View source for Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2025}}

[[File:Papa Wemba and Koffi Olomide, 1988.jpg|thumb|[[Papa Wemba]] and [[Koffi Olomide]], major figures in [[Soukous]] music, performing in 1988.]]
{{Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
'''Congolese music''' is one of the most influential [[Music of Africa|music forms of the African continent]]. Since the 1930s, Congolese musicians have had a huge impact on the African musical scene and elsewhere. Many contemporary genres of music, such as Kenyan [[Benga music|benga]] and Colombian [[champeta]], have been heavily influenced by Congolese music. In 2021, [[Congolese rumba]] joined the [[UNESCO]] list of [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|intangible cultural heritage]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=87hiSNu_wHQC |title=Commodities and Globalization: Anthropological Perspectives |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2000 |editor-last=Haugerud |editor-first=Angelique |location=Lanham, Maryland, United States |pages=34–49 |language=English |editor-last2=Stone |editor-first2=Margaret Priscilla |editor-last3=Little |editor-first3=Peter D.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=22 January 2022 |title=Beneath the rhythm, Congolese rumba is a link to the past |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/culture/2022/01/22/beneath-the-rhythm-congolese-rumba-is-a-link-to-the-past |access-date=22 August 2023 |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

Prior to the emergence of Congolese rumba, the country's musical scene was dominated by [[Folk music|folkloric traditions]] rooted in [[Oral tradition|oral transmission]] and communal performance.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Enyimo |first=Martin |date=6 August 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Instruments et cris traditionnels dans le folklore congolais |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Traditional Instruments and Cries in Congolese Folklore |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200508070001.html |access-date=29 July 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Ethnic associations in urban centers performed using [[Folk instrument|traditional instruments]] such as the tam-tam (known as mbunda in [[Lingala]] and [[Ngoma drums|ngoma]] in many [[Bantu languages]]), patenge (a small, skin-covered [[frame drum]]), [[Ikembe|likembe]] or sanza ([[Mbira|thumb piano]]), [[lokole]], ngomi or lindanda (a [[gourd]]-resonated guitar), madimba or [[balafon]], londole, kisakasaka, and others.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ambrose |first=Robert |date=19 October 2000 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Likembé Géant Making Music That is the Essense of Classic Rumba |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200010190366.html |access-date=29 July 2025 |website=[[allAfrica]]}}</ref> This traditional music was characterized by rhythmic complexity, [[polyrhythm]]ic percussion, the [[pentatonic scale]], collective [[Polyphony|polyphonic singing]], [[improvisation]], vocal exclamations, [[Clapping|handclapping]], and dance.<ref name=":7" />

The urbanization of [[Kinshasa|Léopoldville]] (now [[Kinshasa]]) in the 1930s and the expansion of colonial commercial enterprises introduced Congolese populations to a broad spectrum of foreign musical styles, including [[Cuban rumba]], [[jazz]], [[blues]], [[biguine]], [[highlife]], and [[bolero]].<ref name=":7" /> These influences contributed to a gradual shift away from purely folkloric traditions.<ref name=":7" /> Among the key transitional genres was maringa, a [[Kongo people|Kongo]] [[partner dance]] originating in the former [[Kingdom of Loango]], which flourished in the bar-dancing culture of [[Brazzaville]] and Léopoldville.<ref name=":2922">{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=15 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=5 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}</ref><ref name=":3233">{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Phyllis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N65pbr2hC4wC |title=Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville |date=8 August 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52446-9 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |pages=131–152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture [3 volumes] |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=Santa Barbara, California |pages=848–849}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lubabu |first=Muitubile K. Tshitenge |date=4 June 2013 |title=Congo: rhythm and blues |url=https://www.jeuneafrique.com/137185/societe/congo-rhythm-and-blues/ |access-date=20 April 2024 |website=Jeuneafrique.com |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Malu-Malu |first=Muriel Devey |date=20 September 2020 |title=Congo-B : Que sont les célèbres bars dancing devenus ? |trans-title=Congo-B: What have become of the famous dancing bars? |url=https://www.makanisi.org/congo-b-que-sont-les-celebres-bars-dancing-devenus/ |access-date=20 April 2024 |website=Makanisi.org |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Early performances incorporated instruments such as the bass drum, accordion (''likembe''), and glass bottles used as percussion.<ref name=":3233"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Assah |first=Hervé |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wOpmEAAAQBAJ |title=Lumineuse Afrique : Améringo, l'héritage inattendu Tome 2 |date=29 March 2022 |publisher=[[L'Harmattan|Éditions L'Harmattan]] |isbn=978-2-14-023977-9 |location=Paris, France |page=39 |language=fr}}</ref> During the 1940s and 1950s, the arrival of [[Son cubano|Cuban son]] recordings played a major role in maringa's transformation into "Congolese rumba", as works by groups like [[Sexteto Habanero]], [[Trio Matamoros]], and Los Guaracheros de Oriente were frequently marketed as "[[rumba]]".<ref name=":223">{{Cite web |last=Mukuna |first=Kazadi wa |date=7 December 2014 |title=A brief history of popular music in DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/magazine/brief-history-popular-music-drc |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Music in Africa}}</ref><ref name=":41">{{Cite journal |last=wa Mukuna |first=Kazadi |date=1992 |title=The Genesis of Urban Music in Zaïre |url=https://journal.ru.ac.za/index.php/africanmusic/article/view/1945 |journal=[[African Music (journal)|African Music]] |publisher=[[International Library of African Music]] |publication-place=Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=72–84 |doi=10.21504/amj.v7i2.1945 |issn=0065-4019}}</ref>

The modern character of Congolese music was reflected in its adoption of [[Electronic musical instrument|electric instruments]], innovative performance aesthetics, commercial appeal, and its emergence as a powerful expression of [[national identity]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Bob W. |date=1 January 2002 |title=Congolese Rumba and Other Cosmopolitanisms |url=https://journals.openedition.org/etudesafricaines/161?lang=en |journal=[[Cahiers d'Études Africaines]] |language=en |volume=42 |issue=168 |pages=663–686 |doi=10.4000/etudesafricaines.161 |issn=0008-0055}}</ref> This transition brought about a decline in the use of traditional instruments and [[Vernacular|vernacular languages]], with modern tools such as the [[electric guitar]], [[saxophone]], and [[accordion]] gaining prominence, and [[Lingala]] emerging as the dominant language of popular music.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=N'Sial |first=Sesep |date=1975 |title=Pour une approche d'une variable du plurilinguisme: la conjonction du français et du lingala dans le discours spontané |trans-title=Toward an approach to a variable of plurilingualism: the conjunction of French and Lingala in spontaneous speech |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bcepl_0766-799x_1975_num_2_1_856 |journal=Collection IDERIC |language=fr |publisher=[[Persée (web portal)|Persée]] |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=15–33 |doi=10.3406/bcepl.1975.856}}</ref> The new music adopted various names, including ''zebola'', ''agwaya'', ''nzango'', ''kebo'', ''[[Manuel d'Oliveira|Polka Piké]]'', and, most notably, ''Congolese rumba''.<ref name=":7" /> Despite the increasing dominance of modern sounds, certain musicians maintained ties to traditional styles.<ref name=":7" /> During the 1960s and 1970s, Congolese rumba gave birth to a wave of innovative popular dance styles, including [[soukous]], a high-tempo genre characterized by intricate guitar melodies and layered polyrhythms.<ref name=":53">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&printsec=frontcover&vq=Belgium+and+the+Congo+once+again+unimpeded,+a+Belgian+entrepreneur+named+Fernand+Janssens+had+come+to+L%C3%A9opoldville+with+a+portable,+direct-to-disc+recording+machine.&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=[[Verso Books]] |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=134–136}}</ref><ref name=":21">{{Cite web |last=Bemba |first=Audifax |date=14 October 2023 |title=Orchestre Sinza "Kotoko" de Brazzaville |trans-title=Sinza "Kotoko" Orchestra of Brazzaville |url=https://www.congopage.com/orchestre-sinza-kotoko-de-brazzaville |access-date=31 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref> In the late 1990s, [[ndombolo]], an offshoot of soukous known for its high-energy dance, also rose to continental prominence.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Falola |first=Toyin |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Africa/UOTNEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Ndombolo+derived+from+soukous&pg=PT419&printsec=frontcover |title=Africa: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kabwe |first=Jason |date=15 March 2013 |title=Ndombolo Craze |url=https://www.czech.radio/node/5231154 |access-date=9 November 2023 |website=Czech Radio |language=cs}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite book |last=Sörgel |first=Sabine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QTaDwAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PA55 |title=Contemporary African Dance Theatre: Phenomenology, Whiteness, and the Gaze |date=30 March 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-41501-3 |page=55}}</ref><ref name=":143">{{Cite web |last=Tchebwa |first=Manda |date=30 November 2002 |title=N'Dombolo: the identity-based postulation of the post-Zaïko generation |trans-title=N'Dombolo: the identity-based postulation of the post-Zaïko generation |url=https://africultures.com/ndombolo-the-identity-based-postulation-of-the-post-zaiko-generation-5655/ |access-date=13 January 2024 |website=[[Africultures]] |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> Throughout this evolution, Congolese people have not adopted a singular term for their music. Historically referred to as ''muziki na biso'' ("our music"), the most common term today is ''ndule'', meaning "music" in Lingala.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Mongrue |first=Jesse |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/What_S_Working_in_Africa/vBpmDAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=rumba+rock+refer+to+Congolese+music&pg=PT156&printsec=frontcover |title=What's Working in Africa?: Examining the Role of Civil Society, Good Governance, and Democratic Reform |date=10 June 2016 |publisher=[[iUniverse]] |isbn=978-1-4917-9501-9 |location=Bloomington, Indiana, United States |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=allAfrica.com: Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music (Page 1 of 1) |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20080905052634/http://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |archive-date=5 September 2008 |access-date=29 July 2025 |website=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]] |publication-place=Kigali, Rwanda}}</ref> The term ''rumba'' or ''rock-rumba'' is also used generically to refer to Congolese music, though neither is precise nor accurately descriptive.<ref name=":8" />

== Traditional music and instruments ==
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| caption1          = A Bangongo diviner (singular: Ngongo) employing traditional methods to identify suitable treatments through divination. [[Belgian Congo]].
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Music plays a vital role in expressing the customs and culture of Congolese 450 ethnic groups, each of which has its own distinctive musical and dance traditions. With every ethnic group comes a unique set of [[Folk music|traditional songs]], dances, and ceremonial chants. Rich in diverse ethnic backgrounds and traditions, the country is home to various musicians, performers, [[Folk instrument|instruments]], and [[cultural expressions]].<ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Malonga |first=Samuel |date=10 September 2022 |title=Les instruments des musiques traditionnelles du Congo |trans-title=The Instruments of Traditional Congolese Music |url=https://www.mbokamosika.com/2022/09/les-instruments-des-musiques-traditionnelles-du-congo.html |access-date=22 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref> Many traditional instruments were used primarily for musical purposes. However, others, such as the tam-tam and the [[lokole]], also functioned as communication tools, transmitting coded messages to nearby villages through a nuanced auditory language understood by the local population.<ref name=":26" /> Owing to their intricate figurative designs, some instruments, particularly the [[arched harp]]s of the [[Mangbetu people|Mangbetu]] and [[Azande people|Zande peoples]], the [[Mbira|sanza]], [[Ceremonial drum|ritual drums]], and [[slit drum]]s, are seen as authentic representations of artistic expression.<ref name=":26" />

Closely interwoven with song, dance forms an essential component of social life, with lyrics that convey emotions ranging from sensuality to sorrow, physically interpreted through the swaying movements of women, whose gestures serve as a visual manifestation of the music's artistic soul. Congolese [[Music journalism|music journalist]] Samuel Malonga notes that traditional instruments have significantly declined in urban settings, as modern orchestras prefer [[Musical instrument|contemporary instruments]].<ref name=":26" /> This shift has led to a reduction in the perceived [[sacredness]] of ancestral musical practices and has altered the authentic African spirit traditionally embodied in the music. The "ethno-tribal" musical styles and their associated traditional instruments are increasingly marginalized due to the influence of modern [[acculturation]], relegating folklore to the periphery of cultural relevance.<ref name=":26" /> Although some contemporary musicians continue to draw inspiration from [[Folk music|traditional music]], the incorporation of indigenous instruments in modern Congolese music remains limited.<ref name=":26" />

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| caption1          = A member of the [[Kinshasa]]-based band [[Konono Nº1]] playing the [[Ikembe|likembe]]
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Most traditional instruments are handcrafted from wood derived from indigenous [[Flora|plant species]], though wood is not the sole material. Iron and various animal-derived elements, such as [[Hide (skin)|skin]] and [[Horn (instrument)|horn]], are also commonly employed. Handmade by artisans, these instruments fulfill a broad spectrum of functions: social ([[festival]]s, [[wedding]]s, communal gatherings), traditional ([[Rite of passage|initiation rites]], [[birth]] and [[mourning]] ceremonies, village councils), and cultural ([[circumcision]] and other rites of passage).<ref name=":26" />

In response to technological influences, some instruments have undergone modifications. For instance, the Zombo folklore band [[Konono Nº1]] has adapted the [[Ikembe|likembe]] (a type of ''sanza'') by electrifying it to enhance sound projection in contemporary performances. Historically, instruments such as these were used to accompany dances and chants during major ethnic celebrations, serving as vehicles for "expressions of seduction and sensuality, poetry and romance, lyricism and enthusiasm".<ref name=":26" /> In the broader classification of [[Music of Africa|African musical]] instruments, Congolese instruments fall into four primary categories: [[aerophone]]s, [[String instrument|chordophones]], [[idiophone]]s, and [[membranophone]]s.<ref name=":26" />

=== Aerophones ===
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| footer            = Traditional Congolese [[megaphone]], possibly dating to the 18th century, from the [[Mary Elizabeth Adams Brown|Crosby Brown Collection of Musical Instruments]].
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[[Aerophone]]s include various [[flute]]s and [[trumpet]]s, often crafted from locally available materials such as [[bamboo]], wood, and [[Eutrochium fistulosum|hollow plant]] stems. Among the [[:fr:Bakwa-Mputu|Bakwa-Mputu]] of [[Kasaï region|Kasaï]], the [[Mangbetu people|Mangbetu]], and the [[African Pygmies|Pygmies]], wooden trumpets are prominent. These instruments are known by different names across linguistic and ethnic lines: mpanda among the [[Lega people|Barega]], mpungi in [[Kongo language|Kikongo]], and under a variety of names among the [[Teke people|Teke]], such as mvila mvili, mupara, munguani, mbabiyimi, nkuanku, and kô. The [[:fr:Hungana (peuple)|Bahungana]] refer to their trumpet as musembu.<ref name=":26" />

Flutes are widespread and diverse in form. The [[transverse flute]], made from bamboo or wood, typically features up to five finger holes. It is referred to as mulizi by the [[Bushi (region)|Shi people]] of [[South Kivu]], mpuela or tuti in Kikongo, and ndere among the [[Hema people|Hema]].<ref name=":26" /> [[End-blown flute]]s share similar names in Kikongo (tuti, mpuela) and include [[Nose flute|nasal flute]] variants, particularly used by the [[Yanzi people]] of [[Kwango]]. [[Pan flute]]s are another notable subtype, known as bitanda among the [[Yaka people|Yaka]], nshiba among the [[Luba people|Luba]], mishiba among the [[Songye people|Songye]], and mishiy among the [[Lunda people|Lunda]].<ref name=":26" /> Kikongo speakers use several terms for this instrument, including kwanga, makwanga, and mavonda. Additionally, the [[Globular Flute|globular flute]], a spherical [[wind instrument]], is found among the [[Mongo people|Mongo]], where it is called lofolongo, and among the [[Bembe people|Bembe]], who refer to it as kitolori.<ref name=":26" />

=== Chordophones ===
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| image1            = Musical instruments on display at the MIM (14165136449).jpg
| caption1          = An [[ngombi]] arched harp from the Democratic Republic of the Congo, currently in the collection of the Musical Instrument Museum (MIM), [[Phoenix, Arizona]]; likely collected in 1910, as indicated by the visible tag.
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[[String instrument|Chordophones]] occupy a particularly prominent place in [[Central Africa]]n musical culture, with their strings typically fashioned from natural materials such as [[Raffia palm|raffia fibers]], bark strips, [[giraffe]] tail hair, or iron wire. One of the distinctive stringed instruments is the [[pluriarc]], a multi-stringed bow-lute with several names across the region: longombe among the [[Mongo language|Nkundo]], lungoyongoyo in Kikongo, ngweme among the [[Teke languages|Teke]], and motumbe among the [[Ngombe language|Ngombe]].<ref name=":26" /> Another notable instrument is the [[arched harp]], a bowed string instrument with deep cultural roots, referred to as kundi among the [[Azande people|Zande]], domu among the Mangbetu, and seto among the [[Ngbandi people|Ngbandi]].<ref name=":26" /> The [[Bar zither|stick zither]], another widely distributed instrument, is known by various names: enanga ([[Nande language|Nande]]), esanzo ([[Mongo people|Mongo]]), inanga ([[Lega language|Lega]] and [[Kirundi]]), langangu (Mbunda), lulanga ([[Shi language|Shi]]), lunzenze ([[Luba-Kasai language|Luba-Kasai]]), and nedongu ([[Mangbetu language|Mangbetu]]).<ref name=":26" />

One of the most widespread and culturally significant instruments is the [[musical bow]], often derived from a traditional [[Bow and arrow|hunting bow]]. It becomes a musical instrument when a resonating [[gourd]] is attached, and a string stretched across its frame. Played vertically, this instrument is prevalent across many Congolese ethnic groups.<ref name=":26" /> The [[Musical bow|mouth bow]], a variant of the musical bow, incorporates the performer's mouth as a resonating chamber. The string is held between the lips, and the vibrations are produced by striking the string with a stick.<ref name=":26" /> The musical bow and its variants are known by a wide array of [[Common name|vernacular names]]. Among the Pygmies, it is called belumu; among the [[Boma people|Boma]], dweme or ngomi; and among the [[Nande people|Nande]], ekibulenge or zeze.<ref name=":26" /> Other names include kadad (Lunda), lingungu (Lega), longofi (Mangbetu), longombi (Mongo), lukungu ([[Pende people|Pende]]), lunkombe or nkutu kubidi (Luba-Kasai), lusuba ([[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]]), mbela ([[Ngbaka languages|Ngbaka]]), nedungu or nelingoti (Mangbetu), nguém (Teke), nzenze (Shi), and rukung (Lunda).<ref name=":26" /> The [[Ground bow|earth-bow]], a further derivative of the musical bow in which the ground serves as the resonating chamber, shares these same vernacular names.<ref name=":26" />

