-status=live }}</ref> Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment.<ref name=":22"/>   While the ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the 'good mother' forms an important part of many works of art relating to the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], other women's Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers' trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mor Presiado |date=2018 |title=The Expansion and Destruction of the Symbol of the Victimized and Self-Sacrificing Mother in Women's Holocaust Art |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2979/nashim.33.1.09 |journal=Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women's Studies & Gender Issues |issue=33 |pages=177 |doi=10.2979/nashim.33.1.09 |s2cid=165961732 |issn=0793-8934|url-access=subscription }}</ref> For example, works by first-generation survivors of the Holocaust such as [[Ella Liebermann-Shiber]] and [[Shoshana Neuman]] have depicted mothers abandoning and suffocating their children in an effort to stay alive themselves.

Increasingly diverse representations of motherhood can be found in contemporary works of art. [[Catherine Opie|Catherine Opie's]] self-portrait photographs, including of herself nursing, reference the existing Virgin Mary archetype while subverting its norms around sexuality by centering her identity as a lesbian.<ref name=":03"/> Rather than attempting to make her experience of motherhood fit into existing norms, Opie's photographs are "non-traditional and non-apologetic representations".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Barnett |first=Erin |title=Reconciling Art and Mothering |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4094-2613-4 |editor-last=Epp Buller |editor-first=Rachel |location=Burlington, VT, USA |pages=85–93 |language=English |chapter=Lesbian, Pervert, Mother: Catherine Opie's Photographic Transgressions}}</ref>

In her 2020 photography collection, [[Solana Cain]] explored the meaning of joy for Black mothers to challenge the lack of images in mainstream media that represent Black motherhood.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Quammie |first=Bee |date=May 5, 2021 |title=The tenderness and tenacity of Black motherhood |url=https://www.macleans.ca/society/the-tenderness-and-tenacity-of-black-motherhood/ |access-date=Mar 3, 2022 |website=Maclean's |archive-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303230643/https://www.macleans.ca/society/the-tenderness-and-tenacity-of-black-motherhood/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Renee Cox|Renee Cox's]] ''Yo Mama'' series of nude self-portraits challenge historical representations of both the black female body and of [[Mammy stereotype|maternity and slavery]] in the US, the latter of which is often characterized by the "extreme passivity and devalued love" typically associated with motherhood.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Liss |first=Andrea |title=Reconciling Art and Mothering |publisher=Ashgate Publishing Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4094-2613-4 |editor-last=Epp Buller |editor-first=Rachel |location=Burlington, VT, USA |pages=71–84 |language=English |chapter=Making the Black Maternal Visible: Renee Cox's Family Portraits}}</ref>

==Synonyms and translations==
[[File:Quechuawomanandchild.jpg|thumb|upright|Mother with child in [[Peru]]]]
[[File:ASC Leiden - Coutinho Collection - 11 24 - Village in the liberated areas, Guinea-Bissau - 1974.tiff|upright|thumb|Mothers with children in liberated [[Guinea-Bissau]], 1974]]
{{Main|Mama and papa}}
The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language.

