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{{Short description|Cultural and political movement developed by a francophone African elite}}
{{Redirect|Nigritude|the contest|Nigritude ultramarine}}
{{See also|Créolité|Antillanité}}
{{italic title}}
'''''Négritude''''' (from French "nègre" and "-itude" to denote a condition that can be translated as "Blackness") is a framework of critique and literary theory, mainly developed by [[francophone]] intellectuals, writers, and politicians in the [[African diaspora]] during the 1930s, aimed at raising and cultivating "black consciousness" across [[Africa]] and its diaspora. Négritude gathers writers such as sisters [[Paulette Nardal|Paulette]] and [[Jeanne Nardal]] (known for having laid the theoretical basis of the movement),<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lafon|first=Cathy|date=2021-12-10|title=Vidéo. Qui était Paulette Nardal, mise à l'honneur ce mardi par Google ?|language=fr-FR|work=Sud Ouest|url=https://www.sudouest.fr/culture/google-lui-rend-hommage-ce-mardi-qui-etait-paulette-nardal-6544584.php|access-date=2021-10-13|issn=1760-6454}}</ref> [[Martinique|Martinican]] poet [[Aimé Césaire]], [[Abdoulaye Sadji]], [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]] (the first [[President (government title)|President]] of [[Senegal]]), and [[Léon Damas]] of [[French Guiana]]. ''Négritude'' intellectuals disavowed [[colonialism]], racism and [[Eurocentrism]]. They promoted African culture within a framework of persistent Franco-African ties.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jansen |first1=Jan C. |last2=Osterhammel |first2=Jürgen |date=2017 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AhpDQAAQBAJ |title=Decolonization: A Short History |publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-8488-9|pages=45|language=en}}</ref> The intellectuals employed [[Marxism|Marxist]] political philosophy, in the black radical tradition.<ref>Raisa Rexer (Winter 2013). "Black and White and Re(a)d All Over: L'Étudiant noir, Communism, and the Birth of Négritude". ''Research in African Literatures'' 44.4: 1–14. {{doi|10.2979/reseafrilite.44.4.1}}.
{{JSTOR|10.2979/reseafrilite.44.4.1}}.
</ref> The writers drew heavily on a surrealist literary style, and some say they were also influenced somewhat by the [[Surrealist]] stylistics, and in their work often explored the experience of [[African diaspora|diasporic]] being, asserting one's self and identity, and ideas of home, home-going and belonging.

''Négritude'' inspired the birth of many movements across the Afro-Diasporic world, including [[Afro-Surrealism]], [[Créolité]] in the Caribbean, and [[black is beautiful]] in the United States. [[Frantz Fanon]] often made reference to ''Négritude'' in his writing.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nielsen |first1=Cynthia R. |title=Frantz Fanon and the Négritude Movement: How Strategic Essentialism Subverts Manichean Binaries |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265918292 |journal=Callaloo |date=2013 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=342–352 |doi=10.1353/cal.2013.0084|s2cid=162812806 }}</ref>

==Etymology==
''{{Wikt-lang|fr|Négritude}}'' is a constructed noun from the 1930s based upon the French word ''nègre'', which, like its English counterpart, was derogatory and had a different meaning from "black man".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Edwards |first1=Brent Hayes |title=The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism |date=2003 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=20–38}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Reilly |first1=Brian J. |date=2020 |title=Négritude's Contretemps: The Coining and Reception of Aimé Césaire's Neologism |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/4c84046e729ddb3ff2abbd5cf0ee0bbb/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=41062 |journal=Philological Quarterly |volume=99 |issue=4 |pages=377–98|id={{ProQuest|<!-- ProQuest data goes here --> }} }}</ref> The movement's use of the word ''Négritude'' was a way of re-imagining the word as an [[emic]] form of empowerment. The term was first used in its present sense by Aimé Césaire, in the third issue (May–June 1935) of ''[[L'Étudiant noir]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Filostrat |first1=Christian |title=Negritude Agonistes, Assimilation against Nationalism in the Frenchspeaking Caribbean and Guyane |date=2008 |publisher=Africana Homestead}}</ref> a magazine that he had started in [[Paris]] with fellow students Léopold Senghor and Léon Damas, as well as {{ill|Gilbert Gratiant|fr}}, [[Leonard Sainville]], [[Louis T. Achille]], [[Aristide Maugée]], and [[Paulette Nardal]]. The word appears in Césaire's first published work, "Conscience Raciale et Révolution Sociale", with the heading "Les Idées" and the rubric "Négreries", which is notable for its disavowal of [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilation]] as a valid strategy for resistance and for its use of the word ''{{Wikt-lang|fr|nègre}}'' as a positive term. The problem with assimilation was that one assimilated into a culture that considered African culture to be barbaric and unworthy of being seen as "civilized". The assimilation into this culture would have been seen as an implicit acceptance of this view. ''Nègre'' previously had been used mainly in a pejorative sense. Césaire deliberately incorporated this derogatory word into the name of his philosophy. Césaire's choice of the ''-itude'' suffix has been criticized, with Senghor noting that "the term ''négritude'' has often been contested as a word before being contested as a concept",<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Senghor |first1=Léopold Sédar |title=Problématique de la Négritude |journal=Présence Africaine |date=1971 |volume=78 |issue=2 |page=5|doi=10.3917/presa.078.0003 }}</ref> but the suffix allows Césaire to trope the vocabulary of racist science.<ref name=":1" />

