View source for Muscogee language

{{Short description|Indigenous American language}}
{{Distinguish|Muskogean languages}}
{{multiple|
{{More footnotes needed|date=October 2025}}
{{cleanup lang|date=October 2025}}}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Muscogee
| altname          = Creek ([[exonym]])
| nativename       = {{lang|mus|Mvskoke}}
| states           = United States
| region           = East central [[Oklahoma]], Muscogee and Seminole, south Alabama Creek, [[Florida]], Seminole of Brighton Reservation.
| ethnicity        = 100,000 [[Muscogee|Muscogee people]] (2024)<ref> Muscogee Nation website</ref>{{fcn|date=October 2025}}
| speakers         = <400
| date             = 2024
| ref              = {{sfn|Powell|Martin|2024}}
| familycolor      = American
| fam1             = [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]]
| fam2             = Eastern
| nation           = [[Muscogee Nation]]
| iso2             = mus
| iso3             = mus
| glotto           = cree1270
| glottorefname    = Creek
| map              = Muskogee USC2000 PHS.svg
| mapcaption       = Current geographic distribution of the Creek language
| map2             = Oklahoma Indian Languages.png
| mapcaption2      = Distribution of [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]] in Oklahoma
| notice           = IPA
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|[maskókî]}}
}}

The '''Muscogee language''' (also '''Muskogee''' {{IPA|mus|maskóːgi|}}, {{lang|mus|'''Mvskoke'''}} {{IPA|mus|ma(ː)skóːgi|}}), previously referred to by its [[exonym]], '''Creek''',<ref>{{cite web |title=Muscogee Citizen Data |url=https://www.muscogeenation.com |website=Muscogee Nation}}</ref>{{fcn|date=October 2025}} is spoken by [[Muscogee]] (Creek) and [[Seminole]] people, primarily in the [[US states]] of [[Oklahoma]] and [[Florida]].

Muscogee was historically spoken by various constituent groups of the Muscogee confederacy in what are now [[Alabama]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. In the early 18th century some Muscogee speakers began to join speakers of Hitchiti-Mikasuki in [[Florida]]. Combining with other ethnicities there, they emerged as the [[Seminole]]. During the 1830s, the US government [[Indian removal|forced]] most Muscogee and Seminole to relocate west of the [[Mississippi River]], with most forced into [[Indian Territory]].

Muscogee is today spoken by fewer than 400 people, most of whom live in [[Oklahoma]] and are members of the [[Muscogee (Creek) Nation|Muscogee Nation]] and the [[Seminole Nation of Oklahoma]].{{sfn|Powell|Martin|2024}} Some speakers of Muscogee are also members of the [[Seminole Tribe of Florida]]. The variety of Muscogee spoken by Seminoles in Oklahoma is sometimes referred to as "Seminole". Among Seminoles in Florida, Hitchiti-Mikasuki is the dominant language, however.

Muscogee belongs to a family of languages known as [[Muskogean languages|Muskogean]]. Muscogee is related to, but not mutually intelligible with, [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]], [[Chickasaw language|Chickasaw]], [[Alabama language|Alabama]], [[Koasati language|Koasati]], [[Apalachee language|Apalachee]], and [[Mikasuki language|Hitchiti-Mikasuki]].

==Current status==
Muscogee is the primary heritage language of the Muscogee people. The Muscogee Nation offers free language classes and immersion camps to Muscogee children.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/Pages/Language/language.html |title=Muscogee (Creek) Nation |access-date=July 15, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715074343/http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/Pages/Language/language.html |archive-date=July 15, 2015 }}</ref>

