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{{Music of Dominica}}
[[Image:Dominicaband2.jpg|alt=Band members performing on drums while in the street; one member is wearing a monkey mask and comic hat.|thumb|right|300px|A Dominican Carnival costume band]]
The '''music of [[Dominica]]''' includes a variety of genres including all the popular genres of the world. [[Popular music]] is widespread, with a number of native Dominican performers gaining national fame in imported genres such as [[calypso music|calypso]], [[reggae]], [[soca music|soca]], [[Compas|kompa]], [[Zouk (musical movement)|zouk]] and [[rock and roll]]. Dominica's own popular music industry has created a form called ''[[bouyon music|bouyon]]'', which combines elements from several styles and has achieved a wide fanbase in Dominica. Groups include ''WCK'' ([[Windward Caribbean Kulture]]), Native musicians in various forms, such as reggae ([[Nasio Fontaine]], [[Lazo (musician)|Lazo]], Brother Matthew Luke), kadans ([[Ophelia Marie]], ([[Exile One]], [[Grammacks]]) and calypso ([[The Wizzard]]), have also become stars at home and abroad.

There is also "[[Cadence-lypso]]", the Dominica [[Cadence rampa|kadans]], which has set the stage for some of the region's most significant musical developments such as [[Zouk (musical movement)|zouk]] and [[bouyon music|bouyon]] (another Dominican creation).

Like the other [[music of the Lesser Antilles|Francophone musics of the Lesser Antilles]], Dominican folk music is a hybrid of African and European elements. The [[quadrille]] is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, and is, on Dominica, typically accompanied by a kind of ensemble called a ''[[jing ping]]'' band. In addition, Dominica's folk tradition includes folk songs called ''[[Bèlè (dance)|bélé]]'', traditional [[storytelling]] called ''[[Kont (Caribbean)|kont]]'', [[Masquerade ceremony|masquerade]], [[children's music|children's]] and [[work song]]s, and [[Carnival]] music.

Until the late 1950s, the Afro-Dominican culture of most of the island was repressed by the colonial government and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, both of which taught that African-derived music was evil, demonic and uncultured.<ref name="Philip">{{cite journal|author=Philip, Daryl|title=Twenty Years of Traditional/Folk Dance in Dominica|version=Thesis for a certificate in dance education|publisher=Jamaica School of Dance|year=1986}} cited in Guilbault, pp. 840–844.</ref> This perception changed in the mid- to late 20th century, when Afro-Dominican culture came to be celebrated through the work of promoters like [[Cissie Caudeiron]].<ref name="Guilbault">Guilbault, pp. 840–844.</ref>

== Characteristics ==
Dominica's terrain is rugged, which has fostered distinct regional traditions. The northern, eastern, southern, western and central parts of the island are [[music area]]s. The villages of [[Wesley, Dominica|Wesley]] and [[Marigot, Dominica|Marigot]] are also unique in their preservation of English language and music rather than the more French-based styles of the rest of the island.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

Dominican folk music is an [[oral tradition]], learned informally through watching others perform. As of 1987, most performers of traditional music were either over 50 years old or under 35, which indicates an ongoing revival of previously declining traditions.<ref name="Philip"/> Music is evaluated based on both characteristics of the music, such as complex [[syncopation|syncopated]] rhythms, as well as social factors, such as the ability of the performers to improvise and respond to their surroundings and to keep the audience excited and participating in the music.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

Characteristics of Dominican music include the West African use of [[call and response]] singing, [[clapping]] as a major part of rhythm and lyrical, dance and rhythmic [[improvisation]]. Lyrics are almost all in [[Dominican Creole French]], and are traditionally sung by women (''chantwèl''), while the instrumental traditions are predominantly practiced by men. Drums, generically known as ''lapo kabwit'', are the most prominent part of Dominica's instrumental tradition.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