=== Idiophones ===
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| image1            = Lamellophone Tshokwe (Angola).jpg
| caption1          = Chisonji [[lamellophone]] crafted by an unknown artist of the [[Chokwe people]], late 19th century. Made of wood and iron, this intricately decorated instrument is housed at the Musical Instrument Museum in Phoenix and was featured in the exhibition ''Frapper le fer: L'art des forgerons africains'' at the [[Musée du Quai Branly – Jacques Chirac]] in Paris, France.
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One of the most prominent Congolese [[idiophone]]s is the sanza, a [[lamellophone]] often referred to by outsiders as the "thumb piano". The instrument consists of a rectangular wooden box, usually hollowed, onto which metallic or vegetal lamellae of varying lengths are affixed. The number of lamellae can range from six to twenty, with ten being most common, as among the [[Pende people|Pende]].<ref name=":26" /> Widespread throughout [[sub-Saharan Africa]], the sanza has no direct counterpart in the Western instrumental tradition. Its influence extended beyond the African continent through the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]], leading to variations such as the [[marímbula]] in [[Cuba]], manuba in [[Haiti]], and the [[Marímbula|rumba box]] or "thumb piano" in [[Jamaica]].<ref name=":26" /> [[Archaeological record|Archaeological evidence]] places its origins at least 3,000 years ago in what is now [[Cameroon]]. Congolese musicologist Michel Ngongo has posited a historical and musical connection between the sanza and the development of the [[Lead guitar|solo guitar]] in Congolese popular music, a phenomenon unique in Africa, where one guitarist often assumes an exclusive melodic role.<ref name=":26" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Holdaway |first=Mark |date=30 August 2020 |title=Early Kalimba History - History |url=https://www.kalimbamagic.com/info/history/very-early-kalimba-history |access-date=22 August 2025 |website=Kalimba Magic |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Eunseo |date=12 January 2025 |title=Echoes of Tradition: Tracing the Origins and Evolution of the Kalimba |url=https://thesciencesurvey.com/spotlight/2025/01/12/echoes-of-tradition-tracing-the-origins-and-evolution-of-the-kalimba/ |access-date=22 August 2025 |website=The Science Survey}}</ref> Among Congolese ethnic groups, the sanza is known by a variety of vernacular names, including tshisanji tsha nzadi (Tshiluba), sambi or ndara (Kikongo), likembe ([[Lingala]]), kisanji (Teke), and esanzo ([[Mongo language|Nkundo]]).<ref name=":26" />

Other idiophones include a range of [[Shaker (musical instrument)|shaken instruments]], most notably the [[Rattle (percussion instrument)|rattle]], which is considered a prototype form of the [[maraca]]s and is used widely in traditional music, including by ''[[atalaku]]'' performers in popular [[dance music]]. These rattles often lack handles and come in diverse forms, [[gourd]], woven, spherical, or metallic.<ref name=":26" /> The gourd rattle, for instance, is known as mukwanga or nkwanga in Kikongo. Other names for rattles across Congolese languages include pedo ([[Swahili language|Swahili]]), disaka ([[Luba-Kasai language|Tshilubà]]), kinsakala, nsakala, nsansi (Kikongo), kisakasaka (Lingala), [[Shaker (musical instrument)|sheker]] (in music), tshotsha (Tshokwe), wanga (Ngbaka), yatsh ([[Kuba Kingdom|Kuba]]), and zeze ([[Ngbandi people|Ngbandi]]).<ref name=":26" /> [[Bell]]s are another form of idiophone, commonly used as rhythmic accents and worn by tam-tam drummers. In Kikongo, the bell is referred to as kiozi, nkembi a moko ("hand rattle"), or nsansi. In Cuba, a similar small bell used in [[Afro-Caribbean music]] is also known as nkembi.<ref name=":26" />

[[Friction idiophone]]s are also present in Congolese music, notably the [[Güiro|scraper]], which may have originated in the DRC. The instrument, similar to the Latin American [[güiro]], is played by scraping a stick or other object along a ridged surface.<ref name=":26" /> Among Congolese peoples, this instrument bears different names, including mvunku (Tshiluba), munkwaka (Kikongo), dikwakasa (Luba of Katanga), and mukwasa ([[Mai-Ndombe Province|Mai-Ndombe]]).<ref name=":26" /> Through the Atlantic slave trade, the scraper traveled to the [[Americas]], where it evolved into forms now commonly found throughout [[Music of Latin America|Latin American music]] traditions.<ref name=":26" />

==== Struck or percussion idiophones ====
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| image1            = Sanza, asset A2DSoUU9VZfQacOSUYRhlcar.jpg
| caption1          = A traditional sanza of the [[Budu people]], featuring metal keys affixed to a wooden resonator box, currently housed at the [[Museum aan de Stroom]] (MAS) in [[Antwerp]], Belgium.
}}
Struck or percussion idiophones are also abundant, with one of the most significant being the [[xylophone]], which is known in [[West Africa]] as the [[balafon]] and is widely regarded as a precursor to modern keyboard instruments such as the [[synthesizer]]. Among Congolese groups, the xylophone is recognized under numerous vernacular names: pandingbwa (Zande), madimba (Kikongo, Luba, Pende), anemba ([[Tetela people|Tetela]]), bifanda ([[Yaka people|Yaka]]), djimba ([[Chokwe people|Chokwe]]), dujimba (Lunda), didimba-dimba (Luba Katanga), endara (Nande), gbengbe ([[Budza language|Budja]]), manza and bandjanda (Ngbaka, Ngbandi), and midimb (Lunda).<ref name=":26" /> Another ancient percussion idiophone is the [[gong]], specifically the double metal bell, which is considered one of the oldest musical instruments in the Congo. Traditionally used in dance accompaniment and later adopted into religious ceremonies by groups such as the L'Église du Saint-Esprit (Bangunza), the gong is played with a stick, alternating between the two bells. It is referred to by various names, including ngongi (Kikongo), ngonga (Tshiluba), kengele (Swahili), lubembo ([[Katanga Province|Katanga]]), and munku or inkoro (Teke).<ref name=":26" />

Unconventional objects, such as an empty [[glass bottle]], are sometimes used as idiophones as well. Most often, beer bottles are employed, held vertically and struck with a [[spoon]] to produce a percussive sound. The human body itself can function as an idiophone in traditional dance contexts, through [[clapping]], mouth-slapping, and rhythmic [[Stomp (strike)|stomping]] (techniques that generate communal energy and enhance the festive atmosphere).<ref name=":26" /> Among the most distinctive idiophones in Congo are the wooden [[slit drum]]s, such as the lokombe and [[lokole]]. The lokombe, a [[trapezoid]]-shaped instrument found primarily among the [[Tetela people|Tetela]] and [[Lega people|Barega]], is a type of tam-tam played with two sticks. Carved from special [[Trunk (botany)|tree trunks]], it is also used for long-distance communication.<ref name=":26" /> The lokole, in contrast to [[membranophone]]s, does not use [[Hide (skin)|animal hide]] but relies instead on a resonating slit carved into its body. Believed to have originated among the [[Mongo people]], slit drums are made in various shapes, trapezoidal, [[Cylinder|cylindrical]], [[tulip]]-shaped, [[Lunar phase|half-moon]], or even sculpted to resemble animals. Their resonance often surpasses that of skin drums.<ref name=":26" /> The instrument is known by a vast array of vernacular names, mirroring its widespread use: itwoomba (Kuba), tshondo (Tshiluba, Swahili), mondo, mukonzi, nkonko, kiondo (Kikongo), kyondo (Kiluba), boungou ([[Kele people (Congo)|Lokele]]), bugu or gugu (Zande), gbugbu (Ngbandi), kiyondo (Songye), lokole ([[Twa|Batwa]] and Mongo), mandru (Mangbetu), mond (Lunda), mongungu ([[Ngombe language|Ngombe]]), ndundu (Pygmies), tshingufu (Chokwe), and mukoku ngombu (Yaka). A particularly large trapezoidal version is known as lukumbi or nkumvi in Kikongo.<ref name=":26" />

=== Membranophones ===
{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 190
| image1            = RegCongo5.png
| caption1          = A 1598 illustration by [[Theodor de Bry]] from [[Kingdom of Kongo|Regnum Congo]]: ''Regnvm Congo hoc est Vera descriptio regni Africani, qvod tam ab incolis qvam Lvsitanis Congus appellatur'' by [[Filippo Pigafetta]], depicting warriors of the Kingdom of Kongo. The scene features native soldiers, including a noble [[Bow and arrow|archer]] adorned with a feathered headdress, accompanied by others carrying [[Folk instrument|traditional instruments]] such as a tam-tam drum and horn. Captioned in Latin: "Armatura tam nobiliorum quam gregariorum militum descripta lib. 1 cap. 7".
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Among Congolese [[membranophone]]s, the drum, commonly referred to as tam-tam or [[Ngoma drums|ngoma]], holds a place of particular importance and is often regarded as the "king" of [[Folk instrument|traditional instruments]]. Present in nearly all [[Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese cultures]], the drum performs an essential musical and social role, much like the [[Lead guitar|solo guitar]] in popular music, by providing the primary rhythmic drive that compels audiences to dance.<ref name=":26" /> Typically carved from long, hollowed-out tree trunks, with each community selecting wood native to its region, these drums vary widely in size, construction, and nomenclature. The standard drum shape is cylindrical, and the membrane (usually made of [[Hide (skin)|animal hide]] such as cow, goat, antelope, or sheep) is stretched over a wooden frame and secured with nails or woven cords.<ref name=":26" /> A paste is often applied to the center of the membrane to produce a distinctive tonal quality, and tuning is commonly achieved by heating the drum over a fire.<ref name=":26" />

Performance techniques vary, with drums played either with bare hands or sticks, and sometimes accompanied by bells worn on the wrists to enhance rhythmic texture. Drummers generally play standing, with the instrument tied to the waist and held obliquely between the legs.<ref name=":26" /> Drums vary significantly in size, from large instruments over a meter in height to smaller variants, depending on the cultural context. Beyond its musical function, the drum historically served as a "[[Talking drum|talking instrument]]", capable of transmitting coded messages to surrounding communities.<ref name=":26" /> These rhythmic signals could announce births, funerals, enemy attacks, harvests, or communal events such as market days. While this communicative role has diminished over time, it once constituted a vital part of rural social organization.<ref name=":26" />

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = CH-NB - Belgisch-Kongo, Leopoldville (Kinshasa)- Menschen - Annemarie Schwarzenbach - SLA-Schwarzenbach-A-5-26-001.jpg
| caption1          = A group of Congolese men gathered in a circle performing on a tam-tam (drum) in [[Kinshasa|Léopoldville]], present-day Kinshasa.
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There are an estimated 300 distinct types of drums in the DRC. The drum is generically known as ngoma across several languages, including Kikongo, Swahili, Tshiluba, Lingala (where mbonda is also used), and among numerous other [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking populations.<ref name=":26" /> Specific drum types bear more localized names: mu ngoma-ngoma (Kongo), mongei (Teke), mungele (Bangongo), mungiedi (Bahungana), bulup (Kuba), ngomo (Bahungana), ditumba (Luba of Kasaï and Katanga), mukupela (large Tshokwe drum), ndungu (elongated conical Kongo drum), ngomonene, mumbomba, and idudu (various Teke drums).<ref name=":26" /> The double-membrane drum, with skins on both ends of a cylindrical body, is carried on the shoulder and played with one hand and one stick; in Kikongo, it is called bandi, a name derived from the English word "[[Musical ensemble|band]]".<ref name=":26" /> The [[friction drum]], a unique membranophone found across Congo, is played by rubbing a stick or similar implement across the membrane to produce resonant, vibratory sounds. This instrument is widely distributed and known by a variety of vernacular names: kwita (Chokwe), mfing nene (Mbunda), mondo (Yaka), mondule (Ekonda), mpwit (Lunda), ngoma i pwita (Tshiluba), mukwiti, kingulu-ngulu, nkwiti (Kikongo), pwita (Songye), koy na bula (Kuba, Pende), and ngoma wa bimrunku or tambwe ngoma ([[Kanyok language|Kanyoka]]).<ref name=":26" /> In Cuba, the instrument is known as kinfuiti, a term believed to be a linguistic transformation of the Kikongo word nkwiti.<ref name=":26" />

Less common but still culturally significant is the [[frame drum]], particularly among the Kongo and Pende peoples. Circular in form, the frame drum is played with the hands, and tonal variation is achieved by applying pressure to the membrane with the heel of the palm. The instrument is traditionally played while seated, with the drum held between the legs.<ref name=":26" /> Among the Luba-Shankadi, it is called tambur (a distortion of the French ''tambour''), and among the Luba of Kasaï, the generic term ngoma is used. The patenge, a specific variant, is thought to have influenced the development of Cuban [[Bongo drum|bongos]]. The [[talking drum]], known as ntambu in Kikongo, is recognized for its ritual and communicative roles.<ref name=":26" />

== History of popular music ==
   
===Colonial times (pre-1960)===
{{See also|Music industry and copyright in the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
Since the colonial era, [[Kinshasa]], Congo's capital, has been one of the great centers of musical innovation.  The country, however, was carved out from territories controlled by many different [[ethnic group]]s, many of which had little in common with each other. Each maintained (and continue to do so) their own [[folk music]] traditions, and there was little in the way of a pan-Congolese musical identity until the 1940s.

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 230
| image1            = Franco Luambo Kenya 1987.jpg
| caption1          = [[Franco Luambo]] and guitarist Dizzy Mandjeku at the [[Moi International Sports Centre]] in Kasarani, Nairobi, Kenya, in 1987.
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}}

In both the former [[French Congo]] and [[Belgian Congo]] (modern-day [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]), the popular [[Partner dance|partnered dance]] music was initially known as maringa. This dance originated among the [[Kongo people]] within the historical [[Kingdom of Loango]], encompassing present-day areas of the Republic of the Congo, southern [[Gabon]], and Angola's [[Cabinda Province]].<ref name=":3233"/><ref name=":2922"/> Maringa utilized a combination of traditional instruments such as the ''patengé'' (a small [[frame drum]]), a glass bottle used as a [[Triangle (musical instrument)|triangle]], and a variant of the ''[[Ikembe|likembe]]'' (a thumb piano) with steel reeds.<ref name=":3233" /> The dance was characterized by a rhythmic swaying of the hips, alternating weight from leg to leg, and was stylistically reminiscent of the [[Cuban rumba|Afro-Cuban rumba]]. By the 1930s, partnered dance had become widespread throughout the Congo region.<ref name=":3233" /> According to ethnomusicologist Kazadi wa Mukuna, early recording studios began to market maringa as "''[[rumba]]''", blending in the newer rumba rhythm while keeping the original name.<ref name=":223"/> Scholar Phyllis Martin also noted that the interest of the White elite in [[Brazzaville]] in [[Music of Latin America|Latin American music]], especially after Cuban rumba's exposure at the 1932 [[Chicago]] World's Fair, played a significant role in this transition.<ref name=":3233" /> Nonetheless, both colonial and African elites often favored dances like the [[tango]] and the [[biguine]]. In 1934, Jean Réal, a French director of entertainment from [[Martinique]], coined the term "''[[Congolese rumba|Congo Rumba]]''" when he founded a band of the same name in Brazzaville in 1938.<ref name=":3233" /><ref name=":41"></ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=14 May 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa : Evolution de la musique congolaise moderne de 1930 à 1950 |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution of modern Congolese music from 1930 to 1950 |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200505160526.html |access-date=24 May 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Several institutions key to the development of Congolese popular music were established soon thereafter: Olympia and its associated labels (Novelty, Kongo Bina, and Lomeka) were founded in 1939 by Fernand Jansens and Albert Patou; Studio Congolia, affiliated with Radio Congolia, was created in 1941 by Jean Hourdebise.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |last=Tsambu |first=Leon |title=Section 1.-1930-1950: de l'agbaya à l'ère de la musique populaire moderne pionnière |trans-title=Section 1.-1930-1950: from agbaya to the era of modern popular musicpioneer |url=https://bokundoli.org/doc/section-1-1930-1950-de-lagbaya-a-lere-de-la-musique-populaire-moderne-pionniere/ |access-date=30 November 2023 |website=Bokundoli |language=fr}}</ref> In August 1941, Congolese musicologist Emmanuel Okamba documented the formation of Victoria Brazza, an ensemble led by [[Paul Kamba]] in [[Poto-Poto|Poto-Poto, Brazzaville]]. Their performances blended the traditional maringa rhythm with modern instrumentation, including [[accordion]], guitar, [[mandolin]], and [[banjo]], creating what would become known as modern Congolese rumba, a fusion of programmable modern sounds with the intuitive, non-programmable textures of traditional instruments.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=18 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=8 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 230
| image1            = Jesse 02 gr.jpg
| caption1          = 1945 photo spread from ''Nos Images'', a weekly magazine printed in French and the four main languages of the [[Belgian Congo]] ([[Lingala]], [[Swahili language|Kiswahili]], [[Kongo language|Kikongo]], and [[Luba-Kasai language|Tshiluba]]). The images celebrate the fifth anniversary of Radio Congo Belge pour les Indigènes' (RCBI) ''African Program'', showing the station's record library, a wall of listener photos and letters, and studio scenes, including Pauline Lisanga, RCBI's first female voice and a singer of emerging Congolese music, reading requests live.
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A similar development occurred in Kinshasa, where vocalist [[Wendo Kolosoy|Antoine Wendo Kolosoy]] formed the group Victoria-Kin in 1943. His ensemble employed instruments such as the ''patenge'', the ''mukwasa'' (a [[Scraper (instrument)|scraper]]), and a [[bass drum]]. Wendo, renowned along the [[Congo River]], performed with up to 15 choristers, including his cousin Léon Yangu Mbale.<ref name=":10" /> His work inspired [[Henri Bowane]], born in [[Mbandaka]] to a Congolese father from Brazzaville, who briefly formed the vocal group Victoria-Coquilathville before settling in Kinshasa on 25 December 1949. Bowane played a central role in the promotion of Kinshasa's evolving rumba style, particularly following the founding of key recording companies such as [[Ngoma (record label)|Ngoma]] (by John Nicolas Jeronimidis) and Kina (by Gabriel Benatar) in 1948.<ref name=":10" /> Simultaneously, [[Son cubano|Cuban son]] music, performed by groups like [[Sexteto Habanero]], [[Trio Matamoros]], and Los Guaracheros de Oriente, was broadcast on [[Radio Congo Belge]] in Kinshasa. Musicians adapted Cuban son's instrumentation, piano, percussion, and brass, by transposing these elements onto electric guitars and saxophones, sometimes singing in phonetic Spanish or French.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Africa v. 1''. 2010 p. 407.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Storm Roberts |first1=John |url=https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe |title=The Latin Tinge: The Impact of Latin American Music on the United States |date=1999 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-976148-7 |edition=2nd |location=New York, NY |pages=[https://archive.org/details/latintingeimpact0000robe/page/217 217]–218 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name=":45">{{Cite web |last=Chicago Tribune |date=2 June 1993 |title=American listeners are discovering Soukous |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/1993/06/02/american-listeners-are-discovering-soukous/ |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=Chicago Tribune |publication-place=Chicago, Illinois, United States}}</ref> Over time, Congolese artists began incorporating indigenous rhythms and melodic structures.<ref name=":45" /> Notably, the term "''Congolese rumba''" emerged due to the mislabeling of Cuban records as "''rumba''" by importers.<ref name=":223" /> According to Kazadi wa Mukuna, Congolese rumba was not a direct adaptation of Cuban dance forms, but rather a reinterpretation of the name and instrumentation, ultimately returning to maringa's rhythmic foundations.<ref name=":41"></ref> He argued that the name "''rumba''" was retained primarily for commercial appeal, while musicians gravitated back to patterns that could be more readily integrated with newly acquired instruments and aligned with traditional music and dance structures.<ref name=":41" />