===Language programs===
[[File:Thlopthlocco sign.jpg|thumb]]
The [[College of the Muscogee Nation]] offers a language certificate program.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mvsktc.org/academics.html |title=Academics |website=College of the Muscogee Nation |access-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
| last = Pratt |first=Stacey
| title = Language vital part of cultural identity
| work = Tahlequah Daily Press
| access-date = April 17, 2013
| date = April 15, 2013
| url = http://tahlequahdailypress.com/local/x1915232574/Language-vital-part-of-cultural-identity
}}</ref> [[Tulsa]] public schools, the [[University of Oklahoma]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ou.edu/anthropology/Programs/Native_Language/creek.html |title=Creek |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110224054236/http://www.ou.edu/anthropology/Programs/Native_Language/creek.html |archive-date=February 24, 2011 |website=University of Oklahoma |department=Department of Anthropology |access-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref> and Glenpool Library in Tulsa<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nativetimes.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2338:library-presents-mvskoke-creek-language-class&catid=43&Itemid=19 |title=Library Presents Mvskoke (Creek) Language Class |work=Native American Times |date=September 8, 2009 |access-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref> and the Holdenville,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themuscogeecreeknation.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=178%3Aholdenville-indian-community&catid=37%3Acommunities&Itemid=12 |title=Holdenville Indian Community |website=Muscogee (Creek) Nation |access-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref> Okmulgee, and Tulsa Muscogee Communities of the [[Muscogee Nation]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themuscogeecreeknation.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=279&Itemid=12 |title=Thunder Road Theater Company to perform plays in the Mvskoke (Creek) Language |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715090413/http://www.themuscogeecreeknation.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=279&Itemid=12 |archive-date=July 15, 2015 |website=Muscogee (Creek) Nation |access-date=December 27, 2010}}</ref> offer Muscogee Creek language classes. In 2013, the [[Sapulpa, Oklahoma|Sapulpa]] Creek Community Center graduated a class of 14 from its Muscogee language class.<ref>{{Cite news|last        = Brock|first       = John |title       = Creek language class graduates 14 |work        = [[Sapulpa Daily Herald]] |location    = [[Sapulpa, Oklahoma]] |access-date  = August 23, 2013|date        = August 17, 2013|url         = http://www.sapulpaheraldonline.com/articles/2013/08/17/news/doc520f9abf0671b330695807.txt|url-status     = dead|archive-url  = https://archive.today/20130823224113/http://www.sapulpaheraldonline.com/articles/2013/08/17/news/doc520f9abf0671b330695807.txt|archive-date = August 23, 2013}}</ref> In 2018, 8 teachers graduated from a class put on by the Seminole nation at Seminole State College to try and reintroduce the Muscogee language to students in elementary and high school in several schools around the state.{{cn|date=October 2025}}

==Phonology==
The phoneme inventory of Muscogee consists of thirteen [[consonant]]s and three [[vowel quality|vowel qualities]], which distinguish [[vowel length|length]], [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] and [[nasalization]].{{sfn|Hardy|2005|pp=211-212}} It also makes use of the [[gemination]] of [[stop consonant|stops]], [[fricative consonant|fricatives]] and [[sonorant]]s.{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=50–51}}

===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|+ [[Consonant]] [[phonemes]] of Muscogee{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=83}}
!rowspan=2|
!rowspan=2| [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!colspan=2| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!rowspan=2| [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2| [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! <small>[[Central consonant|Central]]</small>
! <small>[[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]</small>
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! [[Plosive]]
| {{IPAlink|p}}
| {{IPAlink|t}}
|
| {{IPAlink|tʃ}}
| {{IPAlink|k}}
|
|-
! [[Fricative]]
| {{IPAlink|f}}
| {{IPAlink|s}}
| {{IPAlink|ɬ}}
|
|
| {{IPAlink|h}}
|-
! [[Approximant]]
| {{IPAlink|w}}
|
| {{IPAlink|l}}
| {{IPAlink|j}}
|
|
|}

====Plosives====
There are four voiceless stops in Muscogee: {{IPA|/p t t͡ʃ k/}}. {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} is a [[voiceless palatal affricate]] and patterns as a single consonant and so with the other voiceless stops. {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} has an [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] [[allophone]] {{IPAblink|t͡s}} before {{IPA|/k/}}.{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=48-49}} The [[obstruent]] consonants {{IPA|/p t t͡ʃ k/}} are voiced to {{IPA|[b d d͡ʒ ɡ]}} between [[sonorant]]s and [[vowel]]s but remain voiceless at the end of a [[syllable]].{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=62}}

Between instances of {{IPAblink|o}}, or after {{IPA|[o]}} at the end of a syllable, the velar {{IPA|/k/}} is realized as the uvular {{IPAblink|q}} or {{IPAblink|ɢ}}. For example:{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=63}}
:{|
|''in-co'''k'''o''
|
|'his or her house'
|
|{{IPA|[ɪnd͡ʒʊɢo]}}
|-
|''to'''k'''ná:wa''
|
|'money'
|
|{{IPA|[toqnɑːwə]}}
|}

====Fricatives====
There are four voiceless fricatives in Muscogee: {{IPA|/f s ɬ h/}}. {{IPA|/f/}} can be realized as either labiodental {{IPAblink|f}} or bilabial {{IPAblink|ɸ}} in [[place of articulation]]. Predominantly among speakers in Florida, the articulation of {{IPA|/s/}} is more [[laminal]], resulting in {{IPA|/s/}} being realized as {{IPAblink|ʃ}}, but for most speakers, {{IPA|/s/}} is a voiceless apico-alveolar fricative {{IPAblink|s}}.{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=49}}