== Folk music ==
[[Image:Dominicaband.jpg|alt=Band members wearing black T-shirts and white hats play drums in the street. Tropical foliage in the background.|thumb|left|200px|A Dominican drumming band]]
Dominican folk music includes, most influentially, the French Antillean [[quadrille]] tradition, the ''jing ping'' style of dance music, as well as [[Bèlè (dance)|bélé]] and heel-and-toe [[polka]]. Traditional Carnival music includes [[chanté mas]] and [[lapo kabwit]]. Folk music on Dominica has historically been a part of everyday life, including [[work song]]s, [[religious music]] and secular, recreational music.<ref name="tradition">{{cite web|url=http://www.divisionofculture.org/traditionalinstruments.htm|work=Division of Culture|title=Some Instruments Used In Traditional Music|access-date=December 3, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614194356/http://www.divisionofculture.org/traditionalinstruments.htm|archive-date=June 14, 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[quadrille]] is one of the most important dance of the Dominican folk tradition, which also includes the [[Les Lanciers|lancer]] and distinctive forms of several dances, many of them derived from European styles. The ''bidjin'' ([[biguine]]), ''mereng'' ([[méringue]]), ''sotis'' ([[schottische]]), ''polka pil'' (pure [[polka]]), ''vals o vyenn'' (Viennese [[waltz]]) and ''mazouk'' ([[mazurka]]) are particularly widespread.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

=== Bélé ===
{{main|Bélé}}
Bélé are folk songs of West African origin, traditionally performed recreationally in the evening during the [[full moon]], and more rarely, ''lavèyé'' ([[funeral wake|wakes]]). The bélé tradition has declined in the 20th and 21st century, but is still performed for holidays like [[Easter]], [[Independence Day]], [[Christmas]], Creole Day ([[Jounen Kwéyòl]]) and [[patron saint]] festivals held annually in the [[Parishes of Dominica]], especially in the ''Fèt St.-Pierre'' and the ''Fèt St.-Isidore'' for fishermen and workers respectively.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

All bélé are accompanied by an eponymous drum, the ''[[tambour bélé|tanbou bélé]]'', along with the ''tingting'' ([[triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]]) and ''chakchak'' ([[maraca]]s). Bélés start with a lead vocalist (''chantwèl''), who is followed by the responsorial chorus (''lavwa''), then a drummer and dancers.<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/Ig6fFRUHKgo Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20130227034459/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ig6fFRUHKgo&feature=related Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ig6fFRUHKgo>|title=YouTube:Dominican bèlè |website=[[YouTube]] |access-date=September 10, 2005 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Traditional dances revolve around stylized [[courtship]] between a male and female dancer, known as the ''kavalyé'' and ''danm'' respectively. The bélé song-dances include the ''bélé soté'', ''bélé priòrité'', ''bélé djouba'', ''bélé contredanse'', ''bélé rickety'' and ''bélé pitjé''.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

=== Quadrille ===
{{main|Kwadril#Dominica quadrille}}
The [[Kwadril|quadrille]] is a dance form that is an important symbol of French Antillean culture, not just in Dominica, but also [[Martinique]], [[Guadeloupe]] and other Francophone islands. Dominican quadrilles are traditionally performed by four sets of couples in subscription picnics or dances, and in private parties. However, the quadrille tradition now only survives at holidays and festivals.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

The Dominican quadrille generally has four figures, the ''pastouwèl'', ''lapoul'', ''lété'' and ''latrinitez''. Some regions of Dominica, such as [[Petite Savanne]], are home to local variants such as the ''caristo''. Many quadrilles are found across Dominica under a wide variety of names. In addition to the standard quadrille, the [[Les Lanciers|lancer]] is also an important Dominican dance.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

Accompaniment for the quadrille is provided by a four-instrument ensemble called a ''[[jing ping]]'' band.

===Jing ping===
{{main|Jing ping}}
Jing Ping is a kind of folk music originated on the [[slave]] plantations of [[Dominica]], also known colloquially as an accordion band. In Dominican folk music, jing ping bands accompany a [[circle dance]] called the flirtation, as well as the Dominican [[Kwadril|quadrille]].

