View source for Mount Katahdin

{{Short description|Highest mountain in Maine, US}}
{{redirect|Katahdin}}
{{Use American English|date=June 2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name              = Katahdin
| photo             = Katahdin.jpg
| photo_caption     = Katahdin from {{convert|10000|ft|m|-3|abbr=on}}
| map               = USA Maine#USA
| map_caption       = Location in Maine##Location in the United States
| location          = {{unbulleted list
                      | [[Northeast Piscataquis, Maine|Northeast Piscataquis]],
                      | [[Piscataquis County, Maine|Piscataquis County]], [[Maine]], [[United States|U.S.]] }}
| label_position    = left
| elevation_ft      = 5267

| elevation_ref     = {{NAVD88}}<ref name="ngs">{{cite ngs |id=QG1451 |name=Mount Katahdin 2 |access-date=January 13, 2024}}</ref>
| prominence_ft     = 4288
| prominence_ref    = <ref name=pb>{{cite peakbagger |pid=6820 |name=Katahdin, Maine |access-date=2012-11-08}}</ref>
| listing           = {{unbulleted list
  | [[List of the major 100-kilometer summits of North America|North America isolated peaks]] 78th
  | [[List of U.S. states by elevation|U.S. state high point]] 22nd
  | [[List of New England Fifty Finest|New England Fifty Finest]] 2nd
  | [[Four-thousand footers|New England 4000-footers]] }}
| range             = [[Appalachian Mountains]]
| topo              = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Mount Katahdin
| coordinates       = {{coord|45.904354472|-68.921274306|type:mountain_region:US-ME_scale:100000_source:NGS|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref   = <ref name=ngs/>
| type              = [[Granite]]
| age               = [[Devonian]], [[Acadian orogeny]]
| easiest_route     = [[Hiking|Hike]], Abol Trail / Hunt Trail<br />{{convert|3.8|mi|km}}
| embedded          = {{designation list |embed=yes |designation1=NNL |designation1_date=1967}}

}}

'''Mount Katahdin''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|t|ɑː|d|ɪ|n}} {{Respell|kə|TAH|din}}) is the highest mountain in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Maine]] at {{convert|5269|ft|m|0}}. Named '''Katahdin''', which means "Great Mountain",<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9V1IAAAAMAAJ | title=The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States | publisher=Govt. Print. Off. | author=Gannett, Henry | year=1905 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_9V1IAAAAMAAJ/page/n171 172]}}</ref> by the [[Penobscot]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], it is within [[Northeast Piscataquis, Maine|Northeast Piscataquis]], [[Piscataquis County, Maine|Piscataquis County]], and is the centerpiece of [[Baxter State Park]]. It is a steep, tall [[massif]] formed from a [[laccolith|granite intrusion]] weathered to the surface. The flora and fauna on the mountain are typical of those found in northern [[New England]], with the summit hosting fragile and endangered [[alpine tundra]].

Katahdin has been known to the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the region for thousands of years and was known to Europeans since at least 1689. It has inspired hikes, climbs, journal narratives, paintings, and a piano sonata.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.classical-music.com/review/hovhaness-0 |publisher=Classical-music.com |title=Hovhaness: Khaldis; Mount Katahdin; Fantasy, Op. 16 |access-date=2012-11-08}}</ref> The area around the peak was protected starting in the 1930s by Maine Governor [[Percival P. Baxter|Percival Baxter]], who spent much of his personal fortune purchasing the mountain and surrounding lands after being unable to convince the state legislature of the wisdom of protecting it. Katahdin is the northern terminus of the [[Appalachian Trail]] and is near a stretch known as the [[Hundred-Mile Wilderness]]. Though part of the Appalachian Mountain system, Katahdin is isolated from the range, and sits largely on its own as a [[Inselberg|monadnock]]. The nearest higher mountains in any direction are the high peaks of the [[Presidential Range]], around {{convert|170|mi|km}} to the south-west.

In 1967, Mount Katahdin was designated as a [[National Natural Landmark]] by the [[National Park Service]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nps.gov/subjects/nnlandmarks/site.htm?Site=MOKA-ME |title=National Natural Landmarks - National Natural Landmarks (U.S. National Park Service) |website=www.nps.gov |language=en |quote="Year designated: 1967" |access-date=2019-03-22}}</ref>

The mountain is commonly called just "Katahdin",<ref>{{cite book |last=Clark|first=Stephen |title=Katahdin: A Guide to Baxter State Park & Katahdin |year=2003 |publisher=Clark Books |isbn=0-9741677-6-2}}</ref> though the official name is "Mount Katahdin" as decided by the [[United States Board on Geographic Names|US Board on Geographic Names]] in 1893.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:579940|title=GNIS Detail - Mount Katahdin|website=geonames.usgs.gov|access-date=13 August 2017}}</ref>