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Leon-bukasa-2.jpg
| caption1          = [[Léon Bukasa]] (left) with a friend
| image2            = Les musiciens de rumba congolaise Léon Bukasa et De Saio (Manoka Souleymane).jpg
| caption2          = Léon Bukasa and De Saio (Manoka Souleymane) in 1958. De Saio was the son of a [[Senegal]]ese father and became known for his contributions to Congolese rumba.
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Before the establishment of formal bands, early Congolese music was dominated by solo singers, such as Antoine Wendo Kolosoy, Henri Bowane, [[Léon Bukasa]], Antoine Kasongo Kitenge, Camille Feruzi, [[Adou Elenga]], Baudouin Mavula, [[Jean Bosco Mwenda|Jean Bosco Mwenda wa Bayeke]], Baba Gaston, Kabongo Paris, and Manoka Desaïo.<ref name=":10" /> On the female front, pioneering artists between 1951 and 1959 included [[Lucie Eyenga]] (considered the first woman in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] to record music), Tekele Mokango, Anne Ako, the duos Esther Sudila & Léonine Mbongo, Jeanne Ninin & Caroline Mpia, as well as Marie Kitoto, Albertine Ndaye, Martha Badibala, Pauline Lisanga, and Marcelle Ebibi, the latter being Cameroonian-born and married to Guy-Léon Fylla of Brazzaville.<ref name=":10" />

Following [[World War II]], a group of coastal [[West Africa]]ns, referred to locally as the ''Popo'' and placed below Europeans and ''[[métis]]'' (mixed-race) in the colonial social hierarchy, settled in the Belgian Congo as accountants and administrators. To occupy their leisure time, they formed the Excelsior Orchestra in [[Boma, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Boma]].<ref name=":10" /> This group was modeled on [[Ghana]]'s Excelsior of [[Accra]] (founded in 1914 by Franck Torto) and performed on weekends in rudimentary bars and public spaces.<ref name=":10" /> Their repertoire included maringa and [[highlife]] played on European instruments such as guitar, saxophone, [[Diatonic and chromatic|chromatic]] accordion, trumpet, and piano. According to Bowane, this group later gave rise to a second formation, Jazz Popo, which served as a significant influence on emerging Congolese musicians.<ref name=":10" />

In 1942, historian Kanza Matondo records the formation of three Congolese [[Brass band|brass orchestras]]: Odéon, led by Kabamba and Booth; Américain, under the leadership of brothers Alex and André Tshibangu; and Martinique, founded by Kasongo, Fernandès, Booth, and Malonga. These ensembles marked the advent of Congolese group-based music initiatives.<ref name=":10" /> Jean-Pierre François Nimy Nzonga, Mfumu Fylla Saint-Eudes, and several online sources document additional vocal and brass ensembles active during the 1940s. Chief among them was Odéon Kinois, comprised largely of alumni from the Boma Colonial School (''Colonie Scolaire de Boma'').<ref name=":10" /> This group was led by Justin Disasi, a playwright who would later become the elected mayor of [[Kalamu]] in 1956. The initiative stemmed from Eugène Kabamba, a civil servant in the [[Minister of Finance (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|Ministry of Finance]] and President of the Assanef (''Association des anciens élèves des Frères des écoles chrétiennes'').<ref name=":10" /> In 1947, Disasi assumed leadership of the orchestra Melo Kin, a Kinshasa-based successor to Melo Congo, originally founded in Brazzaville by saxophonist Emmanuel Dadet. Disasi's tenure at Odéon Kinois concluded that same year when he was succeeded by trumpeter René Kisumuna, a fellow alumnus of the Boma school.<ref name=":10" /> Odéon Kinois, then regarded as a leading ensemble, faced growing competition from other orchestras, including Américain and splinter groups led by musicians such as Antoine Kasongo Kitenge and Jean Lopongo. Lopongo's group eventually performed at Siluvangi Bar, a venue previously associated with Camille Feruzi's orchestra.<ref name=":10" />

{{Multiple image
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| image1            = L’orchestre Antoine Kasongo 1950.jpg
| caption1          = The orchestra of Antoine Kasongo Kitenge in 1950.
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Odéon Kinois, most commonly linked to Disasi, should not be conflated with the similarly named ensemble founded by Kabamba and Booth, nor with Odéon Vocal, led by Léon Yayu and Mulangi. All three formations are dated to 1942 and were based in Kinshasa. The ensemble Américain, founded in 1945 and led by Pierre Disu, emerged within a context shaped by the temporary presence of American military personnel stationed at [[N'Dolo Airport|Ndolo airfield]] during World War II.<ref name=":10" /> These troops, monitoring [[List of Soviet and Russian submarine classes|Soviet submarine]] activity, entertained local audiences with [[New Orleans]]-style jazz. In both Américain and Odéon Kinois, proficiency in [[musical notation]] ([[solfège]]) was a prerequisite for membership.<ref name=":10" /> According to Antoine Wendo, the earliest Congolese ensemble predating the influence of the Coastmen and the Excelsior Orchestra was that of Antoine Kasongo Kitenge, a clarinetist and later saxophonist originally from [[Maniema]]. Kasongo received [[Music education|musical training]] in the brass band of Sainte-Cécile School in [[Kintambo]], later joined by Jean Lopongo. He went on to establish his own jazz orchestra, which performed at public dances in [[Kinshasa Botanical Garden|Parc de Bock]] (now [[Kinshasa Botanical Garden]]). Despite assertions by musicologist Clément Ossinondé, Kasongo's orchestra was distinct from Odéon Kinois.<ref name=":10" />

The Martinique Orchestra, directed by Rufin Mutinga, described as "deputy assistant to the first [[burgomaster]]", bears a name with debated origins. According to Matondo, it likely derived its name from the cultural presence of Martinican soldiers stationed in Brazzaville. These soldiers, performing for recreation, contributed to the spread of the biguine rhythm, commonly referred to locally as "''martiniquais''".<ref name=":10" /> This rhythm, also popularized by the Américain group, shared stylistic similarities with the musical approach of Odéon Kinois. During this period, many Congolese orchestras incorporated the biguine rhythm into their repertoire, adapting it to local musical idioms.<ref name=":10" /> Antoine Kasongo began releasing music through the Olympia label in 1947, before signing with Ngoma in 1949. His collaboration with guitarist [[Zacharie Elenga]], known as "Jimmy à la Hawaïenne" (Jimmy the Hawaiian), resulted in several influential recordings, including "Libala liboso se sukali" ("Marriage is sweet at first"), "Baloba balemba" ("We don't care about their gossip"), "Naboyaki kobina" ("I refused to dance"), "Se na mboka" ("It's in the village"), "Sebene", "Nzungu ya sika" ("New pot" or metaphorically, "new woman"), among others.<ref name=":10" /> Notably, vocalists Jeanne Ninin and Caroline Mpia contributed significantly to these recordings.<ref name=":10" /> The [[sebene]], an instrumental bridge used to accentuate guitar improvisation, emerged prominently during this period and is largely attributed to Kasongo's innovation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=27 September 2019 |title=Congo-Brazzaville - Guy Léon Fylla: Le souvenir d'une grande légende de la musique congolaise 4 ans après sa disparition |trans-title=Congo-Brazzaville - Guy Léon Fylla: The memory of a great legend of Congolese music 4 years after his disappearance |url=https://www.congopage.com/Congo-Brazzaville-Guy-Leon-Fylla-Le-souvenir-d-une-grande-legende-de-la-musique-congolaise-4-ans |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=7 September 2019 |title=Les deux premiers grands orchestres de cuivres de Brazzaville et de Kinshasa en 1940 |trans-title=The first two major brass orchestras of Brazzaville and Kinshasa in 1940 |url=https://zenga-mambu.com/2019/09/07/les-deux-premiers-grands-orchestres-de-cuivres-de-brazzaville-et-de-kinshasa-en-1940/ |access-date=26 April 2024 |website=Zenga-mambu.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Contrary to Ossinondé's interpretation, Harmonie Kinoise and Odéon Kinois were not necessarily the same ensemble.<ref name=":10" /> Nyimi Nzonga refers to Kasongo's group simply as "Antoine Kasongo and his orchestra" under the Ngoma label. He describes Kasongo as a virtuoso of solfège who trained initially in the brass band of the Marist Brothers' School in [[Kisangani]] and who briefly performed with Américain, a rival group composed of alumni from the Colonial School of Boma.<ref name=":10" />

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Le groupe influent de rumba congolaise OK Jazz en 1960, Liberaal Archief.jpg
| caption1          = [[Kinshasa]] nightlife in 1960, where Congolese and white patrons dance together to the rhythms of Congolese rumba in a local bar.
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By the 1950s, several local record labels, including CEFA (''Compagnie d'Énregistrements Folkloriques Africains''), Ngoma, Loningisa, Esengo, and Opika, began releasing 78 rpm records, which thus facilitated the genre's spread.<ref name=":60">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=13 January 2020 |title=La genèse de la production musicale, des droits d'auteur, du syndicat d'artistes-musiciens à Léopoldville (Kinshasa) de 1947 à 2019 |trans-title=The genesis of musical production, copyright, and the union of artists-musicians in Léopoldville (Kinshasa) from 1947 to 2019 |url=https://www.congopage.com/La-genese-de-la-production-musicale-des-droits-d-auteur-du-syndicat-d-artistes-musiciens-a |access-date=4 September 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":31">{{Cite web |last=Okamba |first=Emmanuel |date=30 March 2022 |title=La "Rumba", un humanisme musical en partage |url=https://hal.science/hal-03540376v3/document |access-date=18 December 2023 |publisher=HAL |page=9 |language=fr |publication-place=Lyon, France}}</ref><ref name="Greenstreet">{{Cite web |last=Greenstreet |first=Morgan |date=7 December 2018 |title=Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous |url=https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2018/12/the-roots-of-soukous |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=daily.redbullmusicacademy.com}}</ref><ref name=":532">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&q=Belgium%20and%20the%20Congo%20once%20again%20unimpeded,%20a%20Belgian%20entrepreneur%20named%20Fernand%20Janssens%20had%20come%20to%20L%C3%A9opoldville%20with%20a%20portable,%20direct-to-disc%20recording%20machine. |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=17 November 2003 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=24–33}}</ref> Belgian producer Bill Alexandre, working with CEFA, introduced electric guitars to local musicians.<ref name=":60" /> During this period, the Kinshasa population grew exponentially, rising from 49,972 in 1940 to over 200,000 by 1950. This expansion brought increased ethnic and [[racial diversity]], and established Kinshasa as a central hub of cultural and economic activity in the Belgian Congo.<ref name=":10" /> The city's [[Urban sprawl|urban growth]] was mirrored by the proliferation of leisure spaces, particularly bars and nightclubs, which became prominent sites of [[Social relation|social interaction]], musical performance, and entertainment for both migrant laborers and urban residents.<ref name=":10" /> These establishments played a dual role: while serving the colonial administration's agenda for pacification and [[social control]] (often referred to as the "''Pax Belga''"), they simultaneously provided the African population with venues for leisure, self-expression, and [[Community building|community-building]].<ref name=":10" /> Bars were described as centers of style, sociability, and emerging cultural values. They were venues where aesthetic sensibilities, financial status, and modern identities were publicly displayed.<ref name=":10" /> Of the more than one hundred bars operating in Kinshasa by the mid-century, approximately twenty held official authorization to host dancing. Prominent among these were the O.K. Bar, Macauley, Kongo Bar, Siluvangi, Quist, Zeka Bar, Amouzou, Air France, and the Home des Mulâtres.<ref name=":10" /> These establishments were referred to as "the pride and heart of urban life", epitomizing what was perceived as the pinnacle of the [[urban culture]] generated through colonial capitalist contact.<ref name=":10" /> Some of these bars were owned or managed by Coastmen, while others, such as the Home des Mulâtres, were marked by racial segregation, serving only the ''métis'' population. This latter venue in particular symbolized the persistence of colonial racial hierarchies in spaces that might otherwise have fostered social integration.<ref name=":10" />

In 1953, the Congolese music scene began to differentiate itself with the formation of [[Grand Kalle et l'African Jazz|African Jazz]] (led by [[Joseph Kabasele|Joseph "Le Grand Kallé" Kabasele]]), the first full-time orchestra dedicated to recording and performance, and the emergence of fifteen-year-old guitarist [[Franco Luambo]].<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":52">{{Cite web |last=Ossinonde |first=Clément |date=12 October 2020 |title=Dossier - Luambo-Makiadi "Franco", comme vous ne l'avez jamais connu |trans-title=File - Luambo-Makiadi "Franco", as you never knew him |url=https://www.congopage.com/dossier-luambo-makiadi-franco-comme-vous-ne-l-avez-jamais-connu |access-date=22 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":02" /> Both would become among the earliest luminaries of Congolese music.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":52"/><ref name=":02" />

===1950–70===

==== Return to maringa and integration of traditional elements ====
{{Multiple image
| image1            = Meridjo Belobi (1979).jpg
| image2            = Bébé Atalaku et Nono Monzuluku lors de leur première prestation télévisée avec Zaïko Langa Langa.jpg
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| footer            = [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] pioneered a new musical direction by introducing the [[cavacha]] drumming pattern, developed by drummer [[Meridjo Belobi]] (top), and popularized the role of the [[atalaku]], innovated by [[Nono Monzuluku]] and [[Bébé Atalaku]] (bottom).
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By the early 1960s, many imported dance and music styles had fallen out of favor, replaced by guitar-driven forms rooted in traditional Congolese sources. Ethnomusicologist Kazadi wa Mukuna observed that as the novelty of [[Music of Latin America|Latin American]] influences waned, musicians returned to maringa, which was easily adapted to modern instrumentation. This approach re-integrated traditional rhythms and dances into rumba's structure without compromising local aesthetic principles.<ref name=":41" /> Modern instruments expanded the harmonic and tonal [[Range (music)|range]], with the guitar supplanting both indigenous melodic instruments, such as the ''likembe'' and ''madimba'', and certain European imports like the violin and accordion. During this transitional period, Congolese rumba, often still called maringa, proved highly adaptable to indigenous rhythmic frameworks.<ref name=":41" /> Its standard structure evolved into a multi-section format: an instrumental prelude, the principal verse (sometimes abstract in delivery), an instrumental interlude, a reprise of the verse with a modified cadence leading to the refrain (frequently a [[Call and response|call-and-response]] between the lead vocalist and chorus), the [[sebene]] improvisation, and a [[Coda (music)|coda]] derived from the refrain.<ref name=":41" /> This framework permitted extensive improvisation, encouraging rhythmic and melodic innovation and giving rise to numerous substyles. Among the most notable were [[soukous]] (1966), kiri-kiri (1969), [[cavacha]] (1972), mokonyonyon (1977), engoss and its variant zekete-zekete (1977–1987), [[kwassa kwassa]], (1986), madiaba (1988), mayebo (1990), mayeno (1991), and sundama and kintekuna (1992).<ref name=":41" /> These developments were strongly tied to ethnic traditions, as many new dances incorporated movements from specific communities. For example, [[Papa Wemba]]'s mokonyonyon (1977) drew from the [[Tetela people]]'s dances, while [[Orchestre Stukas|Lita Bembo]]'s Ekonda saccade (1972) reflected [[Mongo people|Mongo]] heritage. The sundama, popularized by Swede-Swede, also originated from Mongo traditions.<ref name=":41" /> The kwasa-kwasa, introduced in 1986 by [[Empire Bakuba]], echoed a [[Kongo people|Kongo]] [[social dance]], and the mayeno style of [[TPOK Jazz]] was derived from Bantandu traditions of [[Kongo Central]].<ref name=":41" /> Ultimately, the evolution of Congolese rumba adhered to indigenous aesthetic norms, which affirmed Kazadi wa Mukuna's view that urban Congolese music was fundamentally rooted in ''maringa'' rather than in borrowed Latin forms.<ref name=":41" /> The Latin American rumba and other foreign forms introduced in the 1940s primarily served as training tools for mastering new instruments and orchestration. Once these skills were acquired, Latin forms were abandoned due to their limited adaptability to Congolese traditions.<ref name=":41" /> However, the term "''rumba''" persisted largely due to the commercial strategies of the recording industry, even as the music itself had become an entirely localized [[Cultural expressions|cultural expression]].<ref name=":41" />