Like {{IPA|/k/}}, the glottal {{IPA|/h/}} is sometimes realized as the uvular [{{IPA|[[Voiceless uvular fricative|χ]]}}] when it is preceded by {{IPA|[o]}} or when syllable-final:{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=63}}
:{|
|''o'''h'''-leyk-itá''
|
|'chair'
|
|{{IPA|[oχlejɡɪdə]}}
|-
|''o'''h'''ɬolopi:''
|
|'year'
|
|{{IPA|[oχɬolobiː]}}
|}

====Sonorants====
The sonorants in Muscogee are two nasals ({{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/n/}}), two [[semivowel]]s ({{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}), and the lateral {{IPA|/l/}}, all [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]].{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=49-50}} Nasal assimilation occurs in Muscogee: {{IPA|/n/}} becomes {{IPAblink|ŋ}} before {{IPA|/k/}}.{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=63}}

Sonorants are devoiced when followed by {{IPA|/h/}} in the same syllable and results in a single voiceless consonant:{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=64}}
:{|
|''ca'''mh'''cá:ka''
|
|'bell'
|
|{{IPA|[t͡ʃəm̥t͡ʃɑːɡə]}}
|-
|''akcá'''wh'''ko''
|
|'a type of water bird'
|
|{{IPA|[ɑkt͡ʃəw̥ko]}}
|}

====Geminates====
All plosives and fricatives in Muscogee can be [[gemination|geminated]] (lengthened). Some sonorants may also be geminated, but {{IPA|[hh]}} and {{IPA|[mm]}} are less common than other sonorant geminates, especially in roots. For the majority of speakers, except for those influenced by the [[Alabama language|Alabama]] or [[Koasati language|Koasati]] languages, the geminate {{IPA|[ww]}} does not occur.{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=51}}

===Vowels===
The vowel phonemes of Muscogee are as follows:{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=83}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPAlink|i}}   {{IPAlink|iː}}
|
|
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|
|
| {{IPAlink|o}}   {{IPAlink|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPAlink|ɑ}}   {{IPAlink|ɑː}}
|
|}

There are three short vowels {{IPA|/i ɑ o/}} and three long vowels {{IPA|/iː ɑː oː/}}. There are also the nasal vowels {{IPA|/ĩ ɑ̃ õ ĩː ɑ̃ː õː/}} (in the linguistic orthography, they are often written with an [[ogonek]] under them or a following superscript "n"). Most occurrences of nasal vowels are the result of nasal assimilation or the nasalizing grade, but there are some forms that show contrast between oral and nasal vowels:{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=168-169}}
:{|
|''p'''ó'''-ɬki''
|
|'our father'
|-
|''op'''ó<sup>n</sup>'''ɬko''
|
|'cutworm'
|}

====Short vowels====
The three short vowels {{IPA|/i ɑ o/}} can be realized as the lax and centralized ({{IPA|[ɪ ə ʊ]}}) when a neighboring consonant is [[coronal consonant|coronal]] or in closed syllables. However, {{IPA|/ɑ/}} will generally not centralize when it is followed by {{IPA|/h/}} or {{IPA|/k/}} in the same syllable, and {{IPA|/o/}} will generally remain noncentral if it is word-final.{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=51}} Initial vowels can be deleted in Muscogee, mostly applying to the vowel {{IPA|/i/}}. The deletion will affect the pitch of the following syllable by creating a higher-than-expected pitch on the new initial syllable. Furthermore, initial vowel deletion in the case of single-morpheme, short words such as ''ifa'' 'dog' or ''icó'' 'deer' is impossible, as the shortest a Muscogee word can be is a one-syllable word ending in a long vowel (''fóː'' 'bee') or a two-syllable word ending with a short vowel (''ací'' 'corn').{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=64, 72-73}}

====Long vowels====
There are three long vowels in Muscogee ({{IPA|/iː ɑː oː/}}), which are slightly longer than short vowels and are never centralized.

Long vowels are rarely followed by a sonorant in the same syllable. Therefore, when syllables are created (often from suffixation or contractions) in which a long vowel is followed by a sonorant, the vowel is shortened:{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=64–65}}
:{|
|''in-ɬa:m-itá''
|
|'to uncover, open'
|-
|''in-ɬam-k-itá''
|
|'to be uncovered, open'
|}

====Diphthongs====
In Muscogee, there are three diphthongs, generally realized as {{IPA|[əɪ ʊj əʊ]}},{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=183}} phonemically may be {{IPA|/ɑi uj ɑo/}}.