Jing ping bands are made up of a ''boumboum'' ([[boom pipe]]), ''syak'' or ''gwaj'' ([[Scraper (instrument)|scraper]]-[[Rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]]), ''tambal'' or ''tanbou'' ([[tambourine]]) and [[accordion]]. The [[double bass]] and [[banjo]] are also sometimes used.<ref>[http://www.divisionofculture.org/traditionalinstruments.htm Division of Culture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614194356/http://www.divisionofculture.org/traditionalinstruments.htm |date=2007-06-14 }} is the source for the term ''accordion band'' and confirms the primary instrumentation with Guilbault, pp. 840–844; Guilbault does not confirm the use of double bass or banjo.</ref> Bamboo flutes led the jing ping ensembles before the 1940s, when accordions were introduced. The Dominican flute tradition declined as a result, despite their additional use in [[serenade]]s, until being revived after the [[National Independence Competitions]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cardinal, José|title=La Flûte de Bambou dans Quatres Îsles des Antilles (Martinique, Guadeloupe, Dominique et Sainte-Lucie)|version=Master's thesis|publisher=Université de Montréal}} cited in Guilbault, p. 842.</ref>

===Chanté mas===
{{main|chanté mas}}
The [[chanté mas]] ([[Masquerade ceremony|masquerade]] song) tradition is based around pre-calypso Carnival music performed in a responsorial style by partygoers. The Dominican Carnival masquerade lasted for two days of parading through the streets, with a singer dancing backwards in front of the drummer on a ''tanbou lélé''. Chanté mas lyrics are traditionally based on gossip and scandal, and addressed the personal shortcomings of others.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

=== Other folk music ===
Dominica's folk musical heritage includes [[work song]]s, [[storytelling]], children's music and masquerade songs. Dominican work songs are accompanied by the ''[[tambou twavay]]'' drum, and are performed by workers while gathering fruit, building roads, fishing, moving a house or sawing wood. Many are responsorial, and are generally short and simple, with the lyrical text and rhythm tying into the work to be accompanied. On modern Dominica, work songs are rarely performed.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

The [[Kont (Caribbean)|kont]], or storytelling, folk tradition of Dominica was focused around entertainment for night-time festivals, funeral wakes and feasts and festivals. Modern ''kont'' is mostly performed during major festival competitions. Most ''kont'' storytellers work with local traditions, such as legends and history, and provide an ethical or moral message. A one line theme song, often based around a duet between two characters, recurs throughout most ''kont'' performances.<ref>{{cite book|author-link=Cissie Caudeiron|author=Caudeiron, Maude "Cissie"|year=1988|chapter=Music and Songs of Dominica|title=Our Island Culture|editor=Lennox Honychurch|pages= 48–54|publisher=Letchworth Press|location=Barbados}} cited in Guilbault, pp. 840–844.</ref>

Unlike most Dominican folk songs, children's songs and musical games are mostly in English. They were originally in the same Creole as the rest of the island, but have come to be primarily of English, Scottish, and Irish derivation. Children's musical traditions include ring games and circle dances, and music accompanied by thigh-slapping and circle dancing.<ref>{{cite book|author=Stubbs, Norris|title=Survey of the Folk Music of Dominica|location=Roseau|publisher=Dominica Arts Council, Hilton Services|year=1973}} and {{Cite video|people=Okada, Yuki. JVC Smithsonian Folkways Video Anthology of Music and Dance of the Americas, 4|medium=Video|date=1995|title=The Caribbean|publisher=Multicultural Media VTMV-228|location=Montpelier, Vermont}} both cited in Guilbault, pp. 840–844.</ref>

== Early popular music ==
Dominican [[popular music]] history can be traced back to the 1940s and '50s, when dance bands like the [[Casimir Brothers]] and, later, [[The Swinging Stars]], became famous across the island. Their music was a dance-oriented version of many kinds of Caribbean and Latin popular music, such as [[Cuba]]n [[bolero]], [[Brazil]]ian [[samba music|samba]], the [[merengue music|merengue]] from the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Trinidad]]ian [[calypso music|calypso]], and [[United States|American]] [[funk]].