==== Big bands ====
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = OK Jazz 1963.jpg
| image2            = African Jazz in 1961.jpg
| footer_align      = center
| footer            = [[TPOK Jazz]] (left) and [[Le Grand Kallé et l'African Jazz|African Jazz]] (right) stand out as the most influential and prominent big bands in the history of Congolese popular music.
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}}
During the 1960 [[Belgo-Congolese Round Table Conference|Round Table Conference]] in [[Brussels]], convened to determine the political future of the Belgian Congo, Congolese nationalist [[Thomas Kanza]] arranged for musicians to participate in diplomatic and social functions.<ref name=":63">{{Cite web |last=Brouns |first=Arthur |date=13 February 2020 |title=Le label belge qui ressuscite la rumba congolaise des années 1950 à 1970 |trans-title=The Belgian label that revives Congolese rumba from the 1950s to the 1970s |url=https://www.vice.com/fr/article/label-belge-la-rumba-congolaise-des-annees-1950-a-1970-planet-ilunga/ |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |language=fr}}</ref> On 27 January 1960, [[Le Grand Kallé|Joseph Kabasele]] (known as "[[Le Grand Kallé]]") and his band, [[Le Grand Kallé et l'African Jazz|African Jazz]], became the first Congolese musical group and rumba band to perform in Brussels.<ref name=":05">{{Cite web |last=Nascimento |first=Evelyn Rosa do |date=25 June 2021 |title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": história e conexões culturais através da rumba congolesa (1940–1965) |trans-title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": history and cultural connections through the Congolese rumba (1940–1965) |url=https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517110002id_/https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=21 April 2024 |publisher=Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro |page=11 |language=pt |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro}}</ref><ref name=":632">{{Cite web |last=Brouns |first=Arthur |date=13 February 2020 |title=Le label belge qui ressuscite la rumba congolaise des années 1950 à 1970 |trans-title=The Belgian label that revives Congolese rumba from the 1950s to the 1970s |url=https://www.vice.com/fr/article/label-belge-la-rumba-congolaise-des-annees-1950-a-1970-planet-ilunga/ |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":83">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=5 October 2009 |title=Le souvenir de Luambo Makiadi Franco et l'Ok Jazz |trans-title=The memory of Luambo Makiadi Franco and Ok Jazz |url=https://www.congopage.com/le-souvenir-de-luambo-makiadi-franco-et-l-ok-jazz |access-date=22 August 2024 |website=Congopage |language=fr}}</ref> That day, they debuted the Congolese rumba song "[[Indépendance Cha Cha]]" at the [[Hotel Le Plaza, Brussels|Hôtel Plaza]] to mark the formal recognition of the Congo's forthcoming independence, which would be proclaimed on 30 June 1960.<ref name=":052">{{Cite web |last=Nascimento |first=Evelyn Rosa do |date=25 June 2021 |title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": história e conexões culturais através da rumba congolesa (1940–1965) |trans-title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": history and cultural connections through the Congolese rumba (1940–1965) |url=https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517110002id_/https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=21 April 2024 |publisher=Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro |page=11 |language=pt |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dumitrescu |first=Irina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgSVEAAAQBAJ&dq=congolese+rumba+Ind%C3%A9pendance+Cha+Cha&pg=PA206 |title=Rumba Under Fire: The Arts of Survival from West Point to Delhi |date=2016 |publisher=Punctum Books |isbn=978-0-692-65583-2 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States. |page=206}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Dibango |first=Manu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9tvf93QiNpQC |title=Three Kilos of Coffee: An Autobiography |date=3 October 1994 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-14490-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |pages=23–33}}</ref> Sung in [[Lingala]], the composition became an anthem for independence movements across [[African French|Francophone Africa]] and was widely performed at public celebrations and gatherings.<ref name=":053">{{Cite web |last=Nascimento |first=Evelyn Rosa do |date=25 June 2021 |title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": história e conexões culturais através da rumba congolesa (1940–1965) |trans-title="O Dipandatcha-tchaTozui e": history and cultural connections through the Congolese rumba (1940–1965) |url=https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517110002id_/https://www.maxwell.vrac.puc-rio.br/55241/55241.PDF |archive-date=17 May 2022 |access-date=21 April 2024 |publisher=Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro |page=11 |language=pt |publication-place=Rio de Janeiro}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Guinard |first=Clémence |date=13 January 2022 |title=La Rumba congolaise, la musique de l'indépendance (et de la SAPE) |trans-title=Congolese Rumba, the music of independence (and of the SAPE) |url=https://www.radiofrance.fr/francemusique/musiques-du-monde/la-rumba-congolaise-la-musique-des-independantistes-et-des-sapeurs-5041956 |access-date=13 April 2025 |website=[[Radio France]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 310
| image1            = Nico Kasanda Nico et L'African Fiesta Sukisa.jpg
| caption1          = [[Nico Kasanda]] leading the Orchestre African Fiesta Sukisa.
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Throughout the 1960s, both African Jazz and [[TPOK Jazz]] maintained prominence in the Congolese music scene, with TPOK Jazz under Franco Luambo Makiadi ultimately dominating for two decades.<ref name=":15">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=10 February 2011 |title=Joseph Kabasele: 28 ans après sa disparition |trans-title=Joseph Kabasele: 28 years after his disappearance |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-joseph-kabasele-28-ans-apres-sa-disparition-66888068.html |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Ossinondé |first=Clément |date=3 June 2011 |title=PBL vox: L'O.K. JAZZ L'une des très belles réussites musicales Congolaises des 55 dernières années (06 Juin 1956 – 06 Juin 2011) |trans-title=PBL vox: OK JAZZ – One of the finest Congolese musical achievements of the past 55 years (6 June 1956 – 6 June 2011) |url=https://congovox.blogspot.com/2011/06/lok-jazz-lune-des-tres-belles-reussites.html |access-date=12 July 2025 |website=PBL vox}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Seck |first=Nago |date=10 May 2007 |title=TP OK Jazz |url=https://www.afrisson.com/tp-ok-jazz-888/ |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Afrisson |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Schnabel |first=Tom |date=4 August 2020 |title=Spotlight on Congolese Superstar Franco |url=https://www.kcrw.com/music/articles/spotlight-on-congolese-superstar-franco |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=[[KCRW]] |language=en |publication-place=Santa Monica, California, United States}}</ref> African Jazz experienced significant internal fractures, beginning in 1963 when its guitarist [[Nico Kasanda|Nicolas Kasanda]], known as [[Nico Kasanda|Docteur Nico]], and his brother Charles Déchaud Mwamba departed following financial disputes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Millward |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DQXR244YSBEC |title=Changing Times: Music and Politics in 1964 |date=1 December 2012 |publisher=Troubador Publishing Ltd |isbn=978-1-78088-344-1 |location=Leicestershire, England |page=231}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=16 August 2013 |title=Succès, trahisons et création dans la rumba |trans-title=Success, betrayals and creation in rumba |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/actu-musique/musique-africaine/20130816-orchestres-congolais-rumba |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> Although temporarily reconciled in 1961, tensions persisted.<ref name=":16" /> In 1963, Docteur Nico and vocalist [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] left permanently to form [[African Fiesta]].<ref name=":182">{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zlwQXNlD6icC&dq=Nico+Kasanda+African+Fiesta&pg=PA24 |title=Breakout: Profiles in African Rhythm |date=June 1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-77406-0 |location=Chicago, Illinois, United States |pages=22–25}}</ref><ref name=":43">{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=C.C. |date=5 July 2018 |title=Afropop Worldwide {{!}} Best of the Beat on Afropop: Leo Sarkisian and Mwamba Dechaud |url=https://afropop.org/articles/best-of-the-beat-on-afropop-leo-sarkisian-zairean-guitar-legend-mwamba-dechaud |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=[[Afropop Worldwide]] |publication-place=Brooklyn, New York, New York, United States}}</ref> Their collaboration dissolved in 1965, leading Tabu Ley to rebrand the band as Orchestre African Fiesta 1966, later Orchestre African Fiesta National Le Peuple, and eventually Orchestre Afrisa International, alongside the creation of his own record label, Flash, which was sometimes called "Editions Flash", "Flash Rochereau Chante", or "Flash Edition Express Rochereau Chante".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mwenze |date=1 July 2016 |title=Chronologie des solistes de l'orchestre Afrisa International de Tabu Ley Rochereau |trans-title=Chronology of the soloists of the Afrisa International Orchestra of Tabu Ley Rochereau |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/2016/07/chronologie-des-solistes-de-l-orchestre-afrisa-international-de-tabu-ley-rochereau.html |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Braun |first=Ken |title=Seigneur Rochereau Tabu Ley |url=https://www.rootsworld.com/rw/tabuley13.shtml |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Rootsworld.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Seck |first=Nago |date=10 January 2007 |title=Pascal-Emmanuel Sinamoyi Tabu: Tabu Ley Rochereau |url=https://www.afrisson.com/tabu-ley-rochereau-4561/ |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Afrisson |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 July 2001 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Werra - Adolphe à Quoi Tient la Rivalité? |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Werra - Adolphe What is the reason for the rivalry? |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200107170067.html |access-date=23 October 2025 |website=[[L'Avenir (Congolese newspaper)|L'Avenir]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Docteur Nico founded African Fiesta Sukisa.<ref name=":182" /><ref name=":43" />

Docteur Nico was instrumental in defining the role of the electric guitar in [[African popular music]], pioneering the integration of the ''mi-solo'' guitar into Congolese rumba and influencing the development of soukous.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=di Perna |first=Alan |date=9 December 2021 |title=The story of Africa's guitar god Dr. Nico, the Congolese innovator admired by Jimi Hendrix |url=https://www.guitarworld.com/features/dr-nico |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=[[Guitar World]] |language=en |publication-place=New York, New York, United States}}</ref> Unlike the two-guitar structure common in Western genres, Congolese dance music employed three guitars: rhythm, ''mi-solo'' (half-solo), and lead. The ''mi-solo'' often carried syncopated [[ostinato]]s, or [[guajeo]]s, complementing the harmonic progression and freeing the lead guitar to perform elaborate melodic lines.<ref name=":17" /> Dr. Nico's style, characterized by fluid [[arpeggio]]s, [[Double stop|double-stops]], rhythmic punctuations, and the use of [[tremolo]] and [[Reverb effect|reverb]], contrasted with Franco's more traditionalist approach.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":52"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nkenkela |first=Auguste Ken |date=19 January 2024 |title=Les souvenirs de la musique congolaise : biographie et discographie de Luambo Makiadi Franco |trans-title=Memories of Congolese Music: Biography and Discography of Luambo Makiadi Franco |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/les-souvenirs-de-la-musique-congolaise-biographie-et-discographie-de-luambo-makiadi-franco |access-date=19 May 2025 |website=Adiac-congo.com |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=8 March 2023 |title=Olivier Tshimanga explique les différences entre l'école Odemba et l'école Fiesta |trans-title=Olivier Tshimanga explains the differences between the Odemba school and the Fiesta school |url=https://mbote.cd/culture/olivier-tshimanga-explique-les-differences-entre-lecole-odemba-et-lecole-fiesta/128704/ |access-date=19 May 2025 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> His work earned him the epithet L'Éternel Docteur Nico ("the Eternal Doctor Nico"), and his reputation extended internationally, and American guitarist [[Jimi Hendrix]] expressed a desire to meet him during a [[Paris]] tour after hearing of his technical mastery.<ref name=":17" />

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 200
| image1            = Rhythme–Congolaise.jpg
| caption1          = The Congolese rumba band Ry-Co Jazz was a major act under the French label [[Disques Vogue]] during the 1960s. Founded by [[Henri Bowane]] at the [[Loningisa]] studio in Kinshasa in 1958, the group's name stood for "Rhythme-Congolaise".
| caption_align     = center
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Despite the prestige of Orchestre Afrisa International, it could not match the sustained influence of TPOK Jazz. Rivalries between bands often included attempts to recruit each other's musicians, sometimes leading to public exchanges, such as Franco's satirical open letter in ''L'Étoile du Congo''. [[Papa Noël Nedule]], who trained notable figures including [[Pépé Kallé]] and [[Madilu System]], also faced the loss of musicians to rival bands.<ref name=":16" /> Nevertheless, these orchestras served as formative institutions for some of the most influential Congolese artists, including [[Franco Luambo]], [[Sam Mangwana]], [[Vicky Longomba]], [[Ndombe Opetum]], Dizzy Madjeku, and [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]].<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":02" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brun |first=Bastien |date=26 September 2018 |title=Dizzy Mandjeku: grand maitre de la guitare rumba |trans-title=Dizzy Mandjeku: Grand Master of Rumba Guitar |url=http://http//https%3A%2F%2Fpan-african-music.com%2Fdizzy-mandjeku%2F |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Pan African Music |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Sam Mangwana, in particular, maintained a strong following across various bands, from Vox Africa and Festival des Marquisards to Afrisa, TPOK Jazz, and later his own African All Stars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cagnolari |first=Vladimir |date=16 February 2021 |title=Mangwana, le roman d'une vie: le Maquisard de l'African Fiesta |trans-title=Mangwana, the novel of a lifetime: the Maquisard of the African Fiesta |url=http://http//https%3A%2F%2Fpan-african-music.com%2Fmangwana-le-roman-dune-vie-2%2F |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Pan African Music |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cagnolari |first=Vladimir |date=22 February 2021 |title=Mangwana, le roman d'une vie: et Sam devint OK… Jazz! |trans-title=Mangwana, the novel of a lifetime: and Sam became OK… Jazz! |url=http://http//https%3A%2F%2Fpan-african-music.com%2Fmangwana-le-roman-dune-vie-3%2F |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Pan African Music |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bessem |first=Frank |date=January 2002 |title=Musiques d'Afrique/D.R. Congo: Sam Mangwana |url=https://www.musiques-afrique.net/rdc/art-mangwana.html |access-date=14 August 2025 |website=Musiques-afrique.net}}</ref> Other significant orchestras of the era included Orchestre Conga-Jazz and Orchestre Cobantou, the latter founded by Paul Ebengo Dewayon.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=21 May 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution de la musique congolaise moderne des années 1960 et 1970 |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution of modern Congolese music of the 1960s and 1970s |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200505230028.html |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Mose Se Sengo]] of TPOK Jazz extended the reach of Congolese rumba to [[East Africa]], particularly [[Kenya]], after relocating there in 1974 with his band Somo Somo.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seck |first=Nago |date=19 December 2020 |title=The Congo Acoustic |url=https://www.afrisson.com/the-congo-acoustic/ |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Afrisson |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Clerfeuille |first=Sylvie |date=7 May 2007 |title=Mose Se Sengo (Mose Fan Fan) |url=https://www.afrisson.com/mose-se-fan-fan-108/ |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Afrisson |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=5 May 2019 |title=Auteur de "Dje Melasi", Fanfan Mose est décédé le 3 mai 2019 à Nairobi |trans-title=Author of "Dje Melasi", Fanfan Mose died on 3 May 2019 in Nairobi |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/2019/05/auteur-de-dje-melasi-fanfan-mose-est-decede-le-3-mai-2019-a-nairobi.html |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 June 2014 |title=Mose Se Sengo (Fan Fan) |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/directory/mose-se-sengo-fan-fan |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}</ref> Beyond [[Central Africa]], Congolese rumba proliferated through the rest of Africa.<ref name=":70">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v8WF7lN5JdoC |title=Cultures and Globalization: Cultural Expression, Creativity and Innovation |date=21 January 2010 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=9780857026576 |editor-last=Anheier |editor-first=Helmut K. |location=Thousand Oaks, California |page=119 |editor-last2=Isar |editor-first2=Yudhishthir R.}}</ref><ref name=":71">{{Cite web |last=Salter |first=Thomas |date=January 2007 |title=Rumba from Congo to Cape Town |url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/2670 |access-date=7 May 2024 |publisher=University of Edinburgh |pages=1–30 |publication-place=Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Micalef |first=Olivier Rivera |date=July 2024 |title=Tradition et modernité dans la musique de l'Afrique occidentale |trans-title=Tradition and Modernity in the Music of West Africa |url=https://digibuo.uniovi.es/dspace/bitstream/handle/10651/73917/TFG_OlivierRiveraMicalef.pdf |access-date=30 July 2025 |website=Digibuo.uniovi.es |publisher=[[University of Oviedo]] |page=17 |language=fr |publication-place=Oviedo, Asturias, Spain}}</ref>

During the same era, students at [[Lycée Prince de Liège]] in [[Gombe, Kinshasa]], developed a fascination with American [[Rock music|rock]] and [[funk]], especially after [[James Brown]] visited Kinshasa in 1974. From this environment emerged Los Nickelos and Thu Zahina.<ref name=":19">{{Cite web |date=6 January 2022 |title=The Congolese People: A Cultural Profile of the Democratic Republic of the Congo – Music and Dance |url=https://www.culturaldiversityresources.org/single-post/spotlight-on-culture-54 |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Culturaldiversityresources |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=31 March 2024 |title=Orchestre Les Thu Zahina |url=https://radiodiffusion.blog/2024/03/31/orchestre-les-thu-zahina/ |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Radiodiffusion Internasionaal Annexe |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Lavaine |first=Bertrand |date=30 October 2024 |title=Zaïre 74, un festival pour l'histoire |trans-title=Zaire 74, a festival for history |url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/musique/20241030-za%C3%AFre-74-un-festival-pour-l-histoire |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 May 2020 |title=E-Journal Kinshasa: Hebdomadaire d'informations générales, des programmes TV, Radio et Publicité, No. 0039 |url=https://e-journal.info/w/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/E-JK-0039.pdf |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=E-journal.info |publisher=E-journal Kinshasa |pages=12–13 |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=Thu Zahina |url=http://afrodisc.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Kin-Nostalgie-Thu-Zaina.pdf |access-date=16 August 2025 |website=Afrodisc.com |pages=1–4 |language=en, fr, ja}}</ref> Los Nickelos later moved to Brussels, while Thu Zahina, though short-lived, achieved legendary status for their throbbing performances characterized by frenetic, funk-infused drumming during the [[sebene]] and an often [[Psychedelic music|psychedelic]] edge.<ref name=":19" />