====Nasal vowels====
Both long and short vowels can be nasalized (the distinction between {{lang|mus|acces}} and {{lang|mus|ącces}} [[#Nonstandard orthography|below]]), but long nasal vowels are more common. Nasal vowels usually appear as a result of a contraction, as the result of a neighboring nasal consonant, or as the result of nasalizing grade, a grammatical [[ablaut]], which indicates intensification through lengthening and nasalization of a vowel ({{transliteration|mus|likoth-}} 'warm' with the nasalizing grade intensifies the word to {{lang|mus|likŏ:<sup>n</sup>th-os-i:}} 'nice and warm').{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=53–54, 95}} Nasal vowels may also appear as part of a suffix that indicates a question ({{lang|mus|o:sk-ihá:<sup>n</sup>}} 'I wonder if it's raining').{{sfn|Martin|2011|pp=168-169}}

====Tones====
There are three phonemic tones in Muscogee; they are generally unmarked except in the linguistic orthography: high (marked in the linguistic orthography with an [[acute accent]]: '''á''', etc.), low (unmarked: '''a''', etc.), and falling (marked with a [[circumflex]]: '''â''', etc.).

==Orthography==
The traditional Muscogee [[alphabet]] was adopted by many interpreters and chiefs as the "National Alphabet" in 1853{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=22}} and has 20 [[letter (alphabet)|letters]].

Although it is based on the [[Latin alphabet]], some sounds like '''c''', '''e''', '''i''', '''r''', and '''v''' differ from those in [[English language|English]].  Here are the (approximately) equivalent sounds using familiar English words and the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:

{| class="wikitable"
! Spelling
! Sound (IPA)
! English equivalent
|-
| align="center"|'''a'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|aː}} ~ {{IPA|a}}
| like the "a" in f<u>a</u>ther
|-
| align="center"|'''c'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|tʃ}} ~ {{IPA|ts}}
| like the "ch" in su<u>ch</u> or the "ts" in ca<u>ts</u>
|-
| align="center"|'''e'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|ɪ}}
| like the "i" in h<u>i</u>t
|-
| align="center"|'''ē'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|iː}}
| like the "ee" in s<u>ee</u>d
|-
| align="center"|'''f'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|f}}
| like the "f" in <u>f</u>ather
|-
| align="center"|'''h'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|h}}
| like the "h" in <u>h</u>atch
|-
| align="center"|'''i'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|ɛj}} ~ {{IPA|ɛ}}:
| like the "ay" in d<u>ay</u>
|-
| align="center"|'''k'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|k}}
| like the "k" in s<u>k</u>im
|-
| align="center"|'''l'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|l}}
| like the "l" in <u>l</u>ook
|-
| align="center"|'''m'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|m}}
| like the "m" in <u>m</u>oon
|-
| align="center"|'''n'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|n}}
| like the "n" in moo<u>n</u>
|-
| align="center"|'''o'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|oː}} ~ {{IPA|ʊ}} ~ {{IPA|o}} 
| like the "o" in b<u>o</u>ne or the "oo" in b<u>oo</u>k
|-
| align="center"|'''p'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|p}}
| like the "p" in s<u>p</u>ot
|-
| align="center"|'''r'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|ɬ}}
| [[Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|a sound]] that does not occur in English but is often represented as "hl" or "thl" in English spellings. The sound is made by blowing air around the sides of the tongue while pronouncing English ''l'' and is identical to [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''ll''.
|-
| align="center"|'''s'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|s}}
| like the "s" in <u>s</u>pot
|-
| align="center"|'''t'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|t}}
| like the "t" in s<u>t</u>op
|-
| align="center"|'''u'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|ʊ}} ~ {{IPA|o}}
| like the "oo" in b<u>oo</u>k or the "oa" in b<u>oa</u>t
|-
| align="center"|'''v'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|ə}} ~ {{IPA|a}}
| like the "a" in <u>a</u>bout
|-
| align="center"|'''w'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|w}}
| like the "w" in <u>w</u>et
|-
| align="center"|'''y'''
| align="center"|{{IPA|j}}
| like the "y" in <u>y</u>et
|}

There are also three vowel sequences whose spellings match their phonetic makeup:{{sfn|Hardy|2005|p=202}}