Familiar or colloquial terms for ''mother'' in English are:
* ''Ma''(মা), ''Mata'' (মাতা), ''Amma'' (আম্মা), ''Ammu'' (আম্মু) used in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]].
* ''Aama'', ''Mata'' used in [[Nepal]]
* ''Mom'' and ''mommy'' are used in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[South Africa]], and parts of the [[West Midlands (county)|West Midlands]] including [[Birmingham]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
* ''Inay'', ''Nanay'', ''Mama'', ''Ma'', ''Mom'', ''Mommy'' are used in the [[Philippines]]
* ''Mum'' and ''mummy'' and ''mama'' are used in the United Kingdom, Canada, [[Singapore]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]].
* ''Ma'', ''mam'', and ''mammy'' are used in [[Netherlands]], Ireland, the Northern areas of the United Kingdom, and [[Wales]]; it is also used in some areas of the United States.
* {{Transliteration|ja|Mama}} was imported into [[Japan]] from American influence post–[[World War II]], and is a less formal term for mother.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shoji|first=Kaori|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2004/10/28/language/for-japanese-family-names-are-the-worst-growing-pains/|title=For Japanese, family names are the worst growing pains|newspaper=[[The Japan Times]]|date=2004-10-28|accessdate=2022-06-09|archive-date=2022-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609051828/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2004/10/28/language/for-japanese-family-names-are-the-worst-growing-pains/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply:
* ''Amma'' (அம்மா) or ''Thai'' (தாய்) in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]''.''
*''Bi-ma'' (बिमा) in [[Boro language (India)|Bodo]].
*''Maa'', ''aai'', ''amma'', and ''mata'' are used in languages of [[India]] like [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] etc.
* ''Mamá'', ''mama'', ''ma'', and ''mami'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
* ''Mama'' in [[Polish language|Polish]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
* ''Māma'' (妈妈/媽媽) in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
* ''Máma'' in [[Czech language|Czech]] and in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] 
* ''Maman'' in [[French language|French]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]
* ''Ma'', ''mama'' in [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
* ''Mamaí'', ''mam'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]
* ''Mamma'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
* {{Transliteration|fa|Māman}} or {{Transliteration|fa|mādar}} in [[Persian language|Persian]]
* {{Transliteration|pt|Mamãe}} or {{Transliteration|pt|mãe}} in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
* ''Mā̃'' (ਮਾਂ) in [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
* ''Mõujì''  in [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
*Maa (ମା), Bou/Bau (ବୋଉ/ବଉ) in [[Odia language|Odia]]
* {{Transliteration|sw|Mama}} in [[Swahili language|Swahili]]
* {{Transliteration|he|Em}} ({{Lang|he|אם}}) in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
* ''A'ma'' (ܐܡܐ) in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
* ''Má'' or ''mẹ'' in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
* {{Lang|cy|Mam}} in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
* ''Eomma'' (엄마, {{IPA|ko|ʌmma|pron}}) in [[Korean language|Korean]]
* ''Mma'' in [[Tyap language|Tyap]]
* In many south Asian cultures and the Middle East, the mother is known as ''amma'', ''oma'', ''ammi'' or "ummi", or variations thereof. Many times, these terms denote affection or a maternal role in a child's life.

===Etymology===
[[File:Մայր Հայաստան հուշարձան.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of [[Mother Armenia]], aerial view in [[Yerevan]]]]
The modern English word is from Middle English {{Lang|enm|moder}}, from Old English {{Lang|ang|mōdor}}, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch {{Lang|nl|moeder}}, German {{Lang|de|Mutter}}), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin {{Lang|la|māter}}, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat')), Persian {{Lang|fa|مادر}} ({{Lang|fa-Latn|madar}}), and Sanskrit {{Lang|sa|मातृ}} ({{Lang|sa-Latn|mātṛ}}).

==Notable mothers in mythology==
{{div col|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Bachue]]
* [[Bithiah]]
* [[Demeter]]
* [[Yashoda]]
* [[Dewi Sri]]
* [[Eve]]
* [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]
* [[Isis]]
* [[Jocasta]]
* [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]]
* [[Kwan Yin]]
* [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]
* [[Parvati]]
* [[Queen Maya]]
* [[Sita]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]
{{div col end}}

== Zoology ==
In [[zoology]], particularly in [[mammals]], a mother fills many similar biological functions as a human mother.