By the beginning of the 1960s, calypso and Trinidadian [[steelpan]] became the most popular styles of music on Dominica, replacing traditional Carnival music like [[chanté mas]] and [[lapo kabwit]]. Early recording stars from this era included [[Swinging Busters]], [[The Gaylords (Dominican band)|The Gaylords]], [[De Boys an Dem]] and [[Los Caballeros]], while [[chorale]] groups also gained fans, especially [[Lajenne Etwal]], [[Siflé Montan'y]] and the [[Dominica Folk singers]].<ref name="Guilbault"/> These early popular musicians were aided by the spread of [[radio broadcasting]], beginning with [[WIDBS]] and later [[Radio Dominica]].<ref name="contemporary">{{cite web|url=http://www.divisionofculture.org/contemporarymusic.htm|work=Division of Culture|title=Contemporary Music In Dominica: 1950–2000|access-date=December 3, 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060310131718/http://www.divisionofculture.org/contemporarymusic.htm|archive-date=March 10, 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Of these early popular musicians, a few pioneering the use of native influences. The Gaylords’ hits, such as "Ti Mako", "Pray for the Blackman", "Lovely Dominica" and "Douvan Jo", were either [[English language|English]] or the native Creole, (''kwéyòl''). By the end of the 1960s and beginning of the 1970s, American [[rock and roll]], [[soul music|soul]] and [[funk]] had reached Dominica and left lasting influences. Funky rock-based bands like [[Voltage Four]], [[Woodenstool]] and [[Every Mother's Child]] became popular.<ref name="contemporary"/>

The first internationally known bands from Dominica were 1970s groups such as [[Exile One]] and [[Grammacks]]. These bands were the stars of the [[cadence-lypso]] scene, which was the first style of Dominican music to become popular across the Caribbean. By the 1980s, however, Martinican [[Zouk (musical movement)|zouk]] and other styles were more popular. In 1988, WCK formed, playing an experimental fusion of cadence-lypso with the island’s jing ping sound. The result became known as [[bouyon music|bouyon]], and has re-established Dominica in the field of popular music.<ref name="tradition"/>

===Calypso===
{{main|Calypso music}}
In the 1960s, calypso and [[steelband]] music became very popular and indeed replaced lapo kabwit and [[chanté mas]] as the music of carnival, particularly in the capital Roseau. Many of the traditional songs were performed in the new calypso beat. [[Calypsonian]]s and [[Calypso Monarch]] competitions emerged and became extremely popular. Steelbands emerged all around the country. The older musicians and bands had moved on and were replaced by the younger musicians. Bands such as Swinging Stars, [[Gaylords (Dominican band)|The Gaylords]], De Boys an Dem, [[Los Caballeros]] and Swinging Busters surfaced and began to cut records. The emergence of radio, first WIDBS and later Radio Dominica helped to spread the music.

[[calypso music|Calypso]] has been popular in Dominica since the 1950s; the first Calypso King was crowned in 1959. Popular calypso in Dominica has always been closely associated with [[steelpan]] music. The first wave of Dominican steelpan includes such bands as [[Esso (band)|Esso]], [[Shell and Regent]], [[Vauxhall (band)|Vauxhall]] and [[Old Oak]].

===Cadence (kadans)/compas===
{{Main|Cadence rampa}}
In the 1970s, a wave of [[Haiti]]an, mostly musicians, to Dominica and the French Antilles ([[Guadeloupe]] and [[Martinique]]) brought with them the [[Cadence rampa|kadans]], a sophisticated form of music that quickly swept the island and helped unite all the former French colonies of the Caribbean by combining their cultural influences. This was followed by [[mini-jazz]] like [[Les Gentlemen]], [[Les Leopards]], [[Les Vikings de Guadeloupe]] and others.

Later in the decade and into the 1980s, the French Antilles became home to a style of cadence music called [[cadence-lypso]]. [[Gordon Henderson (musician)|Gordon Henderson]]'s [[Exile One]] innovated this style, as well as turned the mini-jazz combos into guitar-dominated big bands with a full-[[horn section]] and the newly arrived [[synthesizer]]s, paving the way for the success of large groups like [[Grammacks]], [[Experience 7]], among others. Drawing on these influences, the supergroup [[Kassav']] invented zouk and popularized it with hit songs including "Zouk-La-Se Sel Medikaman Nou Ni". Kassav' formed in Paris in 1978.