{| class="wikitable"
! Spelling
! Sound (IPA)
! English equivalent
|-
| '''eu'''
| {{IPA|iʊ}}
| similar to the exclamation "ew!". A combination of the sounds represented by '''e''' and '''u'''
|-
| '''ue'''
| {{IPA|oɪ}}
| like the "oy" in b<u>oy</u>
|-
| '''vo'''
| {{IPA|aʊ}} ~ {{IPA|əʊ}}
| like the "ow" in h<u>ow</u>
|}

===Consonants===
As mentioned above, certain consonants in Muscogee, when they appear between two [[sonorant consonant|sonorants]] (a vowel or '''m''', '''n''', '''l''', '''w''', or '''y'''), become [[voiced consonant|voiced]].{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=22}} They are the consonants represented by '''p''', '''t''', '''k''', '''c''', and '''s''':

* '''c''' can sound like {{IPA|[dʒ]}}, the "j" in <u>j</u>ust
* '''k''' can sound like {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, the "g" in <u>g</u>oat
* '''p''' can sound like {{IPA|[b]}}, the "b" in <u>b</u>oat
* '''s''' can sound like {{IPA|[z]}}, the "z" in <u>z</u>oo
* '''t''' can sound like {{IPA|[d]}}, the "d" in <u>d</u>ust

===Vowel length===
While vowel length in Muscogee is distinctive, it is somewhat inconsistently indicated in the traditional spelling. The following basic correspondences can be noted:

* The short vowel '''v''' with the long vowel '''a''' ({{IPA|/a/}} vs. {{IPA|/aː/}})
* The short vowel '''e''' with the long vowel '''ē''' ({{IPA|/i/}} vs. {{IPA|/iː/}})
* The short vowel '''u''' with the long vowel '''o''' ({{IPA|/o/}} vs. {{IPA|/oː/}})

However, the correspondences do not always apply,{{sfn|Hardy|2005|pp=201-202}} and in some words, short {{IPA|/a/}} is spelled '''a''', long {{IPA|/iː/}} is spelled '''e''', and short {{IPA|/o/}} is spelled '''o'''.

===Nonstandard orthography===
Muscogee words carry distinctive [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s and [[nasalization]] of their vowels. These features are not usually marked in the traditional spelling, but may be indicated in dictionaries and linguistic publications. The following additional markers have been used by Martin (2000) and Innes (2004):

* '''Falling tone''' in a syllable is shown using a [[circumflex]]. In English, falling tone is found in phrases such as "uh-oh" or commands such as "stop!" In Muscogee, however, changing a verb such as {{lang|mus|acces}} ("she is putting on (a dress)") to {{lang|mus|âcces}} alters the meaning from one of process to one of state ("she is wearing (a dress)").
* '''Nasalization''' of a vowel is shown with an [[ogonek]] under the vowel. Changing the verb {{lang|mus|acces}} to {{lang|mus|ącces}} adds the [[imperfective aspect]], a sense of repeated or habitual action ("she kept putting on (that same dress)").

==Grammar==
Muscogee verbs are highly [[Synthetic language|synthetic]], with many prefixes, suffixes, and infixes showing the person, number, and location of participants as well as the tense, aspect, and mood of the sentence. Nouns have fewer affixes, but compounding is used extensively.

=== Word order ===
The basic order of elements in a sentence is [[subject–object–verb]].{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=22}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Basic order of subject, object, and verb
|Efvt
|pose
|lvstēn
|assēces.
|-
|ifá-t
|pó:si
|lást-i:-n
|á:ssi:c-ís
|-
|dog-<small>SUBJECT</small>
|cat
|black-<small>DURATIVE-NONSUBJECT</small>
|chase.<small>LGR-INDICATIVE</small>
|-
| colspan="4" |The dog is chasing the black cat.
|}
Subjects and objects are commonly omitted when they are clear from context, so that ''Assēces'' is complete as a sentence meaning ’he/she/it is chasing him/her/it’.

The subject and object are noun phrases having words in the following order: (possessor or demonstrative) — noun — (adjective) — (numeral). [[Adverb]]s tend to occur either at the beginning of the sentence (for time adverbs) or immediately before the verb (for manner adverbs). Muscogee uses postpositions instead of prepositions.

=== Case ===
Noun phrases may be marked with [[Clitic|clitics]] indicating the role of noun phrases in a sentence. The basic distinction is between subjects (which may end in '''-t''') and nonsubjects (which may end in '''-n'''). Nonsubjects include direct objects, indirect objects, times, and places. In some situations, case marking is omitted. This is especially true of sentences with only one noun where the role of the noun is obvious from the personal marking on the verb. Case marking is also omitted on fixed phrases that use a noun, e.g. "go ''to town''" or "build ''a fire''".