==Geology==
Katahdin is part of a [[laccolith]] that formed in the [[Acadian orogeny]] when an [[island arc]] collided with eastern [[North America]] approximately 400 million years ago. On the sides of Katahdin are four glacial [[cirque (landform)|cirques]] carved into the granite by alpine [[glacier]]s and in these cirques behind [[moraine]]s and [[esker]]s are several ponds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/explore/bedrock/katahdin/glacial-erosion.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012113831/http://www.maine.gov/doc/nrimc/mgs/explore/bedrock/katahdin/glacial-erosion.htm |archive-date=2008-10-12 |title=Geology of Baxter State Park |work=Maine Geological Survey}}</ref>

In Baxter State Park, many outcrops of [[sedimentary rock]]s have [[Glacial striation|striations]], whereas Katahdin [[Granite]] and Traveler [[Rhyolite]] [[lava]] have weathered surfaces on which striations are commonly not preserved. Bedrock surfaces of [[igneous rock]]s which were buried by glacial sediments and only recently exposed have well preserved striations, as in the vicinity of [[Ripogenus Gorge|Ripogenus]] Dam. Several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the Patten Road show striations, especially on the north side of the road at Hurricane Deck. A few outcrops near the Patten Road just north of Horse Mountain are striated, as are several outcrops of sedimentary rocks along the road from Trout Brook Farm northward to [[Second Lake Matagamon]].

==Fauna==
[[Fauna]] include [[American black bear|black bear]], [[deer]], and [[moose]] as well as [[black fly|black flies]] and [[mosquito]]s in the spring. A subspecies of Arctic butterfly, known as the Katahdin Arctic (''[[Oeneis polixenes]] katahdin'') is specific to the area, and is currently listed as endangered.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/species/endangered_species/katahdin_arctic/index.htm|title=Katahdin Arctic|publisher=Maine Dept of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330044243/http://www.maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/species/endangered_species/katahdin_arctic/index.htm|archive-date=2013-03-30}}</ref>
Among the birds are [[Bicknell's thrush]] and various songbirds and raptors. A study of the animal communities was published by Irving H. Blake in 1926.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Blake|first=Irving H.|title=A comparison of the animal communities of coniferous and deciduous forests|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_illinois-biological-monographs_1926-10_10_4/page/10|journal=Illinois Biological Monographs|date=October 1926|volume=10|issue=4|pages=10–39}}</ref> The flora includes [[pine]], [[spruce]], [[fir]], [[eastern hemlock|hemlock]], [[beech]], [[maple]], [[birch]], [[aspen]], and [[Diapensia lapponica|pincushion plant]] (''Diapensia lapponica'').
{{wide image|TjWikiKatahdin.jpg|783px|Mount Katahdin}}

==Geography==
Katahdin is in Baxter State Park, which is in east central Piscataquis County, about {{convert|25|mi|km|0|abbr=on}} northwest of [[Millinocket, Maine|Millinocket]]. It is on the [[drainage divide]] between the [[East Branch Penobscot River|East]] and [[West Branch Penobscot River|West branches]] of the [[Penobscot River]].

The mountain massif itself consists of multiple peaks. Baxter Peak is the tallest, and is the official northern terminus of the Appalachian Trail. South Peak and [[Pamola]] Peak are southeast and east of Baxter Peak, respectively, along the Knife Edge ridgeline, while [[Hamlin Peak]] lies to the north.

There is low lake country to the south and west of Katahdin, and lowlands extending east to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and north to the [[Saint Lawrence River]] in [[Canada]].

The summit of Katahdin offers some of the longest unbroken lines of sight in the United States, and on clear days can be seen all the way from the [[White Mountains (New England)|White Mountains]] of neighboring [[New Hampshire]]; a distance of {{convert|170|mi|km}}.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}

Katahdin's height and isolation earns it significant coverage in indigenous and post-colonial Maine culture and literature. Katahdin's profile is distinctive and the indisputable centerpiece of [[Baxter State Park]]. Katahdin and nearby Hamlin Peak are the only two areas to host a subarctic climate in [[Maine]]. In winter, the snowcapped east and west faces of Katahdin resemble "the [[Kilimanjaro]] of New England", and it dominates the otherwise flat and endless forests of the [[North Maine Woods]]. Katahdin is also the northernmost mountain in the eastern United States with an elevation over {{convert|4000|ft|m}}.