===Cadence-lypso===
{{Main|Cadence-lypso}}
The most influential figure in the promotion of Cadence-lypso was the Dominican group [[Exile One]] (based on the island of [[Guadeloupe]]) that featured mostly the [[cadence rampa]] of Haiti and [[calypso music]] from the English-speaking Caribbean.<ref>{{Cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/zoukworldmusicin00guil|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/zoukworldmusicin00guil/page/91 91]|quote=Rabess(1983,22).|title=Zouk: world music in the West Indies|year=1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|author=Jocelyne Guilbault|access-date=April 10, 2012
}}</ref> It was pushed in the 1970s by groups from Dominica, and was the first style of Dominican music to find international acclaim.<ref>{{Cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/zoukworldmusicin00guil|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/zoukworldmusicin00guil/page/93 93]|quote=Exile one and cadence-lypso.|title=Zouk: world music in the West Indies|year=1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press|author=Jocelyne Guilbault|access-date=August 10, 2010}}</ref>

Dominica cadence music has evolved under the influence of Dominican and Caribbean/[[Music of Latin America|Latin rhythms]], as well as [[rock and roll]], [[soul music|soul]], and [[funk music|funk]] music from the United States. By the end of the 1970s, [[Gordon Henderson (musician)|Gordon Henderson]] defined Cadence-lypso as "a [[:wikt:synthesis|synthesis]] of Caribbean and African musical patterns fusing the traditional with the contemporary".

Aside from Exile One, other bands included the [[Grammacks]], [[Black Roots (band)|Black Roots]], [[Black Machine]], [[Naked Feet]], [[Belles Combo]], Mantra, [[Black Affairs]], [[Liquid Ice]], [[Wafrikai]], [[Midnighte Groovers]] and Milestone, while the most famous singers included Bill Thomas, [[Chubby Marc]], Gordon Henderson, [[Linford John]], [[Janet Azouz]], [[Sinky Rabess]], [[Tony Valmond]], [[Jeff Joseph]], [[Mike Moreau]] and [[Anthony Gussie]]. [[Ophelia Marie]] is a popular singer of cadence-lypso in the 1980s.

Cadence-lypso was influenced by nationalist movement that espoused [[Rastafari]] and [[Black Power]]. Many groups performed songs with intensely ideological positions, and much of the repertoire was in the vernacular Creole language.

{{Main|Exile One}} 
Gordon Henderson, Exile One's leader and founder, coined the name "Cadence-lypso" in his full band that used a full-[[horn section]] and was the first to use the [[synthesizer]]s in kadans. Many [[mini-jazz]] from [[Haiti]] and the [[French Antilles]] followed this format. The band is considered by some to be one of the pioneers of soca. During the early 1970s, they initiated a fusion of [[kadans|cadence]] and [[calypso music|calypso]] "Cadence-lypso" that would later become [[soca music]].

Exile One was the most promoted Creole band of the Caribbean. The first to sign a production contract with major label Barclay Records. The first to export kadans music to the four corners of the globe: Japan, the Indian Ocean, Africa, North America, Europe, The Cape Verde islands.

== Recent popular music ==
During the 1980s, cadence-lypso’s popularity declined greatly. Some Dominican performers remained famous, such as [[Ophelia Marie|Ophelia]], a very renowned singer of the period. Popular music during this time was mostly [[Zouk (musical movement)|zouk]], a style pioneered by the French Antillean band [[Kassav]], who used styles of folk [[music of Martinique and Guadeloupe]]. [[Soca music|Soca]], a kind of [[music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidadian music]], was also popular at the time, producing bands like [[Windward Caribbean Kulture]]. The '80s also saw a rise in popular for [[jazz]] and the formation of several jazz bands, while groups like Exile One began exploring tradition rhythms from ''jing ping'' and ''lapo kabwit''.<ref>{{Cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VlBZVi-KUggC&q=Exile+one+and+cadence-lypso%3E&pg=PA93|title=Exile One exploring tradition rhythms from ''jing ping'' and ''lapo kabwit''|isbn=9780226310428|access-date=August 10, 2010 |last1=Guilbault|first1=Jocelyne|date=24 November 1993|publisher=University of Chicago Press }}</ref>

===Zouk===
{{Main|Zouk (musical movement)}}
The inspiration for Zouk's style of rhythmic music comes from the Haitian [[compas]], as well as music called [[cadence-lypso]] – Dominica cadence popularized by [[Grammacks]] and Exile One. Elements of [[gwo ka]], tambour, ti bwa and biguine vidé are prominent in zouk. Though there are many diverse styles of zouk, some commonalities exist. The [[French-based creole languages|French Creole]] tongue of Martinique and Guadeloupe is an important element, and are a distinctive part of the music. Generally, zouk is based around star singers, with little attention given to instrumentalists, and is based almost entirely around studio recordings.