=== Zaïko and post Zaïko (c. 1970–90) ===
{{Culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
[[Orchestre Stukas|Stukas]] and [[Zaïko Langa Langa]] were the two most influential bands to emerge from this era,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nickel |first=Antoine |date=23 August 2008 |title=La stratégie de Lita Bembo pour détrôner le Zaïko .... |trans-title=Lita Bembo's strategy to dethrone Zaïko... |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-22175770.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bayo |first=Herman Bangi |date=18 August 2020 |title=Tabu Ley: parrain des orchestres de la 3e génération |trans-title=Tabu Ley: Godfather of 3rd Generation Orchestras |url=https://e-journal.info/2020/08/tabu-ley-parrain-des-orchestres-de-la-3e-generation/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=E-Journal Kinshasa |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mafina |first=Frédéric |date=18 August 2023 |title=Les immortelles chansons d'Afrique: "Gida" de Lita Bembo |trans-title=The immortal songs of Africa: "Gida" by Lita Bembo |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/les-immortelles-chansons-dafrique-gida-de-lita-bembo-150747 |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Adiac-congo.com |publisher=[[Agence d'Information d'Afrique Centrale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":20">{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=21 May 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution de la musique congolaise moderne des années 1960 et 1970 |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Evolution of modern Congolese music of the 1960s and 1970s |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200505230028.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> with the latter serving as a formative platform for prominent musicians such as [[Félix Manuaku Waku]], [[Bozi Boziana]], [[Evoloko Jocker]], and [[Papa Wemba]].<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |last= |date=15 February 2025 |title=Zaiko Langa Langa: The most Illustrious band in Africa |url=https://kenyapage.net/commentary/afromusic/zaiko-langa-langa-the-most-illustrious-band-in-africa/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Kenya Page |language=en-US |publication-place=Nairobi, Kenya}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Francois |first=Francois |date=8 September 2020 |title=Zaïko Langa-Langa: nouvel album "Sève" |trans-title=Zaïko Langa-Langa: new album "Sève" |url=https://www.paris-move.com/zaiko-langa-langa-nouvel-album-seve/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Paris Move |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yunduka |first=Karim |date=9 October 2020 |title=50 ans d'existence: Zaïko Langa Langa renaît de ses cendres |trans-title=50 years of existence: Zaïko Langa Langa rises from its ashes |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/50-ans-dexistence-zaiko-langa-langa-renait-de-ses-cendres-120424 |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Adiac-congo.com |publisher=[[Agence d'Information d'Afrique Centrale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref> During the early 1970s, a smoother and more melodious pop style was popularized by ensembles including [[Orchestre Bella Bella]], Orchestre Shama Shama, and Lipua Lipua, while [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]] promoted a raw, garage-like sound that fostered the careers of [[Pépé Kallé]] and [[Kanda Bongo Man]].<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":03">{{Cite web |date=8 May 2010 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Kinshasa s'est souvenu d'Emile et Maxime Soki |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Kinshasa remembers Emile and Maxime Soki |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201005100936.html |access-date=24 May 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mafina |first=Frédéric |date=30 August 2024 |title=Les immortelles chansons d'Afrique: "Shama Shama" de Mopero wa Maloba |trans-title=The immortal songs of Africa: "Shama Shama" by Mopero wa Maloba |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/les-immortelles-chansons-dafrique-shama-shama-de-mopero-wa-maloba-159488 |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Adiac-congo.com |publisher=[[Agence d'Information d'Afrique Centrale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

This period coincided with significant political and cultural transformations under President [[Mobutu Sese Seko]], and in 1971, against the backdrop of relative economic stability, growing international recognition, and the suppression of political opposition, he initiated the process of [[Authenticité (Zaire)|Zaireanisation]] (also known as ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|authenticité]]'').<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last=Levi |first=Ron |date=4 May 2017 |title=Zaire '74: politicising the sound event |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/02533952.2017.1364469 |journal=[[Social Dynamics: A Journal of African Studies]] |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=184–198 |doi=10.1080/02533952.2017.1364469 |issn=0253-3952|doi-access=free }}</ref> Although Zaire faced an intensifying [[Financial crisis|economic crisis]] due to inadequate investment in infrastructure, central Kinshasa was presented as a showcase of prosperity to the international community. These efforts reflected Mobutu's emphasis on projecting an image of modernity through symbolic displays of power.<ref name=":24" /> Before [[Mobutism]] was codified as the official [[Ideocracy|state ideology]], ''authenticité'' functioned as a cultural program designed to forge a distinct [[national identity]]. Citizens were required to adopt African names, wear attire imbued with "revolutionary" symbolism, and address one another as ''[[wiktionary:citoyen|citoyen]]'' rather than ''[[monsieur]]''.<ref name=":24" /> Popular music played a central role in this project, as Mobutu reorganized the industry to align with ''authenticité'' by transferring foreign-owned recording and distribution companies to Zairean nationals, appointing [[Franco Luambo]] as his cultural envoy, and financing artists through a state-run recording agency.<ref name=":24" /> In return, popular music was harnessed to reinforce the regime's image.<ref name=":24" /> By the 1980s, musicians who had emerged from Zaïko Langa Langa dominated Kinshasa's cultural scene, founding influential bands such as [[Choc Stars]] and [[Viva La Musica]], the latter under Papa Wemba's leadership.<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":23" />

==== Internationalization of soukous and the rise of ndombolo ====
{{Further|Soukous|Ndombolo}}{{Multiple image
| image1            = A posture of Pepe Kalle in 1978.jpg
| image2            = Werrason.jpg
| footer_align      = center
| footer            = [[Pépé Kallé]] (left) was one of the leading figures in [[soukous]], while [[Werrason]] (right) rose to prominence in [[ndombolo]].
| total_width       = 300
}}
During the 1980s, mounting sociopolitical upheaval in Zaire prompted many musicians to relocate abroad. [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]], and [[Colombia]] served as temporary refuges, while [[Paris]], [[Brussels]], and [[London]] developed into major centers for Congolese music.<ref name=":112">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |page=849}}</ref><ref name=":232">{{Cite book |last=Trillo |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6dEW14KykIC |title=The Rough Guide to Kenya |publisher=Rough Guides |year=2016 |isbn=9781848369733 |location=London, United Kingdom |page=598}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VmcEAAAQBAJ |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=5 May 2020 |publisher=Verso Books |isbn=978-1-78960-911-0 |location=Brooklyn, New York City, New York State}}</ref><ref name=":73">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvtHAox4T5EC |title=Let Spirit Speak!: Cultural Journeys Through the African Diaspora |date=June 2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=9781438442174 |editor-last=Valdés |editor-first=Vanessa K. |location=Albany, New York City, New York State |pages=40–41}}</ref><ref name=":84">{{Cite news |last=Hodgkinson |first=Will |date=8 July 2010 |title=How African music made it big in Colombia |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/jul/08/columbia-african-music-palenque |access-date=23 August 2023 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Paris, in particular, became a hub for soukous, where Congolese musicians engaged with European and Caribbean influences, synthesizers, and modern production techniques.<ref name=":382">{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOTNEAAAQBAJ&dq=Congolese+rumba+paris+1980s&pg=PT419 |title=Africa [3 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 Volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=979-8-216-04273-0 |location=London, England, United Kingdom}}</ref> Soukous in this period garnered a wide global following, with leading figures such as Papa Wemba, Pépé Kallé, Kanda Bongo Man, and [[Rigo Star]] achieving acclaim across Europe, Africa, and the Caribbean.<ref name=":382"/><ref name=":113">{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Carole Boyce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9ETPEAAAQBAJ&dq=soukous+in+London&pg=PA849 |title=Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora [3 volumes]: Origins, Experiences, and Culture |date=2008-07-29 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-1-85109-705-0 |location=New York City, New York State, United States |pages=849 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":29">{{Cite web |last=Mutara |first=Eugene |date=29 April 2008 |title=Rwanda: Memories Through Congolese Music |url=https://allafrica.com/stories/200804290721.html |access-date=27 July 2024 |website=[[The New Times (Rwanda)|The New Times]]}}</ref> Papa Wemba also became closely associated with the [[La Sape]] movement, a cultural phenomenon defined by flamboyant displays of luxury fashion.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bangré |first=Habibou |date=26 April 2016 |title=Les sapeurs de Kinshasa se disputent l'héritage de Papa Wemba |trans-title=Kinshasa sappers fight over Papa Wemba's legacy |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2016/04/27/les-sapeurs-de-kinshasa-se-disputent-l-heritage-de-papa-wemba_4909399_3212.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |work=[[Le Monde]] |location=Paris, France |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Cagnolari |first=Vladimir |date=18 August 2016 |title=Une musique, une histoire: "Sapologie", Papa Wemba [Comme un roman] |trans-title=A music, a story: "Sapologie", Papa Wemba [Like a novel] |url=http://http//https%3A%2F%2Fpan-african-music.com%2Fmusique-histoire-sapologie-papa-wemba-roman%2F |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Pan African Music |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Enrica |date=26 April 2016 |title=Papa Wemba, le Pape de la Sape |url=https://afrosartorialism.wordpress.com/2016/04/26/papa-wemba-le-pape-de-la-sape/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Afrosartorialism |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Sonsa-Kini |first=Kevin |date=16 August 2025 |title=L'évolution de la rumba congolaise partie 5: Papa Wemba et l'esthétique de la SAPE |trans-title=The Evolution of Congolese Rumba Part 5: Papa Wemba and the Aesthetics of SAPE |url=https://cultureetpassions.blog/2025/08/16/levolution-de-la-rumba-congolaise-partie-5-papa-wemba-et-lesthetique-de-la-sape/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Culture & Passions |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Meanwhile, Kinshasa continued to produce notable musicians such as [[Bimi Ombale]] and [[Dindo Yogo]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kiakesidi |first=Benjamin Mbangu |last2=Nzugu |first2=Patricia |date=12 May 2011 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: L'ancien artiste musicien de Zaiko langa langa, Bimi sera enterré aujourd'hui |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Former Zaiko Langa Langa musician Bimi to be buried today |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201104150590.html |access-date=13 July 2024 |website=Lephareonline.net |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=E. |first=Martin |last2=Ipan |first2=B. |date=23 June 2011 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: La musique congolaise en deuil - Mbuta Mashakado s'est éteint en Afrique du Sud |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Congolese music in mourning - Mbuta Mashakado died in South Africa |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201106230701.html |access-date=13 July 2024 |website=Lepotentiel.cd |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Diala |first=Jordache |date=28 August 2015 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: 15 ans après la mort de l'artiste - 60% de jeunes kinois ne connaissent pas Dindo Yogo! |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: 15 years after the artist's death - 60% of young Kinshasa residents do not know Dindo Yogo! |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201508280914.html |access-date=14 July 2024 |website=Laprosperiteonline.net |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The diversification of genres included the rise of [[madiaba]] and the popularization of [[Tshala Muana|Tshala Mwana]]'s mutuashi, rooted in [[Luba people|Luba]] tradition.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Makombo |first=Jean-Marie Mutamba |date=31 March 2007 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: La rumba revient en force au pays de Ndombolo |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Rumba returns in force to the land of Ndombolo |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200703300968.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kazadi |first=Désiré-Israël |date=8 November 2002 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Tshala Muana se déchaîne dans une explosion de "mutuashi" |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Tshala Muana unleashes an explosion of "mutuashi" |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200211080256.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=19 July 2025 |title=Danse mutuashi |url=https://www.africamuseum.be/fr/see_do/agenda/Mutuashi2025 |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Africamuseum.be |publisher=[[Royal Museum for Central Africa]] |language=fr |publication-place=Tervuren, Flemish Brabant, Belgium}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kangudie |first=Claude |date=26 April 2010 |title=L'origine du "Mutuashi" |trans-title=The origin of "Mutuashi" |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-l-origine-du-mutuashi-49280562.html |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref> In 1985, Franco and TPOK Jazz released ''Mario'', an album steeped in Congolese rumba; its [[Mario (song)|title track]] became an immediate hit, selling over 200,000 copies in Zaire and earning gold certification.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stewart |first=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKEHO1z413EC&pg=PA292 |title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos |date=2003 |publisher=Verso |isbn=978-1-85984-368-0 |pages=292–293}}</ref> Zaïko Langa Langa also cemented its international reputation by appearing on French national television ([[TF1]]) in 1987 and securing second place in the ''Référendum [[Radio France Internationale|RFI]] Canal Tropical'', behind the Antillean band [[Kassav']].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Yunduka |first=Karim |date=9 October 2020 |title=50 ans d'existence : Zaïko Langa Langa renaît de ses cendres |trans-title=50 years of existence: Zaïko Langa Langa rises from the ashes |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/50-ans-dexistence-zaiko-langa-langa-renait-de-ses-cendres-120424 |access-date=3 May 2024 |website=Adiac-congo.com |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

From the late 1980s onward, successive generations of musicians continued to redefine Congolese popular music. Among Viva La Musica's protégés, [[Koffi Olomide]] emerged as the most influential figure of the early 1990s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=DiPiazza |first=Francesca Davis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dvJJJu89amAC&dq=Koffi+Olomide+Tcha+Tcho&pg=PA51 |title=Democratic Republic of Congo in Pictures |date=15 December 2007 |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |isbn=978-0-8225-8572-5 |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States |page=50}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot |date=19 August 2006 |title=Congo-Kinshasa&thinsp;: Koffi Olomide, 50 ans d'âge et 29 ans de carrière musicale |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Koffi Olomide, 50 years old and 29 years of musical career |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200608210280.html |access-date=12 July 2024 |website=Lepotentiel.cd |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> His main rivals were J.B. Mpiana and [[Werrason]], both veterans of [[Wenge Musica]], a band that played a pivotal role in developing [[ndombolo]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tsambu |first=Léon |title=Section 4.- 1990-2010: guerre du clan Wenge et essor des variétés religieuses |trans-title=Section 4.- 1990-2010: Wenge clan war and rise of religious varieties |url=https://bokundoli.org/doc/section-4-1990-2010-guerre-du-clan-wenge-et-essor-des-varietes-religieuses/ |access-date=17 August 2025 |website=Bokundoli |language=fr}}</ref> Characterized by rapid guitar lines, synthesizer-driven arrangements, energetic percussion, and the interplay of ''[[atalaku]]'' chants with melodic vocals,<ref name=":143"/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Falola |first1=Toyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-OPNEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+lead+singers&pg=PA627 |title=Africa [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society [3 volumes] |last2=Jean-Jacques |first2=Daniel |date=14 December 2015 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-1-59884-666-9 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |page=627}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Micalef |first=Olivier Rivera |date=July 2024 |title=Tradition et modernité dans la musique de l'Afrique occidentale |trans-title=Tradition and Modernity in the Music of West Africa |url=https://digibuo.uniovi.es/dspace/bitstream/handle/10651/73917/TFG_OlivierRiveraMicalef.pdf |access-date=30 July 2025 |website=Digibuo.uniovi.es |publisher=[[University of Oviedo]] |page=20 |language=fr |publication-place=Oviedo, Asturias, Spain}}</ref> ndombolo dominated Congolese music throughout the 1990s and 2000s.<ref name=":110">{{Cite book |last=Otiso |first=Kefa M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKnIEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+dance+music&pg=PT361 |title=Culture and Customs of Tanzania |date=24 January 2013 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing|Bloomsbury Publishing USA]] |isbn=979-8-216-06991-1 |location=New York, New York, United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sobania |first=Neal W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHzDEAAAQBAJ&dq=ndombolo+dance+music+east+africa&pg=PA207 |title=Culture and Customs of Kenya |date=30 June 2003 |publisher=[[ABC-Clio]] |isbn=978-0-313-03936-2 |location=Santa Barbara, California, United States |pages=207–208}}</ref><ref name=":37">{{Cite web |last=Harlig |first=Alexandra |date=May 2010 |title=The History and Aesthetics of Bronx-based B-boying 1975–1985 and Luanda's Dança Kuduro: An Analysis of Development and Dissemination |url=https://readymadebouquet.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/harligthesis.pdf |access-date=31 July 2025 |website=readymadebouquet.wordpress.com |pages=107–109}}</ref> Even Koffi's later repertoire increasingly centered on ndombolo compositions.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=6 November 2019 |title=Bill Clinton Kalonji : "la personne qui a poussé le Ndombolo à l'international, c'est Koffi Olomide" |trans-title=Bill Clinton Kalonji: "the person who pushed Ndombolo internationally is Koffi Olomide" |url=https://mbote.cd/buzz/bill-clinton-kalonji-la-personne-qui-a-pousse-le-ndombolo-a-linternational-cest-koffi-olomide/21506/ |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=3 September 2004 |title=Au Congo Kinshasa, la musique entre dans les "polémiques" |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/2004/09/03/au-congo-kinshasa-la-musique-entre-dans-les-polemiques_377774_1819218.html |access-date=24 November 2023 |work=[[Le Monde]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> The decade also saw Congolese performers gain recognition on prestigious stages such as the [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia]], [[Zénith Paris]], [[Accor Arena|Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy]], and LSC.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ikabe |first=Jean Pierre Eale |date=20 July 2001 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: De l'indépendance cha-cha à Kibwisa Mpimpa 41 ANS de la colonisation de la musique congolaise (SUITE ET FIN) |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: From Independence cha-cha to Kibwisa Mpimpa: 41 years of the colonization of Congolese music (continued and end) |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200107200216.html |access-date=23 October 2025 |website=[[L'Avenir (Congolese newspaper)|L'Avenir]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