=== Possession ===
Possession in Muscogee is expressed in two quite different ways, depending on the nature of the relationship.

A body part or family member cannot be named in Muscogee without relating it to a possessor. A set of prefixes is used in this type of relation to show the person and number of the possessor.{{sfn|Martin|Mauldin|2001|pp=173-176}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Relational possession
|cv-
|'''cv'''puse
|/ca-pósi/
|my grandmother
|-
|ce-
|'''ce'''puse
|/ci-pósi/
|your grandmother
|-
|e-
|'''e'''puse
|/i-pósi/
|his/her grandmother
|-
|pu-
|'''pu'''puse
|/po-pósi/
|our grandmother
|}


Nouns other than body parts and kinship terms are generally possessed with a different set of markers.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Nonrelational possession
|vm
|'''vm''' efv
|/am-ífa/
|my dog
|-
|cem
|'''cem''' efv
|/cim-ífa/
|your dog
|-
|em
|'''em''' efv
|/im-ífa/
|his/her dog
|-
|pum
|'''pum''' efv
|/pom-ífa/
|our dog
|}

=== Person marking ===
Muscogee has three series of person markers on verbs.{{sfn|Martin|Mauldin|2001|pp=173-176}} The agent (type I) person markers generally show the person and number of subjects that perform an action on purpose. Agent person markers are suffixed to the verb root.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Agent person markers
| -i
|Homp'''i'''s.
|/homp-éy-s/
|I am eating.
|-
| -etsk
|Homp'''etsk'''es.
|/homp-íck-is/
|You are eating.
|-
|(no mark)
|Hompes.
|/homp-ís/
|He/she/it is eating..
|-
| -ē
|Homp'''ē'''s.
|/homp-í:-s/
|We are eating.
|-
| -atsk
|Homp'''atsk'''es.
|/homp-á:ck-is/
|You all are eating.
|}
The patient (type II) person markers often indicate the person and number of direct objects.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Patient person markers
| cv-
|'''Cv'''hēces.
|/ca-hî:c-is/
|He/she/it sees me.
|-
| ce-
|'''Ce'''hēces.
|/ci-hî:c-is/
|He/she/it sees you.
|-
|(no mark)
|Hēces.
|/hî:c-is/
|He/she/it sees him/her.
|-
| pu-
|'''Pu'''hēces.
|/po-hî:c-is/
|He/she/it sees us.
|}
A third series of dative (type D) person markers generally shows the person and number of the indirect object.{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=183}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dative person markers
| vm
|'''Vm''' opunayes.
|/am-ópona:y-ís/
|He/she is talking to me.
|-
| cem
|'''Cem''' opunayes.
|/cim-ópona:y-ís/
|He/she is talking to you.
|-
|em
|'''Em''' opunayes.
|/im-ópona:y-ís/
|He/she is talking to him/her.
|-
| pum
|'''Pum''' opunayes.
|/pom-ópona:y-ís/
|He/she is talking to us.
|}

===Tenses===
Verbs are listed in dictionaries in forms that end in '''-etv''' /-ita/. A verb like '''nesetv''' /nis-íta/ 'to buy' can appear in five past tense forms depending on how far back an event happened.{{sfn|Martin|Mauldin|2001|pp=173-176}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Tense forms of ''nesetv'' 'to buy'
!Mvskoke
!
!English
!
|-
|nesetv
|/nis-íta/
|to buy
|'''Infinitive'''
|-
|nēses
|/ni:s-ís/
|he/she is buying it
|'''Present'''
|-
|nehses
|/níhs-is/
|he/she bought it (today)
|'''Past 1'''
|-
|nēsvnks
|/nî:s-ánk-s/
|he/she bought it (recently)
|'''Past 2'''
|-
|nēsemvts
|/nî:s-imát-s
|he/she bought it (about a year ago)
|'''Past 3'''
|-
|nēsvntvs
|/nî:s-anta-s
|he/she bought (long ago)
|'''Past 4'''
|-
|nēsvtēs
|/ni:s-atí:-s
|he/she bought (very long ago)
|'''Past 5'''
|-
|nesvrēs
|/nis-áɬi:-s
|he/she will buy it
|'''Future'''
|}