=== Mammals ===
Many other [[Female#Mammalian female|mammal mothers]] also have numerous commonalities with humans.{{Which|date=November 2025}}

==== Primates ====
The [[Animal sexual behaviour|behavior]] and role of mothers in non-human species is most similar in species most closely related to humans. This means [[great ape]]s are most similar, then the broader [[Ape|superfamily of all apes]], then all [[primate]]s.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Father]]
* [[Advanced maternal age]]
* [[Attachment parenting]]
* [[Baby planner]]
* [[Blessed Virgin Mary]]
* [[Breastfeeding]]
* [[Jungian archetypes]]
* [[Lactation]]
* [[Maternal bond]]
* [[Maternity package]]
* [[Matriarch]]
* [[Matricide]]
* [[Matrilocal residence]]
* [[Mother goddess]]
* [[Mother insult]]
* [[Motherhood penalty]] 
* [[Mother's Day]]
* [[Mothers' rights]]
* [[Nuclear family]]
* [[Oedipus complex]]
* [[Othermother]]
* [[Parenting]]
* [[Single-parent]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Atkinson, Clarissa W. ''The Oldest Vocation: Christian Motherhood in the Medieval West'' (Cornell University Press, 2019).
* Cowling, Camillia, et al. "Mothering slaves: comparative perspectives on motherhood, childlessness, and the care of children in Atlantic slave societies." ''Slavery & Abolition'' 38#2 (2017): 223-231. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144039X.2017.1316959 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310181845/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0144039X.2017.1316959 |date=2021-03-10 }}
* Du, Yue. "Concubinage and Motherhood in Qing China (1644–1911) Ritual, Law, and Custodial Rights of Property." ''Journal of Family History'' 42.2 (2017): 162-183.
* Ezawa, Aya. ''Single Mothers in Contemporary Japan: Motherhood, Class, and Reproductive Practice'' (2016) [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0891243216687245?journalCode=gasa online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310182721/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0891243216687245?journalCode=gasa |date=2021-03-10 }}
* Feldstein, Ruth. ''Motherhood in black and white'' (Cornell UP, 2018) in U.S. history.
* Griffin, Emma. "The Value of Motherhood: Understanding Motherhood from Maternal Absence in Victorian Britain." ''Past & Present'' 246.Supplement_15 (2020): 167-185.
* Healy-Clancy, Meghan. "The Family Politics of the Federation of South African Women: A History of Public Motherhood in Women's Antiracist Activism" ''Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society'' 42.4 (2017): 843-866 [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/690916 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310181845/https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/690916 |date=2021-03-10 }}.
* {{cite book |last=Hrdy |first=Sarah Blaffer |author-link=Sarah Blaffer Hrdy |title=Mother nature: maternal instincts and how they shape the human species |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=DcCOAAAAIAAJ }} }}
* Knight, R. J. "Mistresses, motherhood, and maternal exploitation in the Antebellum South." ''Women's History Review'' 27.6 (2018): 990-1005 in USA.
* Lerner, Giovanna Faleschini, and D'Amelio Maria Elena, eds. ''Italian Motherhood on Screen'' (Springer, 2017).
* McCarthy, Helen. ''Double Lives: A History of Working Motherhood'' (Bloomsbury, 2020), focus on UK
* {{cite book |last=Manne |first=Anne |title=Motherhood – How should we care for our children? |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=KHdpcmuXB_oC}} }}
*  Massell, Gregory J. ''The Surrogate Proletariat: Moslem Women and Revolutionary Strategies in Soviet Central Asia, 1919-1929'' (Princeton UP, 1974).
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* Williams, Samantha. ''Unmarried Motherhood in the Metropolis, 1700–1850'' (Springer, 2018) in London. [https://www.amazon.com/Unmarried-Motherhood-Metropolis-1700-1850-Pregnancy/dp/3030103552 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220310144404/https://www.amazon.com/Unmarried-Motherhood-Metropolis-1700-1850-Pregnancy/dp/3030103552 |date=2022-03-10 }}
* Wood, Elizabeth A. ''The Baba and the Comrade: Gender and Politics in Revolutionary Russia'' (Indiana UP, 1997), [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=1890 online review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318225242/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=1890 |date=2021-03-18 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Wikiquote-inline|Mother}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Mothers}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline|mother}}

{{Family}}
{{Pregnancy}}
{{Parenting}}
{{Infants and their care}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Mythological archetypes]]
[[Category:Motherhood| ]]
[[Category:Terms for women]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]