Music authors [[Charles De Ledesma]] and [[Gene Scaramuzzo]] trace zouk's development to the Guadeloupean gwo ka and Martinican [[bèlè (dance)|bèlè]] (''tambour'' and ''ti bwa'')<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/XrKoZ1qsQq8 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20140217060900/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrKoZ1qsQq8&feature=relmfu Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Cite web
|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XrKoZ1qsQq8&feature=relmfu|title=Martinican bèlè |publisher=YouTube |access-date=September 10, 2005 }}{{cbignore}}</ref>
folk traditions. Ethnomusicologist [[Jocelyn Guilbault]], however, describes zouk as a synthesis of Caribbean popular styles, especially [[Dominica]] cadence-lypso, Haitian [[Cadence rampa|cadence]], Guadeloupean ''biguine''.<ref>Guilbault, Jocelyn, Gage Averill, Édouard Benoit and Gregory Rabess, ''Zouk: World Music in the West Indies'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), cited in Manuel, p. 142.</ref> Zouk arose in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using elements of previous styles of Antillean music, as well as imported genres.<ref>{{Cite book
|url=https://archive.org/details/zoukworldmusicin00guil |url-access=registration |quote=Zouk. |title=Zouk: world music in the West Indies|year=1993 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |author=Jocelyne Guilbault|access-date=August 10, 2010 }}</ref>

===Zouk-love===
{{Main|zouk-love}} 
Zouk Love is the French Antilles cadence or [[compas]], characterized by a slow, soft and sexual rhythm. The lyrics of the songs often speak of love and sentimental problems.

The music [[kizomba]] from Angola and [[Coladeira#The cola-zouk|cabo-love]] from Cape Verde are also derivatives of this French Antillean compas style, which sounds basically the same, although there are notable differences once you become more familiar with these genres. A main exponent of this subgenre is [[Ophelia Marie]] of Dominica. Other Zouk Love artists come from the French West Indies, the Netherlands, and Africa.
 
Grammacks, Exile One, Ophelia Marie, and many Dominican bands played cadence-lypso (Dominica Kadans) that later influenced [[zouk love]] in the French Antilles. Nowadays, zouk-love is called the French Antilles cadence or [[compas]]. Popular artists include French West Indian artists [[Edith Lefel]] and Nichols, or like Netherlands-based [[Suzanna Lubrano]] and [[Gil Semedo]], the African artist [[Kaysha]].

===Soca===
{{Main|Soca music}}

The [[calypsonian]] [[Lord Shorty]] of [[Trinidad]] was the first to define his music as "soca"<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/2g9s7JHtVsg Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20190912213749/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2g9s7JHtVsg&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{Citation|last=Norris Wilkins|title=RAS SHORTY I : "Watch Out My Children" 1941 – 2000|date=2016-01-10|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2g9s7JHtVsg|access-date=2018-11-23}}{{cbignore}} {{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/888543143 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/888532620 cite #4 - verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> during 1975 when his hit song “Endless Vibrations” was causing major musical waves on radio stations and at parties and clubs not just throughout his native T&T but also in far off metropolitan cities like New York, Toronto and London. Soca was originally spelled Sokah which stands for the “Soul of Calypso” with the “kah” part being taken from the first letter in the Sanskrit alphabet and representing the Power of movement as well as the East Indian rhythmic influence that helped to inspire the new soca beat. Shorty stated in a number of interviews that the idea for the new soca beat started with the rhythmic fusion of Calypso rhythms with East Indian rhythms that he used in his hit "Indrani" recorded in 1972. The soca beat was solidified as the popular new beat that most of the T&T Calypso musicians would start adopting by the time Shorty had recorded his big crossover hit “Endless Vibrations” in 1974.