=== Hip-hop ===
Kinshasa emerged as a hub for Congolese [[hip-hop]] through a complex convergence of cultural shifts, political change, and youthful determination. While the city in the late 1980s and 1990s was largely dominated by "''musique typique''", a flourishing tradition led by prominent figures such as [[Koffi Olomide|Koffi Olomidé]], [[Werrason]], and JB Mpiana, a new generation of artists began carving space for hip hop as early as the 1990s.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Cagnolari |first=Vladimir |date=27 February 2004 |title=Les rappeurs de Kinshasa |trans-title=Rappers from Kinshasa |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/musique/20040227-rappeurs-kinshasa |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> The roots of the Congolese hip-hop movement can be traced to the years of [[Mobutu Sese Seko]]'s regime when political instability and growing disillusionment among youth created fertile ground for alternative cultural expression. Affluent teenagers in residential areas, exposed to [[Hip-hop|American]] and [[French hip-hop|French rap]] through satellite television and tapes sent from relatives abroad, began emulating this genre, performing at student parties and school dances.<ref name=":0" /> The fall of Mobutu in 1997, during the [[First Congo War]], the media sector underwent liberalization, which opened the door for numerous private radio and TV outlets, giving local rap music an unprecedented opportunity to be broadcast.<ref name=":0" />
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Alexxus.jpg
| caption1          = Alex Dende, known professionally as Lexxus Legal, is a prominent figure in Congolese [[hip-hop]] and a co-founder of the group ''Pensée Brute Noire'' (PBN), recognized for pioneering a combative and protest-oriented style of [[Rapping|rap]] in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<ref>{{cite news |title= Lexxus Legal (République démocratique du Congo) |url= https://musique.rfi.fr/musique/20100813-lexxus-legal-republique-democratique-congo |access-date=14 June 2025 |work= [[Radio France Internationale]] |date= 13 August 2010|language=fr}}</ref>
| image2            = Innoss'B (21600557166) (cropped).jpg
| caption2          = [[Innoss'B]], born and raised in [[Goma]], [[North Kivu|North Kivu Province]], is known for blending traditional Congolese rhythms with contemporary hip-hop and [[Contemporary R&B|R&B]]. His success has significantly impacted the genre in the DRC by enhancing its visibility, modernizing its sound, and demonstrating the global potential of Congolese youth in popular music.<ref>{{cite news |title= Innoss'b le meilleur rappeur de la République démocratique du Congo |url= https://www.radiofrance.fr/mouv/podcasts/le-meilleur-rappeur-du-monde/innoss-b-le-meilleur-rappeur-de-la-republique-democratique-du-congo-3734968 |access-date=14 June 2025 |work= [[Radio France]] |date= 29 November 2022|language=fr}}</ref>
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Between 1997 and 2001, pioneering Congolese rap groups based in Kinshasa, including Bawuta-Kin, PNB (''Pensée Nègre Brute''), Section Bantoue, and Smoke emerged, self-producing their music with scant financial resources. Operating on modest budgets, they recorded in home studios, pooled money to shoot music videos, and paid television hosts for ephemeral airplay slots.<ref name=":0" /> These early artists encountered resistance in a musical culture that had long been rooted in danceability, rhythmic energy, and escapist lyricism. In contrast, hip-hop's proclivity for incisive social commentary rendered its practitioners as iconoclasts (derisively labeled ''empêcheurs d'ambiancer en rond'', or killjoys) within a community that preferred music that encouraged euphoric enjoyment.<ref name=":0" /> Despite scarce commercial support, especially after local music producers fled during the looting of the early 1990s, Kinshasa's rap scene persisted. Artists turned to public venues like La Halle de la [[Gombe, Kinshasa|Gombe]] to perform in professional conditions.<ref name=":0" /> Meanwhile, rap spread from the elite neighborhoods into working-class areas such as [[Ndjili, Kinshasa|Ndjili]], the Yolo ''[[Communes of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|quartier]]'' of [[Kalamu|Kalamu commune]], and [[Kabambare Territory|Kabambaré Territory]] in [[Maniema|Maniema Province]], with youth incorporating [[Lingala]], [[French language|French]], [[Kongo language|Kikongo]], [[Congo Swahili|Swahili]], and other local languages into their lyrics.<ref name=":0" /> Some acts, like Bawuta-Kin and PNB, incorporated samples from Congolese music legends such as Franco Luambo, Koffi Olomidé, and Tshala Muana, which helped them in creating a distinctive local flavor that bridge generational and cultural divides.<ref name=":0" /> The scene's growing legitimacy was underscored by a landmark moment in December 2003, when approximately 60,000 people gathered at the [[Stade des Martyrs]] for a major hip-hop concert. Although they were often marginalized and lacking financial backing, Kinshasa's hip-hop artists succeeded in establishing a subculture.<ref name=":0" /> One of the movement's most influential figures was Lexxus Legal, a co-founding member of PNB, known for his politically engaged lyrics, and who later emerged as a symbol of Congolese hip-hop activism.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=February 2014 |title=Goma: Amani Festival |url=https://amanifestival.com/download/archives/2014/AmaniFestival2014_PressKit.pdf?version=v2023.02 |access-date=2023-10-05 |website=Amanifestival.com |page=6 |language=English |publication-place=Goma, North Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Selam: Lexxus Legal (DRC) |url=http://selam.se/artists/lexxus-legal-drc/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Selam.se |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 August 2010 |title=Lexxus Legal (République démocratique du Congo) |trans-title=Lexxus Legal (Democratic Republic of Congo) |url=https://musique.rfi.fr/musique/20100813-lexxus-legal-republique-democratique-congo |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ipan |first=Bienvenu |date=16 May 2011 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Figure emblématique du hip hop - Lexxus Légal fait la fierté des artistes congolais |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Iconic figure of hip hop - Lexxus Légal makes Congolese artists proud |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201105161236.html |access-date=14 June 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> He earned national and international recognition,<ref name=":1" /> receiving accolades such as the African Renaissance Award at the 3rd edition of the [[World Festival of Black Arts]] (Senegal, 2011) and the Ndule Award (2009).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Enyimo |first=Martin |date=10 January 2011 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: Le rappeur Lexxus Legal lauréat du prix de la Renaissance africaine au Fesman à Dakar |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: Rapper Lexxus Legal wins the African Renaissance Prize at Fesman in Dakar |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/201101101712.html |access-date=22 October 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Makaya |first=Rominique |date=18 August 2018 |title=RDC: le rappeur Lexxus Légal candidat à la députation nationale |trans-title=DRC: Rapper Lexxus Légal candidate for national parliament |url=https://www.adiac-congo.com/content/rdc-le-rappeur-lexxus-legal-candidat-la-deputation-nationale-87692 |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Adiac-congo.com |language=fr |publication-place=Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo}}</ref> He is widely regarded as the "icon of Congolese hip hop" and a prominent voice in African rap.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=24 October 2021 |title=Lexxus Légal décroche un nouveau diplôme |trans-title=Lexxus Legal receives a new diploma |url=https://mbote.cd/celebrites/lexxus-legal-decroche-un-nouveau-diplome/71910/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

Other artists followed with varying stylistic approaches. [[Goma]]-born rapper [[Innoss'B]] gained continental recognition with his 2017 hit "Ozo Beta Mabe",<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |date=July 27, 2018 |title=Innoss'B: le clip " Ozo beta mabe " atteint 1 million des vues sur Youtube |trans-title=Innoss'B: the clip "Ozo beta mabe" reaches 1 million views on Youtube |url=https://mbote.cd/buzz/innossb-le-clip-ozo-beta-mabe-atteint-1-million-des-vues-sur-youtube/13941/ |access-date=2024-03-04 |website=mbote.cd |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=July 27, 2018 |title=Innoss'B: "Ozo Beta Mabe" attend le million de vues sur YouTube! |url=https://talents2kin.com/innossb-ozo-beta-mabe-atteint-le-million-de-vues-sur-youtube/ |access-date=2023-10-04 |work=Talents2Kin |location=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo |language=French}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=BBC World Service - This Is Africa, Innoss B |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3ct04n8 |access-date=4 October 2023 |website=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2021 |title=L'artiste musicien, Innoss B offre un toit aux sinistrés de Goma |trans-title=Musician Innoss B provides shelter to Goma victims |url=https://www.mediacongo.net/article-actualite-92058_l_artiste_musicien_innoss_b_offre_un_toit_aux_sinistres_de_goma.html |access-date=21 July 2023 |website=Mediacongo.net |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> and became the first Congolese musician to surpass 100 million [[YouTube]] views with his "Yo Pe" remix featuring [[Tanzania]]n singer [[Diamond Platnumz]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Kupa |first=Gede Luiz |date=2020-07-15 |title=Musique: Innoss'B, premier musicien Congolais évoluant en RDC à faire 100 millions de vues sur YouTube avec "Yo Pe" (remix) |trans-title=Music: Innoss'B, first Congolese musician playing in the DRC to have 100 million views on YouTube with "Yo Pe" (remix) |url=https://7sur7.cd/2020/07/15/musique-innossb-premier-musicien-congolais-evoluant-en-rdc-faire-100-millions-de-vues |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=7sur7.cd |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |date=2020-07-28 |title=Balance ton tube: "Yopé Remix", un tube congolais signé Innoss'B |url=https://www.rts.ch/info/culture/musiques/11495731-balance-ton-tube-yope-remix-un-tube-congolais-signe-innossb.html |access-date=2023-10-04 |website=rts.ch |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bolakongo |first=Grace |date=October 4, 2021 |title=Koffi Olomide : " Innoss'B est le numéro 1 sur le plan de vue sur YouTube…Yo pe est la chanson congolaise la plus vue avec 180 M de vues " |trans-title=Koffi Olomide: "Innoss'B is number 1 in terms of views on YouTube…Yo pe is the most viewed Congolese song with 180 million views" |url=https://mbote.cd/buzz/koffi-olomide-innossb-est-le-numero-1-sur-le-plan-de-vue-sur-youtubeyo-pe-est-la-chanson-congolaise-la-plus-vue-avec-180-m-de-vues/70793/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=mbote.cd |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Kinshasa native [[Gaz Fabilouss]] achieved similar success with his 2018 EP ''Jeune courageux'', which produced popular tracks like "Aye" (featuring Koffi Olomidé), "Salaire", and "Love Story".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mpiutu |first=Miguel Jegou |date=23 July 2021 |title=Découvrez l'EP "Jeune courageux" de Gaz Fabilouss |trans-title=Discover the EP "Jeune courageux" by Gaz Fabilouss |url=https://mbote.cd/musiques/decouvrez-lep-jeune-courageux-de-gaz-fabilouss/67175/?_gl=1*horhgr*_up*MQ..*_ga*MTM5NzgzNDgyNS4xNzI2NzY4MDAz*_ga_G906PHPYZ1*MTcyNjc2ODAwMy4xLjEuMTcyNjc2ODc2MC4wLjAuMA.. |access-date=19 September 2024 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Rapper Alesh, born in [[Kisangani]], is noted for his sharp political commentary and humorous portrayal of Congolese life. His 2018 single "Biloko ya boye", released in the [[2018 Democratic Republic of the Congo general election|lead-up to national elections]], urged voters to hold corrupt politicians accountable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Badibanga |first=Walter |date=11 August 2020 |title=5 rappeurs au top en RDC |trans-title=5 top rappers in the DRC |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/5-rappeurs-au-top-en-rdc |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}</ref> His lyrics frequently explore themes such as governance failures, poor living conditions, and [[social inequality]].<ref name=":3" /> 
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Dj Spilulu live at Amani Fest Day 3.png
| caption1          = DJ Spilulu performing live at the [[Festival Amani|Amani Festival]].
| caption_align     = center
}}

Similarly, the duo MPR (''Musique Populaire de la Révolution''), composed of Zozo Machine and Yuma, embraces a nostalgic aesthetic drawn from Mobutu-era symbolism.<ref name=":3" /> Their 2019 breakout track "Dollars" catalyzed widespread recognition,<ref name=":3" /> followed in 2020 by their inclusion in the rap collective ''Cité Zaïre'', whose freestyle "Éternel Courageux" exhorted Congolese youth toward [[self-determination]] and [[Diligence|industriousness]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Aodren |date=9 July 2020 |title=Le collectif Cité Zaïre sort son freestyle Éternel Courageux |trans-title=The Cité Zaïre collective releases its freestyle Éternel Courageux |url=https://djolo.net/collectif-cite-zaire-sort-freestyle-eternel-courageux/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=djolo.net |language=fr-FR}}</ref> MPR's 2021 mixtape ''Première leçon'', featuring tracks such as "Nini to sali té", garnered acclaim for its critique of post-independence governance.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mpiutu |first=Miguel Jegou |date=6 November 2021 |title=Découvrez la mixtape "Première leçon" de MPR |trans-title=Discover MPR's "Première leçon" mixtape |url=https://mbote.cd/actualites/decouvrez-la-mixtape-premiere-lecon-de-mpr/72527/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=9 November 2021 |title=Musique: les chansons "Nini to sali té" et "Lettre à ya Tshitshi" interdites de diffusion |trans-title=Music: the songs "Nini to sali té" and "Lettre à ya Tshitshi" banned from broadcast |url=https://www.radiookapi.net/2021/11/10/actualite/culture/musique-les-chansons-nini-sali-te-et-lettre-ya-tshitshi-interdites-de |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=[[Radio Okapi]] |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Desorgues |first=Pierre |date=10 November 2021 |title=RDC: les chansons des rappeurs MPR et Bob Elvis, interpellant le président Tshisekedi, sont interdites |trans-title=DRC: Songs by rappers MPR and Bob Elvis, challenging President Tshisekedi, are banned |url=https://information.tv5monde.com/afrique/rdc-les-chansons-des-rappeurs-mpr-et-bob-elvis-interpellant-le-president-tshisekedi-sont |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=[[TV5Monde]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> The [[music video]] was banned nationwide by the [[National Commission for the Censorship of Songs and Performances]] for violating procedural regulations, including failure to seek prior approval, a common tactic used to restrict politically sensitive content.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Badibanga |first=Walter |date=10 November 2021 |title="Nini tosali te": l'émouvant cri du cœur de MPR |trans-title="Nini tosali te": MPR's moving cry from the heart |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/nini-tosali-te-lemouvant-cri-du-coeur-de-mpr |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mansangu |first=Raphaël |date=8 November 2021 |title=RDC: Patrick Muyaya positive la chanson "Nini tosali te" du groupe MPR |trans-title=DRC: Patrick Muyaya praises the song "Nini tosali te" by the group MPR |url=https://ouragan.cd/2021/11/rdc-patrick-muyaya-positive-la-chanson-nini-tosali-te-du-groupe-mpr/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Ouragan.cd |language=FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> In the same vein, Kinshasa-based rapper Bob Elvis also rose to fame through politically conscious compositions that confront institutional hypocrisy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Anna Lekas |date=19 September 2018 |title=As Congolese elections near, political art is becoming more dangerous. Just ask Bob Elvis |url=https://www.iwmf.org/reporting/as-congolese-elections-near-political-art-is-becoming-more-dangerous-just-ask-bob-elvis/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=[[International Women's Media Foundation]] |language=en |publication-place=Washington, D.C., United States}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=28 December 2018 |title=DR Congo election: Bob Elvis, rapping for freedom |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-africa-46697877 |access-date=15 June 2025 |work=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB |publication-place=Broadcasting House London, England, United Kingdom}}</ref> His track "Lettre à Ya Tshitshi" criticizes the distribution of [[Luxury car|luxury vehicles]] to national deputies, juxtaposing this extravagance with ongoing social neglect. The accompanying music video depicts the artist standing before a coffin adorned with the image of [[Étienne Tshisekedi]], symbolically addressing the deceased opposition leader and father of President [[Félix Tshisekedi]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> Bob Elvis also faced state censorship, with six of his videos, including "Lettre à Ya Tshitshi", being banned.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" />

Despite limited female representation in the Congolese hip-hop scene, Sista Becky has emerged as a trailblazer, debuting with the single "Mr le Rap" in 2017 and followed by tracks like "Flip Flop", "Notorious Spirit", and "Emotions", establishing herself as the leading female voice in a male-dominated space.<ref name=":3" /> In 2023, [[Kolwezi]]-born [[RJ Kanierra]] experienced rapid success with his single "Tia", which amassed over two million YouTube views in just two weeks.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Lukau |first=Onésime |date=26 November 2023 |title=RJ Kanierra signe chez Sony Music Africa |trans-title=RJ Kanierra signs with Sony Music Africa |url=https://ouragan.cd/2023/11/rj-kanierra-signe-chez-sony-music-africa/ |access-date=16 May 2024 |website=Ouragan.cd |language=FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref><ref name=":93">{{Cite web |date=12 October 2023 |title=RJ Kaniera : son hit "Tia" cumule déjà 2 millions de vues |trans-title=RJ Kaniera: his hit "Tia" already has 2 million views |url=https://mbote.cd/buzz/rj-kaniera-son-hit-tia-cumule-deja-2-millions-de-vues/145636/ |access-date=16 May 2024 |website=Mbote.cd |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> The track topped charts on various platforms, including [[Boomplay]] and [[Shazam (music app)|Shazam]].<ref name=":93"/><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=13 May 2024 |title=Boomplay-Top chansons Cameroun Avril: Dadju & Tayc en tête, Fally aligne 3 titres, Rj Kanierra dans le top 10 |trans-title=Boomplay-Top chansons Cameroun Avril: Dadju & Tayc en tête, Fally aligne 3 titres, Rj Kanierra dans le top 10 |url=https://talents2kin.com/boomplay-top-chansons-cameroun-avril-dadju-tayc-en-tete-fally-aligne-3-titres-rj-kanierra-dans-le-top-10/ |access-date=26 August 2024 |website=Talents2kin.com |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> Other noteworthy contributors to the genre include Marshall Dixon, NMB La Panthère, Lyke Mike, Herléo Muntu, K-Melia, Negue Fly Nsau, Celeo Scram, and Spilulu.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=11 February 2017 |title=Top meilleurs rappeurs de la RDC qui ont du succès et dont on parle rarement |trans-title=Top best rappers from the DRC who are successful and rarely talked about |url=https://mbote.cd/humour/top-meilleurs-rappeurs-de-rdc-ont-succes-dont-on-parle-rarement/4063/ |access-date=15 June 2025 |website=Mbote |language=fr-FR |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Early political engagement (1965–1970) ===
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| image1            = Rochereau performing at Paris Olympia.jpg
| caption1          = [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] performing at the [[Olympia (Paris)|Olympia Hall]] in 1970
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}}