==Climate==
{{Weather box
|location = Mount Katahdin 45.9023 N, 68.9146 W, Elevation: {{cvt|4685|ft}} (1991–2020 normals)
|single line = y

|Jan high F = 16.9
|Feb high F = 17.9
|Mar high F = 24.1
|Apr high F = 38.2
|May high F = 51.4
|Jun high F = 60.5
|Jul high F = 65.5
|Aug high F = 64.8
|Sep high F = 58.4
|Oct high F = 45.2
|Nov high F = 31.0
|Dec high F = 22.6

|Jan mean F = 9.0
|Feb mean F = 9.8
|Mar mean F = 16.8
|Apr mean F = 30.1
|May mean F = 44.0
|Jun mean F = 53.7
|Jul mean F = 59.0
|Aug mean F = 57.8
|Sep mean F = 51.0
|Oct mean F = 37.9
|Nov mean F = 24.8
|Dec mean F = 15.3

|Jan low F = 1.1
|Feb low F = 1.8
|Mar low F = 9.4
|Apr low F = 22.1
|May low F = 36.6
|Jun low F = 47.0
|Jul low F = 52.5
|Aug low F = 50.8
|Sep low F = 43.6
|Oct low F = 30.6
|Nov low F = 18.5
|Dec low F = 8.0

|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation inch = 5.98
|Feb precipitation inch = 4.82
|Mar precipitation inch = 5.98
|Apr precipitation inch = 6.72
|May precipitation inch = 6.71
|Jun precipitation inch = 7.32
|Jul precipitation inch = 6.96
|Aug precipitation inch = 6.48
|Sep precipitation inch = 6.40
|Oct precipitation inch = 8.81
|Nov precipitation inch = 7.32
|Dec precipitation inch = 7.71

|source=PRISM Climate Group<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/
|title= PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University
|publisher= PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University
|access-date= September 30, 2023
|quote= To find the table data on the PRISM website, start by clicking ''Coordinates'' (under ''Location''); copy ''Latitude'' and ''Longitude figures'' from top of table; click ''Zoom to location''; click ''Precipitation, Minimum temp, Mean temp, Maximum temp''; click ''30-year normals, 1991-2020''; click ''800m''; click ''Retrieve Time Series'' button.}}</ref>
}}

==Human history==
[[File:Frederic Edwin Church - Mount Katahdin from Millinocket Camp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Mount Katahdin from Millinocket Camp'', by [[Frederic Edwin Church]], 1895]]

Katahdin is referred to 60 years after Field's climb of Agiokochuk ([[Mount Washington (New Hampshire)|Mount Washington]]) in the writings of [[John Gyles]], a teenage colonist who was captured near [[Portland, Maine]], in 1689 by the [[Abenaki]]. While in the company of Abenaki hunting parties, he traveled up and down several Maine rivers including both branches of the [[Penobscot River|Penobscot]], passing close to "Teddon". He remarked that it was higher than the [[White Mountains (New Hampshire)|White Hills]] above the [[Saco River]].

Among some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], Katahdin was believed to be the home of the storm god [[Pamola]], and thus an area to be avoided.<ref>{{cite book |title=North to Katahdin |url=http://www.ericpinder.com/html/pamola.html |chapter=Of Moose and Men...and Mountains |author=Eric Pinder |publisher=EricPinder.com |access-date=2012-11-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106215712/http://www.ericpinder.com/html/pamola.html |archive-date=2013-01-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The first recorded climb of "Catahrdin" was by Massachusetts surveyors Zackery Adley<ref>{{cite web|url=http://umaine.edu/mainestudies/projects-special-programs/mount-katahdin-history-geology-and-culture/|title=Mount Katahdin – History, Geology, and Culture|publisher=University of Maine|access-date=2013-12-23|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224120546/http://umaine.edu/mainestudies/projects-special-programs/mount-katahdin-history-geology-and-culture/|archive-date=2013-12-24}}</ref> and [[Charles Turner, Jr.]] in August 1804.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Description of Mount Catardin |year=1804 |first=C. |last=Turner |publisher=Massachusetts Historical Society |edition=Second Series Vol. viii |location=Boston}}</ref>  The letter describing the ascent of Charles Turner Jr. states that they began at the (West Branch Penobscot) at 8:00&nbsp;a.m. and arrived on the summit at 5:00&nbsp;p.m. guided by two Native Americans who were initially cautious but when the "cold part of the mountain" was reached and sensing the determination of the others became ambitious to reach the top first. Turner lists his party as: William Howe, Amos Patten, Joseph Treat, Samuel Call, William Rice, Richard Winslow, Charles Turner, Jr. In the 1930s [[Governor of Maine|Governor]] [[Percival P. Baxter|Percival Baxter]] began to acquire land and finally deeded more than {{convert|200,000|acre|km2|lk=in}} to the State of Maine for a park, named [[Baxter State Park]] after him. The summit was officially recognized by the [[United States Board on Geographic Names|US Board on Geographic Names]] as "Baxter Peak" in 1931.