===Other categories===
Muscogee has suffixes at the ends of sentences indicating the functions of sentences. Statements end in ''-(e)s'', questions seeking a yes or no answer end in -''v'', and singular commands end in -''vs''.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Mood forms of ''nesetv'' 'to buy'
!Mvskoke
!
!English
!
|-
|nēses
|/ni:s-ís/
|he/she is buying it
|statement
|-
|nēsv?
|/ni:s-a/
|is he/she buying it?
|question
|-
|nesvs!
|/nis-ás/
|buy it!
|command
|}
Like other Muskogean languages, Muscogee has a system of ablaut or "grades" that indicate distinctions in [[grammatical aspect]].{{sfn|Martin|2011|p=83}}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Grade forms of ''wvnvyetv'' 'to tie'
!Mvskoke
!
!English
!
|-
|wvnvyetv
|/wanay-itá/
|to tie
|infinitive
|-
|wvnvyvs
|/wanáy-as/
|tie it!
|zero grade
|-
|wvnayes
|/wana:y-ís/
|he/she is tying it
|lengthened grade
|-
|wvnahyes
|/wanáhy-is/
|he/she tied it (today/last night)
|aspirating grade
|-
|wvnayes
|/wanâ:y-is/
|he/she has tied it
|falling tone grade
|-
|wvnąyes
|/wanǎ:ⁿy-is/
|he/she keeps tying it
|nasalizing grade
|}
Verbs in Muscogee sometimes have different forms when their subjects or objects are plural.{{sfn|Martin|Mauldin|2000}}{{page needed|date=October 2025}} Verbs like this generally describe position or motion.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Plural forms of verbs
!singular subject
!dual subject
!triplural subject
!
|-
|vretv
|welvketv
|fulletv
|to go about
|-
|hueretv
|sehoketv
|svpakletv
|to stand
|-
|letketv
|tokorketv
|pefatketv
|to run
|-
|wakketv
|wakhoketv
|lomhetv
|to lie
|}

==Dialects==
The three main dialects of Muscogee are Muscogee proper (used in the Muscogee Nation), Oklahoma Seminole Muscogee, and Florida Seminole Muscogee.{{sfn|Martin|Mauldin|2000}}{{page needed|date=October 2025}} The most distinct dialect of the language is said to be that of the Florida Seminole, which is described as "rapid", "staccato" and "dental", with more loan words from Spanish and Mikasuki as opposed to English. Florida Seminole Muscogee is the most endangered variety of the Muscogee language.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Dialect differences
!Muscogee proper
!Oklahoma Seminole
!
|-
|cufonwv
|esropottv
|needle
|-
|kvpe
|’sokkoskv
|soap
|}
[[Claudio Saunt]], writing about the language of the later 18th century, said that there were different feminine and masculine versions, which he also calls dialects, of the Muscogee language. Males "attach[ed] distinct endings to verbs", while females "accent[ed] different syllables". These forms, mentioned in the first (1860) grammar of the Muscogee language, persisted in the [[Hitchiti#Language|Hichiti]], Muscogee proper, and [[Koasati language|Koasati]] languages at least into the first half of the 20th century.{{sfn|Saunt|1999|p=141}}

==Vocabulary==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Common expressions
!Mvskoke
!English
|-
|Mvto!
|Thank you!
|-
|Estonko!
|How are you!
|-
|Hompvks cē!
|Y’all eat!
|-
|Enka!
|Okay!
|-
|Cehecarēs!
|I’ll see you!
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Family
!Mvskoke
!English
|-
|erke
|father
|-
|ecke
|mother
|-
|pvwv
|maternal uncle
|-
|erkuce
|paternal uncle
|-
|eckuce
|maternal aunt
|-
|puca
|grandfather
|-
|puse
|grandmother, paternal aunt
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Numbers
!Mvskoke
!English
|-
|hvmken
|one
|-
|hokkolen
|two
|-
|tuccēnen
|three
|-
|osten
|four
|-
|cahkēpen
|five
|-
|ēpaken
|six
|-
|kolvpaken
|seven
|-
|cenvpaken
|eight
|-
|ostvpaken
|nine
|-
|palen
|ten
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Months
!Mvskoke
!English
|-
|Rvfo ’Cuse
|January
|-
|Hotvlē-Hvse
|February
|-
|Tasahcuce
|March
|-
|Tasahce-Rakko
|April
|-
|Kē-Hvse
|May
|-
|Kvco-Hvse
|June
|-
|Hvyuce
|July
|-
|Hvyo-Rakko
|August
|-
|Otvwoskuce
|September
|-
|Otvwoskv-Rakko
|October
|-
|Eholē
|November
|-
|Rvfo-Rakko
|December
|}