The intersection of politics and popular music has been a defining feature of the country's cultural history, particularly since the mid-20th century. Congolese musicians have often acted as chroniclers and promoters of political developments. The [[Second Mobutu coup d'état|military coup of 24 November 1965]], which brought [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] to power, occurred at a time when the Congolese political class was still in its formative stage.<ref name=":183">{{Cite journal |last=Onyumbe |first=Augustin Tshonga |date=2001 |title=Musique Et Evolution Politique En R. D. Du Congo |trans-title=Music and Political Evolution in the Democratic Republic of the Congo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25836734 |journal=[[Annales Aequatoria]] |language=fr |publisher=Centre Aequatoria (Democratic Republic of the Congo) |volume=22 |pages=7–20 |issn=0254-4296}}</ref> In the aftermath, the public seeking stability and peace generally welcomed the new regime, which had promised to return power to civilian authorities within five years, a pledge that was never fulfilled. In the first decade of Mobutu's rule, music became a medium through which the regime's political and socio-economic objectives were communicated.<ref name=":183"/> Themes in popular songs included [[Congolese nationalism (Democratic Republic of the Congo)|nationalism]], [[pan-Africanism]], political programs, and notable political events. Early examples include [[Franco Luambo]] and [[TPOK Jazz]]'s "Contentieux Belgo-Congolais enterré" ("Belgian-Congolese Dispute Buried", 1967) and Jean Munsi Kwamy with Orchestre Révolution's "Ndimbala ya Zaïre" ("Explanation of the Zaïre Currency", 1967).<ref name=":183"/> [[Tabu Ley Rochereau]] contributed several works, including "Cinq ans" ("Five Years", 1965) with [[African Fiesta]], "Objectif 80" (1966) with African Fiesta 66, and "Révolution comparaison" (1968) with Orchestre Afrisa International. Other notable songs from the era include Lasse and Orchestre Los Angel's "Retroussons les manches" ("Let's Roll Up Our Sleeves", 1966) and Jeannot Bombenga's 1967 "Mbula ya sacrifices" ("1967 Year of Sacrifices", 1967).<ref name=":183"/>

While this alignment with state narratives afforded musicians increased visibility, it also drew criticism from the public and the national press, who accused certain artists of partisan opportunism. Nevertheless, Congolese popular music established a distinctive political voice, portraying national leaders to the public, celebrating their achievements, and promoting state policies.<ref name=":183"/> Notable examples included Joseph Mwena and African Fiesta National's "[[Patrice Lumumba|Lumumba]] libérateur" (1967), Bikasi Mandeko and Orchestre Saka Saka's "Mobutu médiateur" (1968), Tabu Ley Rochereau and Afrisa International's "[[Martin Luther King Jr.|Martin Luther King]]" (1968), and Tabu Ley Rochereau and L'Orchestre African Fiesta National Le Peuple's "Kashama Nkoy" (1969).<ref name=":183"/>

==== Political figures, the cult of personality, political animation, and propaganda ====
{{Multiple image
| image1            = François Luambo Luanzo Makiadi se produisant au Zaïre.jpg
| caption1          = Franco performing with [[TPOK Jazz]] at [[Zaire 74]].
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Throughout the 1970s, musical references to political figures became increasingly tied to electoral campaigns or commemorations of state events. Notable examples from this period include Franco and TPOK Jazz's "Mwaku elombe ya Kwango" (1970), "Président Eyadema" (1975), "Votez Litho Moboti au Bureau Politique" (1977), and "Votez Bomboko au Bureau Politique" (1977). By the latter part of the decade, these references largely concentrated on the person of the President.<ref name=":183"/>

Following the establishment of the [[Popular Movement of the Revolution]] (''Mouvement Populaire de la Révolution'', MPR) in 1967, music became an instrument for reinforcing the [[one-party state]]'s ideology and for mythologizing Mobutu. Nationalist ideals gradually ceded to [[political opportunism]] and, in some cases, uncritical glorification.<ref name=":183"/> Mobutu was extolled through grandiose epithets such as "father", "guide", "messenger of God", "leopard", "sun", and "prophet".<ref name=":183"/> Songs emblematic of this period included Bombenga and Orchestre Vox Africa's "C.V.R." ("Corps des Volontaires de la République", 1966), Joseph "Mujos" Mulamba and Orchestre Révolution's "M.P.R." (1967), Paul Ebengo Dewayon and Orchestre Cobantou's "M.P.R." (1967), Jojo and Orchestre Dombes' "M.P.R. ekobenga banso" ("M.P.R. Calls Everyone", 1967), [[Sam Mangwana]] and Orchestre Festival des Maquisards' "Congo ya M.P.R." ("Congo Goes with M.P.R.", 1967), Franco and TPOK Jazz's "Votez vert" ("Vote for You", 1970), and Franco and TPOK Jazz's "Candidat na biso Mobutu" ("Mobutu is My Candidate", 1984).<ref name=":183"/>

{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 240
| image1            = Mobutu Sese Seko, Vicky Longomba, et Nico Kasanda.jpg
| caption1          = A 1970s photograph of President [[Mobutu Sese Seko]] greeting [[Vicky Longomba]], his wife Fatou Mbonzo Diawara, guitarist [[Nico Kasanda]], and other well-known figures.
| caption_align     = center
}}

In 1973, the regime institutionalized the concept of "political animation songs", blending popular, folk, and modern dance styles into compositions that celebrated the President and promoted the tenets of [[Mobutism]]. The First National Political and Cultural Festival (''Premier Festival National Politique et Culturel'') brought together political animation groups from all provinces.<ref name=":183"/> This initiative led to the creation of the Ministry of Mobilization, Propaganda, and Political Animation (''Mobilisation, Propagande et Animation Politique''; MOPAP), institutionalizing musical propaganda. Political animation eventually permeated even [[religious music]], exemplified by the work of Father Imana Botumbi.<ref name=":183"/> Despite state control, some musicians returned to the traditional role of the artist: to educate, raise moral awareness, and, at times, voice dissent. When criticism was too overt, the state censorship apparatus responded with severity. For example, Franco's alleged "Cravate nationale" ("National Tie"), reportedly inspired by the 1966 execution of the "Pentecost martyrs", was never released and resulted in state security intervention.<ref name=":183"/> To evade censorship, musicians often employed allegory, metaphor, and riddles, allowing audiences to decode political messages through "popular rumor".<ref name=":183"/> Works exemplifying this approach include Tabu Ley Rochereau and African Fiesta National Le Peuple's "Mokolo Nakokufa" (1966), Roy Innocent and Orchestre Cobantou's "Nyama ya Zamba" (1968), Tabu Ley Rochereau and African Fiesta National Le Peuple's "Kashama Nkoy" (1969), Franco and TPOK Jazz's "Lettre à M. D.G." (1987), and Franco and TPOK Jazz's "Tailleur" (1987).<ref name=":183"/>

=== The democratic transition ===
The [[democratic transition]] in Zaire was formally initiated on 24 April 1990, marking the official end of the one-party state. The shift from a single-party system to what was often described as "excessive [[Multi-party system|multipartyism]]", combined with a partial relaxation of the state's stringent censorship on [[Freedom of speech|free expression]], produced a proliferation of political leaders, reminiscent of the First Republic, and a multitude of party founder-presidents.<ref name=":183"/> This rapid political diversification, however, generated widespread confusion among the populace, politicians, and musicians. Political developments occurred at a relentless pace, involving a series of round tables, the Sovereign National Conference (''[[:fr:Conférence nationale souveraine (Zaïre)|Conférence nationale souveraine]]''), and multiple agreements, most of which were violated shortly after their signing.<ref name=":183"/> Musicians often struggled to process these events or to respond in a manner with enduring artistic and political impact. Questions emerged over what subjects to address, and for whom the messages should be intended, with the risk of public ridicule looming over overtly political works.<ref name=":183"/> An example of this was [[Simaro Lutumba]] and TPOK Jazz's "Banque Centrale" (1994), intended to promote public understanding of [[monetary reform]] and encourage [[Civic engagement|civic responsibility]]. Released on 1 January 1994, the song was rendered politically obsolete within days, as the government acknowledged the reform's failure (a fact confirmed by the President himself in a speech on 4 January).<ref name=":183"/>

During the Sovereign National Conference, specially commissioned songs were broadcast on television and radio as introductory themes to news segments. However, these works were short-lived, quickly replaced as political circumstances shifted. The song "La réconciliation" (1992) by [[Madilu System]] and Deneewade became emblematic of the "catastrophic" conclusion of the conference.<ref name=":183"/> The final decade of the Second Republic offered little social relief to Congolese citizens, and musicians, still reeling from two decades of creative repression, often appeared disengaged from [[Political criticism|political commentary]].<ref name=":183"/> Many artists had gone into exile and their contribution during the [[democratization]] process was "negative across the board". Unlike earlier generations (represented by [[Adou Elenga]], [[Le Grand Kallé]], and [[Paul Lomami-Tshibamba]]) whose works had seized political milestones, the democratization period left little in the way of a musical record for posterity.<ref name=":183"/> One notable exception was Tabu Ley Rochereau's "Le Glas a sonné" (1993), produced in exile, which addressed the political situation directly. Yet such cases were rare, and many established artists remained silent, whether out of fear of reprisals, disillusionment, or lack of inspiration.<ref name=":183"/>

With the dismantling of the one-party propaganda apparatus, political songs disappeared from the airwaves, and the slogans and melodies once imposed on the public were quickly forgotten. In their place, religious [[choir]]s flourished. Religious music, which had entered the realm of political animation under Father Imana Botumbi, reclaimed its spiritual mission during the democratic transition.<ref name=":183"/> Figures such as Father Makamba Ma Mazinga produced widely circulated works, including "Popopo" (1993), "Non violence", and "Kanda Mopaya" ("Anger is fleeting"), which struck a chord throughout Kinshasa and beyond, aiming to promote [[Moral consciousness|moral]] and [[social consciousness]] by commemorating the looting and the martyrs of the Christian marches on 2 and 16 February 1992, events that had largely faded from public memory.<ref name=":183"/> Among the most memorable religious compositions of the era was "Ata Ndele" (1993) by the group Bana Mbila, which, in the face of political selfishness and public suffering, expressed a message of hope, saying that there is hope in tomorrow and that one day everything will change and misery will come to an end.<ref name=":183"/> 

=== Laurent-Désiré Kabila era ===
{{Multiple image
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| caption1          = The monument honoring [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]] in [[Bukavu]], [[South Kivu]]
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}}

More than three decades later, [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]'s rise to power through the [[AFDL|Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo]] (AFDL) in May 1997, a rebel movement supported by [[Rwanda|Rwandan]], [[Uganda|Ugandan]], [[Angola|Angolan]], and other regional allies, marked a revival of the politicization of music as the group presented itself as a force for liberation from the remnants of Mobutu's single-party state.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=2 July 2005 |title=Congo-Kinshasa: De 1990 à 2005 - Artistes - Musiciens congolais : tous griots des politiciens |trans-title=Congo-Kinshasa: From 1990 to 2005 - Congolese Artists and Musicians: All Griots of Politicians |url=https://fr.allafrica.com/stories/200507010796.html |access-date=2 November 2025 |website=[[Le Potentiel]] |language=fr |publication-place=Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo}}</ref> But after Kabila's inauguration on 29 May 1997, the regime adopted many of the same propaganda techniques once used by Mobutu. News bulletins on the [[Radio-Télévision nationale congolaise]] (RTNC) opened with "[[Revolutionary song|revolutionary songs]]" glorifying the AFDL and its leader, as the practice of "political animation" aimed at elevating the head of state to near-divine status was revived.<ref name=":11" /> Among the leading figures in this cultural movement was [[Tshala Muana]], who composed "Hymne aux libérateurs" ("hymn to the liberators") in praise of Kabila's victory. Having returned from France to Kinshasa, she became one of the most visible musical ambassadors of the new government, touring the provinces alongside [[Wenge Musica]] members Didier Masela, [[Werrason]], and Adolphe Dominguez, as well as actors Mister Siatula and Maman Bipendu (born Esther Bipendu Mutebua).<ref name=":11" /> Other musicians followed suit. West Ghenda, younger brother of the Minister of Information and Cultural Affairs Raphaël Ghenda, and Kalanga Muana Zaïre, who had previously dedicated "Elombe Sese" to Mobutu, reinvented himself as ''Muana Congo'' ("child of Congo") and denounced the former regime through performances in Christian assemblies.<ref name=":11" /> Kalama Soul, creator of the musical comedy ''Naza ballado te'' ("I'm not a wanderer"), also released a patriotic song supporting the AFDL.<ref name=":11" />

In March 1998, Papa Wemba brought together about twenty musicians from Kinshasa, Paris, and Brussels to record "Muana Mpwo", also known as "[[Congolese franc|Franc Congolais]]" ("Congolese franc"), which commemorated the introduction of the new national currency. When the [[Central Bank of the Congo|Central Bank]] officially launched the Congolese franc on 30 June, the song was broadcast nine times a day on state television as part of a nationwide propaganda campaign.<ref name=":11" /> But the optimism was short-lived, as the currency quickly lost value due to economic mismanagement.<ref name=":11" /> That same day, the Ministry of Information and Cultural Affairs held a "Best Patriotic Song Contest", which attracted over 89 entries. The first prize went to West Ghenda's "Uhuru", which earned him [[Dollar sign|$]]10,000; the second to Christian Ngoy's "Bâtissons le Congo" ("let's build the Congo"), worth $7,000; and the third to Tshala Muana's "Hymne aux libérateurs". During the award ceremony, Laurent-Désiré Kabila declared that,<ref name=":11" /> <blockquote>"In the absence of efficient communication tools, we recognize that our musicians have the ability to reach even the most remote layers of our population". </blockquote>{{Multiple image
| total_width       = 220
| image1            = Visit of Laurent Désiré Kabila, President of the Democratic Republic of Congo, to the EC.jpg
| caption1          = Visit of President [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]] to [[João de Deus Pinheiro]], the European Commissioner for Relations with Parliament, Culture, and Audiovisual, to discuss the armed conflict raging in the country, November 1998.
| caption_align     = center
}}

Kabila's ascent also brought a wave of speculation and rumor within Kinshasa's cultural scene, including fears of bans on [[Miniskirt|miniskirts]], [[Trousers as women's clothing|women's trousers]], [[Love song|love songs]], and nightclubs.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |last=Daoudi |first=Bouziane |date=29 August 1998 |title=World. Le chanteur ex-zaïrois en concert à l'Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo de la rumba. Koffi Olomidé. Samedi à 23 heures à l'Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris IXe. Tél.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Loi", Sonodisc. |trans-title=World. The ex-Zairian singer in concert at the Olympia. Koffi Olomidé, Rambo of rumba. Koffi Olomide. Saturday at 11 p.m. at the Olympia, 28, bd des Capucines, Paris 9th. Tel.: 01 47 42 25 49. Album: "Law", Sonodisc. |url=https://www.liberation.fr/culture/1998/08/29/world-le-chanteur-ex-zairois-en-concert-a-l-olympia-koffi-olomide-rambo-de-la-rumba-koffi-olomide-sa_244600/ |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=[[Libération]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Daoudi |first=Bouziane |date=18 April 1998 |title=World. Roi de la rumba congolaise depuis 25 ans, il fait halte à Paris. La dictature passe, Pépé Kallé reste. Pépé Kallé et Empire Bakuba, Samedi soir, à 21 h, parc des Expositions, porte de Versailles, XVe. Tél.: 01 43 55 55 12. |trans-title=World. King of Congolese rumba for 25 years, he stops in Paris. The dictatorship passes, Pépé Kallé remains. Pépé Kallé and Empire Bakuba, Saturday evening, at 9 p.m., Parc des Expositions, Porte de Versailles, 15th century. Tel.: 01 43 55 55 12. |url=https://www.liberation.fr/culture/1998/04/18/world-roi-de-la-rumba-congolaise-depuis-25-ans-il-fait-halte-a-paris-la-dictature-passe-pepe-kalle-r_233381/ |access-date=29 December 2023 |website=[[Libération]] |language=fr |publication-place=Paris, France}}</ref> By 1998, the newspaper ''[[Libération]]'' reported a noticeable decline in the number of soukous orchestras and the imposition of strict regulations on nightlife. Only a few venues, such as Le Circus, Le Séguin, Le Gin Fizz, L'Imprévu, L'Atmosphère, Le Savanana, and Le M16, remained open to the public.<ref name=":132" />

When Rwandan and Ugandan forces, Kabila's former allies, invaded eastern Congo in August 1998, he once again turned to musicians to bolster national unity. [[Souzy Kasseya]] composed "Tokufa po na Congo" ("we die for Congo"), a patriotic anthem performed by a collective of artists under Kabila's direction.<ref name=":11" /> During a diplomatic meeting in [[Windhoek]], Kabila even invited American singer-songwriter [[Michael Jackson]] to perform in Kinshasa in support of the "revolution", though the concert never materialized.<ref name=":11" /> Between 1998 and 2003, as the [[Second Congo War]] devastated the country, few Congolese musicians addressed the conflict in their works. Despite producing albums with upwards of a dozen tracks, artists largely avoided themes of war, insecurity, and political critique.<ref name=":11" /> As noted by [[Music journalism|music journalist]] Jeannot Ne Nzau Diop, they largely overlooked [[United Nations]] reports detailing massacres, repeated rebellions, and a humanitarian crisis that claimed approximately six million lives and led to the plundering of mineral-rich regions like [[Ituri Province|Ituri]], [[Kivu]], and [[Katanga Province|Katanga]].<ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=24 February 2010 |title=Six million dead in Congo's war |url=https://www.caritas.org/2010/02/six-million-dead-in-congos-war/ |access-date=2 November 2025 |website=Caritas.org |publisher=[[Caritas Internationalis]] |language=en-US |publication-place=The Vatican}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo |url=https://cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/violence-democratic-republic-congo |access-date=2 November 2025 |website=Global Conflict Tracker |language=en}}</ref> 

== Religious music ==

=== Origins and early developments ===
{{Multiple image
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| image1            = Église d'Ebonda.jpg
| caption1          = Ebonda Church of the [[CICM Missionaries|Scheutist Fathers]]' mission in the 1920s in [[Bumba, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Bumba Territory]], [[Mongala|Mongala Province]].
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}}

[[Religious music]] embodies an intricate balance of the sacred and the profane, firmly anchored in the cultural, social, and spiritual identity of the country. Historically confined to [[Church (building)|church settings]], it gradually expanded into public life and became a significant force in shaping religious practice and popular culture. Its evolution mirrors the evolution of Congolese society, where spirituality permeates artistic expression and secular traditions borrow freely from the sacred.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Diop |first=Jeannot Ne Nzau |date=16 May 2010 |title=Historique et évolution de la musique religieuse au Congo |trans-title=History and evolution of religious music in Congo |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-historique-et-evolution-de-la-musique-religieuse-au-congo-50515055.html |access-date=18 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref>