In the 1840s [[Henry David Thoreau]] climbed Katahdin, which he spelled "Ktaadn"; his ascent is recorded in a well-known chapter of ''The Maine Woods''.<ref name="Thoreau1864">{{cite book|author=Henry David Thoreau|title=The Maine woods|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OxEIAAAAQAAJ|access-date=25 July 2013|year=1864|publisher=Ticknor and Fields|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OxEIAAAAQAAJ/page/n10 1]–84|chapter=Ktaadn|oclc=12015878}}</ref>  A few years later [[Theodore Winthrop]] wrote about his visit in ''Life in the Open Air''. Painters [[Frederic Edwin Church]] and [[Marsden Hartley]] are well-known artists who created landscapes of Katahdin. On 30 November 2011, Christie's auctioned Church's 1860 painting ''Twilight (Katahdin)'' for $3.1 million.

[[Elizabeth Oakes Smith]] "climbed Mount Katahdin in 1849—reportedly the first white woman to do so".<ref>White, Jonathan W., ''Shipwrecked: A True Civil War Story of Mutinies, Jailbreaks, Blockade-Running, and the Slave Trade'', Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2023, p. 47.</ref>

[[File:Katahdin assent.JPG|thumb|upright|The Appalachian Trail on Katahdin's Hunt Spur]]

==Recreation opportunities==
As the northern terminus of the [[Appalachian Trail]] and southern terminus of the [[International Appalachian Trail]], Katahdin is a popular hiking and backpacking destination and the centerpiece of [[Baxter State Park]]. Baxter State Park is open year-round, though strictly regulated in winter. The overnight camping season is, weather permitting, from May&nbsp;15 to October&nbsp;15 each year, with some campgrounds staying open until October 22. Capacity limits have been placed on day-use parking at the trailheads to minimize the overuse of trails.<ref name="parking">{{Cite web | url = https://baxterstatepark.org/general-info/#reserve | title=Hiking – Baxter State Park | publisher = Baxter State Park Authority | access-date=2023-04-18}}</ref>

Mt. Katahdin has several trails leading up to Baxter, Pamola, or Hamlin Peaks<ref name="trails">{{Cite web | url = https://baxterstatepark.org/general-info/ | title = Hiking – Baxter State Park | publisher = Baxter State Park Authority | access-date = 2023-04-18}}</ref> These trails start right up the mountain, but each trail on the mountain ends up taking eight to ten hours round-trip depending on ability. Even for experienced hikers, Katahdin is often considered one of the most challenging hikes in the entire [[Appalachian Mountain]] range.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = http://actoutwithaislinn.bangordailynews.com/2013/07/16/one-minute-hikes/1-minute-hike-katahdin-helon-taylor-knife-edge-abol-trails/|title = One Minute Hikes: Helon Taylor, Knife Edge, Abol}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://actoutwithaislinn.bangordailynews.com/2014/09/30/one-minute-hikes/1-minute-hike-cathedral-trail-of-katahdin/|title = One Minute Hikes: Cathedral}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url = https://actoutwithaislinn.bangordailynews.com/2012/08/14/one-minute-hikes/1-minute-hike-saddle-trail-mount-katahdin-maine/|title = One Minute Hikes: Saddle}}</ref> The rest of the trails go up the north side or west side of the mountain. These are accessed from the Chimney Pond Trail. For these trails, hikers must park at the Roaring Brook Campground and hike in. All trails are maintained by the Baxter State Park Authority, which runs the State Park. All of the trails on the mountain are classified as very strenuous, the highest classification the Park Authority gives, except for Saddle (strenuous), Hamlin Ridge trail (moderate), and Chimney Pond (moderate).<ref name="trails" />

{{Anchor|Knife Edge}}The most famous hike to the summit goes along Knife Edge, a glacial [[arête]] which traverses the ridge between Pamola Peak and Baxter Peak. There have been more than 60 deaths on Katahdin since 1933 including October 8 and 9, 2020.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Associated Press | date = October 9, 2020 | title = Hiker Found Dead on Katahdin a Day After Another Hiker Died | work = U.S. News & World Report | url = https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/maine/articles/2020-10-09/hiker-death-at-mount-katahdin-is-2nd-in-2-days | access-date = October 10, 2020}}</ref> The park as a whole typically sees a need for roughly 40 search-and-rescue events per year (1 in 2,000 hikers), with a peak of 70 in 2013. The vast majority of incidents occur in the summer months, and the primary causes are leg injury, exhaustion, dehydration and disorientation.<ref name="SAR data">{{Cite web | url = https://baxterstatepark.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/SAR-Analysis-Review-1.pdf | title = Baxter State Park SAR Data 1992-2014 | publisher = Baxter State Park Authority | access-date = 2023-04-18}}</ref> Because of this, Katahdin and New Hampshire's [[Mount Washington]] are routinely near the top of the most deadly "low mountains" on Earth, with more fatalities per foot of elevation gained than some much higher mountains in the [[Himalaya|Himalayas]].