Shorty also recorded a mid-year album in 1975 called “Love In The Caribbean” that contains a number of crossover soca tracks before setting off on an album distribution and promotion tour. During his 1975 “Love In The Caribbean” album promotion and distribution tour Shorty pass thru the isle of Dominica on his way back to Trinidad and saw Dominica's top band [[Exile One]] perform at the [[Fort Young Hotel]]. Shorty was inspired to compose and record a Soca and Cadence-lypso fusion track called “E Pete” or “Ou Petit” which can be viewed as the first of its kind in that particular Soca style. Shorty sought and got help with the Creole lyrics he used in the chorus of his “E Pete” song by consulting with Dominica's 1969 Calypso King, [[Lord Tokyo]], and two creole lyricists, Chris Seraphine and Pat Aaron while he was in Dominica. The song “E Pete” thus contains genuine Creole lyrics in the chorus like "Ou dee moin ou petit Shorty" (meaning "you told me you are small Shorty"), and is a combination of Soca, Calypso, Cadence-lypso and Creole.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Politics of Labelling Popular Musics in English Caribbean |url=https://www.sibetrans.com/trans/articulo/265/the-politics-of-labelling-popular-musics-in-english-caribbean |access-date=2023-01-22 |first=Jocelyne |last=Guilbault |date=1997 |website=www.sibetrans.com}}{{verify source |date=September 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted Special:Diff/888543143 by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite located at Special:Permalink/888532620 cite #6 - verify the cite is accurate and delete this template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref>

Shorty's 1974 ''Endless Vibrations'' and ''Soul of Calypso'' brought Soca to regional and international attention and fame and helped to solidify the rapidly growing Soca Movement led by Shorty.

Soca developed in the early 1970s and grew in popularity in the late 1970s. Soca's development as a musical genre included its early fusion of calypso with Indian musical instruments, particularly the [[dholak]], [[tabla]] and [[dhantal]], as demonstrated in [[Lord Shorty]]'s classic compositions "Ïndrani", "Kalo Gee Bull Bull" and "Shanti Om".

===Bouyon===
{{main|Bouyon music}}
Bouyon is a fusion of [[Jing ping]], [[Cadence-lypso]] and traditional dances namely [[bèlè (dance)|bèlè]], [[Quadrille]], [[chanté mas]] and [[lapo kabwit]], [[Mazurka]], [[Zouk (musical movement)|Zouk]] and other styles of [[Caribbean music]], developed by a band called ''Windward Caribbean Kulture'' (later ''WCK'').<ref>{{Cite web
|url=https://www.avirtualdominica.com/music/bouyon.htm|title=Bouyon Music|work=Music in Dominica|access-date=December 3, 2005 }}</ref>
WCK was among the most prominent of '80s Dominican soca bands. They began using native drum rhythms such as [[lapo kabwit]] and elements of the music of jing ping bands, as well as [[ragga]]-style vocals. Bouyon is popular across the Caribbean, and is known as ''[[Bouyon music|jump up music]]'' in Guadeloupe and Martinique.

The best-known band in the genre was [[Windward Caribbean Kulture]] "WCK"{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} in 1988 by experimenting a fusion of Jing Ping and Cadence-lypso. While the Cadence-lypso sound is based on the creative usage of acoustic drums, an aggressive up-tempo guitar beat, and strong social commentary in the local [[Haitian Creole language|Creole]] language, this new music created by the "WCK" band focused more on the use of modern technology with strong emphasis on keyboard rhythmic patterns.

Bouyon has diversified into multiple subgenres. These include bouyon soca, [[Bouyon music#Bouyon-muffin|bouyon-muffin]], reketeng, and [[Music of Guadeloupe#Bouyon gwada|bouyon gwada]].

===Bouyon soca===
{{main|Bouyon soca}}
Bouyon soca, sometimes referred to as '''Jump up soca''', is a fusion genre that typically blends old [[Bouyon music|bouyon]] rhythms from the '90s and soca music. Bouyon soca is a term coined by non-Dominican producers and musicians, mainly from St Lucia, who embrace both Soca from Trinidad and Bouyon music from Dominica and so find it natural to produce blends of both music genres. Bouyon is a music genre that originated in Dominica that is distinguishable from its older "colleague" Soca.