==See also==
* [[Muscogee people]]
* [[Creek mythology]]
* [[Muskogean languages]]
* [[Mikasuki language]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{cite book |author-link1=Mary Haas|last1=Haas |first1=Mary R |first2=James H. |last2=Hill |year=2014 |title=Creek (Muskogee) Texts|work=Muskogee (Seminole/Creek) Documentation Project |url=http://muskogee.blogs.wm.edu/haas-hill-texts/|access-date=December 22, 2017|editor-first=Jack B. |editor-last=Martin |editor-first2=Margaret McKane |editor-last2=Mauldin |editor-first3=Juanita |editor-last3=McGirt |series=UC Publications in Linguistics |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211127205344/https://muskogee.blogs.wm.edu/haas-hill-texts/|archive-date=November 27, 2021}}
* {{cite book |first=Donald E. |last=Hardy |contribution=Creek |editor1-last=Hardy |editor1-first=Heather K. |editor2-last=Scancarelli |editor2-first=Janine |title=Native Languages of the Southeastern United States |date=January 2005 |publication-date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |location=Lincoln, NE |pages=200–245 |isbn=0803242352}}
* {{cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Keith |author2=Martin, Jack |title=Acoustic Vowel Reduction in Creek: Effects of Distinctive Length and Position in the Word |url=http://corpus.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~kjohnson/papers/vow_reduct.pdf |access-date=April 26, 2009 |journal=Phonetica |volume=58 |pages=81–102 |year=2001 |doi=10.1159/000028489 |pmid=11096370 |issue=1–2 |s2cid=38872292 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626050128/http://corpus.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~kjohnson/papers/vow_reduct.pdf |archive-date=June 26, 2010}}
* {{cite book |first=Pamela |last=Innes |author2=Linda Alexander |author3=Bertha Tilkens |title=Beginning Creek: Mvskoke Emponvkv |publisher=Norman, OK: [[University of Oklahoma Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=0-8061-3583-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/beginningcreekmv0056inne}}
* {{cite book |first=R.M. |last=Loughridge |author2=David M. Hodge |title=Dictionary Muskogee and English |publisher=Okmulgee, OK: Baptist Home Mission Board |year=1964}}
* {{Cite book |first=Jack B. |last=Martin |title=A Grammar of Creek (Muskogee) |publisher=Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780803211063}}
* {{cite book |first1=Jack B. |last1=Martin |first2=Margaret McKane |last2=Mauldin |title=A Dictionary of Creek/Muskogee |publisher=Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-8032-8302-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Martin |first1=Jack B. |first2=Margaret McKane |last2=Mauldin |year=2001 |title=Creek |encyclopedia=Facts about the World’s Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World’s Major Languages, Past and Present |editor-first=Jane |editor-last=Garry |editor-first2=Carl |editor-last2=Rubino |pages=173–176 |location=New York |publisher=H. W. Wilson}}
* {{Cite web |last1=Powell |first1=Amy |last2=Martin |first2=Jack |date=May 17, 2024 |title=The Muscogee Language Documentation Project |url=https://www.wm.edu/as/news/2023-2024/the-muscogee-language-documentation-project.php |website=William & Mary}}
* {{cite book |last=Saunt |first=Claudio |title=A New Order of Things. Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1810 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0521660432}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Incubator|code=mus}}
{{AmCyc Poster|Creeks|Muscogee language}}
* [https://www.mvskokeopunvkv.com/ Mvskoke Opunvkv], Mvskoke Language Department of the Muscogee Nation
* The [https://muskogee.pages.wm.edu/ Muscogee (Seminole/Creek) Documentation Project]. This site provides links to many older materials, a dictionary, interviews, and learning materials.
* [http://www.muscogeenation-nsn.gov/ Muskogee (Creek) Nation], official website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070609133339/http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~kjohnson/papers/vow_reduct.pdf Acoustic vowel reduction in Creek: Effects of distinctive length and position in the word] (pdf)
* [https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_mus_vertxt-3 Mvskoke Nakcokv Eskerretv Esvhokkolat. Creek Second Reader. (1871)]
* [https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_mus_gen-1 Muskogee Genesis Translation]
* [http://www.language-archives.org/language/mus OLAC resources in and about the Creek language]

{{Muscogee}}
{{Languages of Oklahoma}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Muskogean Language}}
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Muskogean languages]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of the North American Southeast]]
[[Category:Muscogee culture]]
[[Category:Seminole culture]]
[[Category:Indigenous languages of Florida]]