== Namesakes ==
* Two [[US Navy]] ships have been named [[USS Katahdin|USS ''Katahdin'']]. [[Katahdin (Lake Boat)|''Katahdin'']] is also the name of a 1914 [[steamboat]] (later converted to [[Diesel engine|diesel]]) owned by the Moosehead Marine Museum that plies the waters of [[Moosehead Lake]] in northern [[Maine]].
* The [[Katahdin potato]], which was certified by the [[United States Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture]] in 1932, and is still popular in the Northeastern United States.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://potatoassociation.org/Industry%20Outreach/varieties/White%20Rounds/katahdin.html |title=Katahdin |publisher=The Potato Association of America |access-date=2012-11-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130224062816/http://potatoassociation.org/Industry%20Outreach/varieties/White%20Rounds/katahdin.html |archive-date=2013-02-24 }}</ref>
* The [[Katahdin sheep]].
* Composer [[Alan Hovhaness]] composed a sonata for piano in 1987 titled ''Mt. Katahdin'', dedicated to [[Carleton S. Coon]] for his 60th birthday.
* Katahdin is a monster in the 1979 horror film ''[[Prophecy (film)|Prophecy]]''.

{{wide image|2017-07-26 13 05 55 Full 360-degree panoramic view from Mount Katahdin's Baxter Peak in Baxter State Park, Piscataquis County, Maine.jpg|1345px|align-cap=center|360-degree panorama from the summit of Baxter Peak on Mount Katahdin||none|alt=Mount Katahdin-Baxter Peak view}}

==See also==
{{portal|United States|Mountains|Maine}}
*[[Donn Fendler]] – author of book about being lost on Katahdin in 1939.
*[[Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument]]
*[[List of mountain peaks of North America]]
**[[List of mountain peaks of the United States]]
***[[List of U.S. states by elevation]]
***[[List of mountains of Maine]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|Katahdin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080422142833/http://region.katahdincommons.com/index.php?title=Mount_Katahdin More detailed Wiki on Katahdin Including Trails]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171231061503/http://www.katahdincam.com/ Katahdin Webcam]
* [http://www.5lakeslodge.com/webcam.asp Katahdin Webcam - Millinocket]
* [http://www.neoc.com/webcam Katahdin Webcam - Twin Pine Camps, Millinocket]
* {{cite peakware|id=281|name=Mount Katahdin}} (photos)
* [https://baxterstatepark.org/ Baxter State Park Official Website]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060304043528/http://members.verizon.net/grfiv/Personal/Highpoint002.htm Summit Log] (October 2005 summit log)
* [http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150219/katahdin.html Katahdin at Summitpost many photos]
*[[Thomas Wentworth Higginson]], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433088436757&view=1up&seq=250 "Going to Mount Katahdin", ''Putnam's Monthly'' (September 1856), vol. VIII, pp. 242-256]
*William W. Geller, [https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1118&context=mainehistory "Mount Katahdin — March 1853: the Mysteries of an Ascent" (2016)] ''Maine History Documents''. 119. Page 10 identifies Higginson as the anonymous author of "Going to Katahdin", omitting "Mount", but endnote 13 on page 19 makes clear that it is the same article as "Going to Mount Katahdin", listed above.

{{US isolated}}
{{U.S. State Highest Points}}
{{NE 4k ft}}
{{Maine}}
{{Penobscot River}}
{{Mountains of Maine}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Katahdin, Mount}}
[[Category:Mountains of Maine]]
[[Category:Mountains of Piscataquis County, Maine]]
[[Category:Mountains on the Appalachian Trail]]
[[Category:Highest points of U.S. states]]
[[Category:National Natural Landmarks in Maine]]
[[Category:New England Four-thousand footers]]
[[Category:One-thousanders of the United States]]
[[Category:North Maine Woods]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Piscataquis County, Maine]]
[[Category:Religious places of the Indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Sacred mountains of the United States]]
[[Category:Devonian magmatism]]