The earliest manifestations of Congolese religious music emerged in church [[choir]]s and [[brass band]]s associated with [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Protestantism|Protestant]], [[Kimbanguism|Kimbanguist]], and [[The Salvation Army|Salvation Army]] congregations, which served as training grounds for successive generations of performers.<ref name=":25" /> In its initial phase, sacred music was predominantly restricted to [[Liturgy|liturgical]] contexts, with [[hymn]]s of [[praise]] performed during worship services or within mourning households, where they conveyed solemnity and consolation.<ref name=":25" /> During the colonial period, significant institutional efforts shaped the early history of Congolese liturgical song. In the 1940s, Benedictine father Dom Anschaire Lamoral founded the choir Petits Chanteurs de la [[Katanga Cross|Croix de Cuivre]] (Little Singers of the [[Katanga Cross|Copper Cross]]) in [[Katanga Province|Katanga]], mentoring [[Joseph Kiwele]], who composed the "Missa Katanga", notable for its integration of drums and traditional instruments into Catholic worship.<ref name=":25" /> Similarly, Father [[Joseph Malula]] (later elevated to [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]]) championed the incorporation of local musical forms into [[Catholic liturgy]], culminating in the creation of the [[Zaire Use|Zairean Rite]] in 1973. This liturgical reform codified the integration of local rhythms and instruments into Roman Catholic rituals.<ref name=":25" />

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| caption1          = [[Simon Kimbangu]] was a Congolese religious leader and prophet who founded the [[Kimbanguism|Kimbanguist Church]], one of the most influential African-initiated churches.
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The Salvation Army likewise contributed significantly, particularly through its orchestra Les Vagabonds du Ciel and choir Les Amis du Ciel, which were instrumental in nurturing [[Christian music]]ians in [[French Congo|Middle Congo]].<ref name=":25" /> Across the [[Congo River]] in [[Brazzaville]], Father Charles Lacompte founded the Petits Chanteurs de la Croix d'Ébène (Little Singers of the Ebony Cross) in 1949, later renamed the Chorale des Piroguiers (Boatmen's Choir). This ensemble delivered a landmark performance of "La Messe des Piroguiers" by Eliane Barrat Peppert, broadcast live on Radio-Brazzaville, marking a pivotal moment when African percussive instruments, specifically the drum of the [[Banda people|Banda]] boatmen of [[Ubangi-Shari]] (today's [[Central African Republic]]), were formally introduced into [[liturgical music]].<ref name=":25" /> The performance took place during the [[Consecration in Christianity|consecration]] of the [[Basilica of Sainte-Anne-du-Congo in Brazzaville|Basilica of Sainte-Anne]] by Bishop Paul Biéchy, attended by high-ranking [[ecclesiastical]] figures and colonial administrators. Additional choirs such as the Chœur Saint François d'Assise du Plateau in Brazzaville's [[Bacongo (Brazzaville)|Bacongo]] arrondissement emerged during the 1940s.<ref name=":25" />

=== Sacred–secular overlap and the rise of revivalist Christian music ===
The boundary between religious and secular music in the DRC has historically been porous. Many leading figures in Congolese popular music, such as [[Le Grand Kallé]], Célestin "Célio" Kouka, [[Vicky Longomba]], Sammy Trompette, [[Verckys Kiamuangana Mateta]], José Dilu Dilumona, [[Jossart N'Yoka Longo]], [[Pépé Kallé]], [[Papa Wemba]], [[D. V. Moanda]], among others, began as choristers or cantors in church choirs before transitioning to secular performance.<ref name=":25" /> Likewise, secular songs often contained spiritual themes. A notable example is François Bosele's "Liwa Liponi Tata" (released in the early 1950s), which, although secular in intent, gained widespread acceptance in religious settings due to its evocative spiritual imagery.<ref name=":25" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 June 2012 |title=Univers Rumba Congolaise: Boselé François (1928 – †1954) |url=https://www.universrumbacongolaise.com/artistes/bosele-francois/ |access-date=18 August 2025 |website=Universrumbacongolaise.com |language=fr-FR}}</ref> Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, this duality persisted. Figures such as [[Archbishop]] Barthélemy Batantu ("Nkundi"), [[Ntesa Dalienst]] ("Tokosenga Na Nzambe", 1971), and Verckys ("Nakomitunaka", 1972) produced works that invoked divine themes.<ref name=":25" /> The 1970s also saw the emergence of groups such as Les Perles (later Palata), who drew inspiration from [[Gospel music|American gospel]] traditions, and orchestras like Le Peuple, which performed religiously inspired works in secular styles.<ref name=":25" />

{{Multiple image
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| caption1          = [[Nathalie Makoma]], lead vocalist of [[Makoma]], a family-based [[Contemporary Christian music|Christian music]] group recognized as one of Africa's most influential [[Gospel music|gospel]] groups and widely celebrated within the [[African diaspora]].
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| caption1          = [[Moise Mbiye]] in 2022
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From the 1980s onward, the growth of [[Christian revival|revivalist]] churches on both banks of the Congo River led to the widespread adoption of Christian music as a standalone genre. What began as congregational choirs evolved into full-fledged orchestras, structurally modeled on secular bands but dedicated to spiritual themes.<ref name=":25" /> This movement produced a generation of musicians who identified themselves as "Christian musicians" or "musician-Christians". Unlike traditional church-based groups, they were affiliated with revivalist congregations rather than traditional [[Religious denomination|denominational]] affiliations.<ref name=":25" /> Rather than rejecting secular aesthetics, these groups retained the danceable rhythms, melodic [[Pitch contour|contours]], and harmonic [[Texture (music)|textures]] characteristic of Congolese popular music, thus eroding clear-cut distinctions between religious and secular domains.<ref name=":25" /> The genre spread rapidly and became embedded in Congolese social life, providing spiritual expression and entertainment. Notable figures in Kinshasa include Charles Mombaya, Brother Kabatshi, Brother Mente, Paul Balenza, the Couple Buloba, Dénis Ngonde, Kool Matopé, Runo Mvumbi, Kangumba, Brother Patrice Ngoy Musoko, Alain Moloto, Lifoko du Ciel, Maninga, Matou Samuel, Blaise Sakila, Feza Shamamba, [[Marie Misamu]], the Cœur La Grâce choir, [[Moise Mbiye]], Sandra Mbuyi, [[Mike Kalambay]], NK Divine, Faveur Mukoko, David Ize, Daniel Lubams, Jonathan Gambela, Ruth Kimongoli, Isaac Bukasa, Rosny Kayiba, Van Walesa, Eunice Manyanga, Fiston Mbuyi, among others.<ref name=":25" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Matanda |first=Alvin |date=30 November 2024 |title=Découvrez les meilleures chansons gospel de la RDC en 2024 |trans-title=Discover the best gospel songs from the DRC in 2024 |url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/fr/magazine/decouvrez-les-meilleures-chansons-gospel-de-la-rdc-en-2024 |access-date=28 August 2025 |website=Music In Africa |language=fr}}</ref> In Brazzaville, notable names include the Tanga Ni Tanga choir, Batangouna Sébastien, Christian Mahoukou, Moise Baniakina, Loudi Berthe, Tukindisa Nkembo, Sita Philippe, Sainte Odile Choir, Zola Choir, Les Colombes, and more.<ref name=":25" /> Their work popularized Congolese Christian music across [[Central Africa]] and beyond, aided by the proliferation of [[Cassette tape|cassettes]] and broadcasts by publishers and producers who recognized the growing market for religious recordings.<ref name=":25" />

=== Conversion of secular musicians, media spread, and modern challenges ===
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| image2            = Portrait de la chanteuse congolaise Jolie Detta.jpg
| footer            = Originally [[Secular music|secular]] artists, [[Debaba]] (left) and [[Jolie Detta]] (right) later renounced secular music and dedicated themselves to Christian music.
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A significant feature of Congolese religious music has been the conversion of secular performers to sacred expression, a trend that gained visibility during the 1990s with artists such as Antoinette Etisomba Lokindji, Mopéro Wa Maloba (formerly of Orchestre Shama Shama), Kiese Diambu (formerly of Les Grands Maquisards, Afrisa International, and [[TPOK Jazz]]), Djonita Abanita, X-Or Zobena (formerly of [[Choc Stars]]), [[Debaba]] (formerly of [[Viva La Musica]] and Choc Stars), Carlyto Lassa (formerly of TPOK Jazz and Choc Stars), [[Bimi Ombale|André Bimi Ombale]] (formerly of [[Zaïko Langa Langa]], Zaïko Familia Dei, and Basilique Loningisa), Feza Shamamba, Michel Ndouniama (formerly of Bilenge Sakana), [[Jolie Detta]], Charles Tchikou, and others.<ref name=":25" /> These musicians released Christian albums and integrated biblical themes into their repertoires, often surprising fans accustomed to their secular hits.<ref name=":25" />

Over time, Congolese Christian music developed its own distribution networks, beginning with the establishment of Radio Sango Malamu as the first thematic station dedicated to religious music, which paved the way for others, including Radio Télé Message de Vie, Radio Télé Kintwadi, Radio Elikya, Radio Télé Puissance, Radio Télévision Armée de l'Éternel (RTAE), Amen TV, Canal le Chemin, La Vérité et la Vie, and many more.<ref name=":25" />

In contemporary times, Congolese Christian music constitutes a genuine cultural phenomenon that rivals secular music in popularity, borrowing many of its stylistic features, including ''[[atalaku]]'' vocal interjections, intricate guitar solos, and choreographed dance routines.<ref name=":25" /> This stylistic convergence, however, has provoked debate, with critics arguing that the heavy reliance on secular aesthetics risks diluting the spiritual depth of Christian music, transforming it into another branch of variety entertainment.<ref name=":25" /> Nevertheless, its ability to uplift believers and provide spiritual reassurance preserves its relevance within Congolese society.<ref name=":25" />

== Dances ==
Across the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo, dance has been an "inescapable" part of the social lifeblood for generations, evolving alongside the country's musical traditions. Before the 20th century, Congolese dance was primarily characterized by indigenous forms such as the Kebo and Nzango.<ref name=":27">{{Cite web |last=Malonga |first=Samuel |date=21 December 2010 |title=Les danses de la musique congolaise |trans-title=The Dances of Congolese Music |url=http://www.mbokamosika.com/article-les-danses-de-la-musique-congolaise-63449096.html |access-date=30 August 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref> These dances were expressions of community life, often performed in social gatherings and celebrations. However, with the advent of the phonograph and radio broadcasts in the early 20th century, exogenous dance styles began to make their way into Congolese culture.<ref name=":27" /> By the 1950s, foreign rhythms like [[polka]], [[Swing music|swing]], [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|cha-cha-cha]], and [[tango]] gained popularity in social venues across Kinshasa and Brazzaville. Although these external influences introduced new forms of movement, the Congolese ultimately maintained a strong attachment to their traditional dance forms, particularly Congolese rumba.<ref name=":27" />

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| image1            = Club de rumba congolaise à Léopoldville.jpg
| caption1          = A duo performing at a Congolese rumba nightspot in Léopoldville, ca. 1950s–1960s
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| caption2          = [[Mayaula Mayoni]] performing in 1984
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The Congolese rumba is perhaps the most quintessential of all Congolese dance forms. It is an intimate, slow-paced dance performed by two partners in an embrace.<ref name=":27" /> The emotional intensity and sensuality of the Congolese rumba made it a symbol of modern Congolese music. Over time, variations like rumba Odemba and rumba karakara emerged, although the essence of the dance remained largely unchanged.<ref name=":27" />

While Congolese rumba remained popular, the rise of the ''danse des bouchers'' ("butcher's dance") in the mid-1960s brought new excitement to Congolese dance floors. Created by Bahonda and Balla, two butcher-dancers, this faster-paced style altered the rhythm of Congolese dance, introducing a more "metronomic" tempo.<ref name=":27" /> Songs like "Ba nguembo bo juger" by Les Bantous de la Capitale and "Ngai Marie nzoto ebeba" by [[Franco Luambo]] helped popularize the ''boucher'', and it was soon embraced as a national dance.<ref name=":27" /> The ''boucher'' was particularly popular among the n'guembos, a term used to describe fans who attended live performances from the rooftops of the open-air venues in Brazzaville and Kinshasa.<ref name=":27" />

=== The emergence of new dance styles ===
Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Congolese dance continued to evolve with the influence of global music trends such as [[disco]], [[funk]], [[reggae]], and later, the rising prominence of [[Pop music|pop]] and [[Rock music|rock]]. The visit of [[James Brown]] to Kinshasa in the early 1970s had a profound effect on local dance and music. His influence is evident in the work of artists such as Matadidi Mário Buana Kitoko, [[Evoloko Jocker]], and Mbuta Mashakado, whose music incorporated elements of funk and [[Soul music|soul]].<ref name=":27" /> Similarly, the eruption of international rhythms inspired a more eclectic blend of local and global influences. Artists like [[Zaïko Langa Langa]], Lita Bembo, and others introduced dance steps that are now considered part of the core Congolese dance repertoire.<ref name=":27" /> For example, Zaïko Langa Langa's contribution includes movements like Ngouabin, Levole, [[Cavacha]], Choquez Retardé, Disco Tara, Sonzo Ma, Volant/Guidon, Guidon, Washa Washa, Wondo Stock, Zekete Zekete, Elengi Eye, Maria, Funky, Tukuniema, Vimba, and Siska,<ref name=":27" /><ref name=":59">{{Cite web |last=Kirikam |first=Zephyrin Nkumu Assana |date=25 June 2010 |title=La danse et les chants font partie de notre culture |trans-title=Dancing and singing are part of our culture |url=https://www.mbokamosika.com/article-la-danse-et-les-chants-font-partie-de-notre-culture-52957993.html |access-date=6 April 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref><ref name=":633">{{Cite web |last=Malonga |first=Samuel |date=29 December 2019 |title=50 bougies pour Zaïko Langa-Langa |trans-title=50 candles for Zaïko Langa-Langa |url=https://www.mbokamosika.com/2019/12/50-bougies-pour-zaiko-langa-langa.html |access-date=6 April 2025 |website=Mbokamosika |language=fr}}</ref> while Lita Bembo's dances, such as Ekonda Saccadé, Mombombo Dominé, Osaka Dynastie and Caïmans, remain well-regarded for their inventiveness and unique characteristics.<ref name=":27" />

{{Multiple image
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| caption1          = [[Abeti Masikini]] in 1978
| image2            = Koffi Olomdé à la célébration du Vodoun Days 2024 à Ouidah au Bénin01 37.png
| caption2          = [[Koffi Olomide]] performing in 2024
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By the late 1980s, dance in Congo had become increasingly fluid, with new styles emerging almost as quickly as the popularity of their predecessors waned. Among the most recognized is [[Kwassa kwassa|Kwassa Kwassa]], a creation of Jeanora, which was performed internationally by artists like [[Abeti Masikini]] and [[Kanda Bongo Man]].<ref name=":27" /> Other dances that gained widespread popularity include Sundawa by J... Swede, Mayeno by TPOK Jazz, and Madiaba by Zaïko Langa Langa. These dance trends mirrored the shifting preferences of music fans, particularly the younger generations in Kinshasa and Brazzaville, who were constantly seeking innovative rhythms for self-expression.<ref name=":27" /> During this period, certain musical groups became known for inventing their own unique dances. The band [[Viva La Musica]] was particularly notable for its distinctive dance moves, such as Mukonyono and Kuku dindon. The band set trends by introducing their own dance styles rather than following the mainstream, which led to them developing a strong following at home and abroad.<ref name=":27" />

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Ewens|first=Graeme|year=2000|chapter=Heart of Darkness|editor1-last=Broughton|editor1-first=Simon|editor2-last=Ellingham|editor2-first=Mark|title=World Music|volume=I: Africa, Europe and the Middle East|publisher=Penguin|location=Durham|isbn=1-85828-636-0|pages=458–71}}
*{{cite book|last=Stewart|first=Gary|year=2000|title=Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the two Congos|publisher=Verso|location=London|isbn=1-85984-744-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/rumbaonriverhist00stew}}
*{{cite book|last=White|first=Bob W.|year=2008|title=Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire|publisher=Duke University Press|location=Durham|isbn=978-0822340911|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/rumbarulespoliti00whit}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
* [https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2003/12/18/rumba-in-the-jungle Rumba in the Jungle] at ''[[The Economist]]''
* [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Search?ArianeWireIndex=index&lang=EN&q=congo&p=1&f_typedoc=audio Audio clips - traditional music of the Democratic Republic of the  Congo.] [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|French National Library]]. Accessed 25 November 2010. {{in lang|fr}} 
* [http://www.ville-ge.ch/meg/musinfo_ph.php?what=pays=Congo,%20la%20R%E9publique%20d%E9mocratique%20du&debut=0&bool=AND  Audio clips: Traditional music of the Democratic Republic of the  Congo.] [[Musée d'ethnographie de Genève]]. Accessed 25 November 2010. {{in lang|fr}}
* [https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/11/drc-ban-on-songs-criticizing-the-government-highlights-urgent-need-to-repeal-censorship-law/. '''Amnesty International.''' "DRC: Ban on Songs Criticizing the Government Highlights Urgent Need to Repeal Censorship Law."] ''Amnesty International'', 11 Nov. 2021
* [https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2015/kongo/blog/posts/kongo-music-past-and-present. '''The Metropolitan Museum of Art.''' "Kongo: Power and Majesty—Music of Kongo Past and Present."] ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art'', November 2, 2015.
* [https://libstore.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/003/013/321/RUG01-003013321_2021_0001_AC.pdf. Verhaegen, Astrid. ''The Role of Music in Political Movements in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Songs of Resistance and Resilience''.] Ghent University, 2021.
* [https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/necessary-noise-music-film-charitable-imperialism/docview/2030653865/se-2 Ndaliko, Chérie Rivers. ''Necessary Noise: Music, Film, and Charitable Imperialism in the East of Congo'']. Oxford University Press, 2016.

{{DRC topics}}
{{Music of Africa}}

[[Category:Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]