In Dominica while there may have been the occasional fusions, bouyon has always maintained a very clear, recognizable and different style from soca. Outside of Dominica the Bouyon Soca fusion style is popular in islands like Antigua, Saint Lucia, [[Guadeloupe]] and [[Martinique]] and is a natural evolution from Zouk and Soca fusions that were popular there during the 1980s.{{listen|filename=Wck - conch shell.ogg|title=WCK's "Conch Shell"|description=WCK (Windward Caribbean Kulture) is one of the most prominent popular musicians of Dominica, and has performed styles such as bouyon and soca.}}

==Alternative music==
Religious music, influenced by American [[gospel music|gospel]], has become an important part of Dominican popular music in the 1990s. Calypso has also retained much popularity in Dominica, as has [[Jazz]]. The band [[Impact (band)|Impact]] has fused jazz with [[Caribbean music]]. Other styles include steelpan, which has declined popularity despite the efforts of groups like [[Dancehall]].<ref name="contemporary"/>

== Music institutions and festivals ==
The [[Caribbean Carnival]] is an important part of Dominican culture. Originally featuring masquerade songs (''chanté mas'') and other local traditions, traditional Carnival, ''[[Mas Domnik]]'', came to be dominated by imported [[calypso music]] and [[steel band]]s in the early 1960s; calypso appealed to Carnival-goers because the lyrical focus on local news and gossip was similar to that of ''chanté mas'', despite a rhythmic pattern and instrumentation which contrast sharply with traditional Dominican ''Mas Domnik'' music. After a fire in 1963, the traditional Carnival was banned, though calypso and steelpan continued to grow in popularity.<ref name="Guilbault"/> Modern Carnival on Dominica takes place on the Monday and Tuesday before [[Ash Wednesday]], and is a festive occasion during which laws against [[libel]] and [[slander]] are suspended. The modern Dominican Carnival is heavily based on the Trinidadian celebration, but is not as commercialized due to a lack of corporate sponsorship.<ref>Cameron, p. 658.</ref>

The [[World Creole Music Festival]] takes place on the island of Dominica, in [[Festival City (Roseau)|Festival City]], [[Roseau]], which is run by the governmental [[Dominica Festivals Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dominica.dm/festivals.htm|work=Dominica Festivals|title=Our Festivals and Events|access-date=December 3, 2005 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20051127012851/http://www.dominica.dm/festivals.htm |archive-date = November 27, 2005}}</ref> The [[National Independence Competitions]] are an important part of Dominican musical culture. They were founded by [[Chief Minister of Dominica]] [[Edward Olivier Leblanc]] in 1965, and promote the traditional music and dance of Dominica. The [[government of Dominica]] also promotes Dominican music through the [[Dominican Broadcasting Station]], which broadcasts between 20% and 25% local music as a matter of policy.<ref name="Guilbault"/>

== References ==

* {{cite book
|title=Caribbean Islands Handbook with the Bahamas
|author=Cameron, Sarah|publisher=Passport Books
|isbn=0-8442-4907-6
|year=1996
}}
* {{cite book
|chapter=Dominica
|last=Guilbault|first=Jocelyne
|author-link=Jocelyne Guilbault
|title=Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
|volume=2
|isbn=0-8153-1865-0
|year=1999
|publisher=Routledge
|pages=[https://archive.org/details/garlandencyclope0001unse/page/840 840–844]
|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/garlandencyclope0001unse/page/840
}}
* {{cite web
|url=https://www.avirtualdominica.com/music/bouyon.htm
|title=Bouyon Music
|work=Music in Dominica
|access-date=December 3, 2005}}
* {{cite web
|url=http://www.divisionofculture.org/quadrilles.htm
|work=Division of Culture
|title=Dominica's Quadrilles
|access-date=December 3, 2005
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050803003506/http://www.divisionofculture.org/quadrilles.htm
|archive-date=August 3, 2005
|url-status=dead
}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[https://www.mustrad.org.uk/reviews/dominica.htm Dominica: Creole Crossroads]
*[https://www.ctmd.org/ Center for Traditional Music and Dance]

{{Music of the Lesser Antilles}}
{{North America topic|Music of}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Music Of Dominica}}
[[Category:Music of Dominica| ]]