==Influences==
In 1885, [[Haiti]]an [[anthropologist]] [[Anténor Firmin]] published an early work ''De l'égalité des races humaines'' (On the Equality of Human Races), which was published as a rebuttal to [[France|French]] writer Count [[Arthur de Gobineau]]'s ''Essai sur l'inégalité des Races Humaines'' (''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]''). Firmin influenced [[Jean Price-Mars]], the initiator of Haitian [[ethnology]] and developer of the concept of [[Indigenism]], and 20th-century American anthropologist [[Melville Herskovits]]. Black intellectuals have historically been proud of Haiti due to its [[slave revolution]] commanded by [[Toussaint Louverture]] during the 1790s. Césaire spoke, thus, of Haiti as being "where négritude stood up for the first time".

The [[Harlem Renaissance]], a literary style developed in Harlem in Manhattan during the 1920s and 1930s, influenced the ''Négritude'' philosophy. The Harlem Renaissance's writers, including [[Langston Hughes]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Claude McKay]], [[Alain LeRoy Locke|Alain Locke]] and [[W. E. B. Du Bois|W.E.B. Du Bois]] addressed the themes of "noireism", race relations and "double-consciousness".

During the 1920s and 1930s, young black students and scholars primarily from France's colonies and territories assembled in Paris, where they were introduced to writers of the Harlem Renaissance, namely Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, by [[Paulette Nardal]] and her sister [[Jane Nardal|Jane]]. The Nardal sisters contributed to the ''Négritude'' discussions in their writings and also owned the Clamart Salon, a tea-shop venue of the Afro-French intelligentsia where the philosophy of ''Négritude'' was often discussed and where the concept for ''[[La Revue du Monde Noir]]'' was conceived. Paulette Nardal and the Haitian Dr. [[Leo Sajou]] initiated ''La Revue du Monde Noir'' (1931–32), a literary journal published in English and French, which attempted to appeal to African and Caribbean intellectuals in Paris. This Harlem inspiration was shared by the parallel development of ''[[negrismo]]'' and acceptance of "double-apparantence", double-consciousness, in the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking Caribbean region.

The Nardal sisters were responsible for the introduction of the Harlem Renaissance and its ideas to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. In a letter from February 1960, Senghor admits the importance of the Nardal sisters, "We were in contact with these black Americans during the years 1929–34 through Mademoiselle Paulette Nardall...kept a literary salon where African Negroestrans, West Indians, and American Negroes used to get together." Jane Nardal's 1929 article "Internationalisme noir" predates Senghor's first critical theory piece "What the Black Man Contributes", itself published in 1939.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sharpley-Whiting |first=T. Denean |date=2000 |title=Femme négritude: Jane Nardal, La Dépêche africaine, and the francophone new negro |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10999940009362232 |journal=Souls: A Critical Journal of Black Politics, Culture, and Society |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=8–17|doi=10.1080/10999940009362232 |s2cid=146582416 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> This essay, "Internationalisme noir", focuses on race consciousness in the African diaspora and cultural metissage, double-apparentance; seen as the philosophical foundation for the ''Négritude'' movement.<ref name=":0" /> The Nardal sisters, for all their ideas and the importance of their Clamart Salon, have been minimized in the development of ''Négritude'' by the masculinist domination of the movement. Paulette even wrote as much in 1960 when she "bitterly complained" about the lack of acknowledgment to her and her sister Jane regarding their importance to a movement historically and presently credited to Césaire, Senghor, and Damas. The name Nardal belongs in that list.

The [[Dakar School]] art movement in Senegal, active from 1960 to 1974, was directly influenced by the philosophy of Négritude, and was also founded under the [[paternalism]] of Senegalese President Léopold Sédar Senghor.<ref name="Abdou-2002">{{Cite web |last=Abdou |first=Sylla |date=July 2002 |title=Hommage à L. S. Senghor |trans-title=Tribute to LS Senghor |url=http://ethiopiques.refer.sn/spip.php?page=imprimer-article&id_article=44 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173314/http://ethiopiques.refer.sn/spip.php?page=imprimer-article&id_article=44#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archive-date=3 March 2016 |website=Ethiopiques no. 69 |language=fr |via=Wikiwix |access-date=3 January 2025 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Cohen-2018">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=Joshua I. |date=2018 |title=Locating Senghor's École de Dakar: International and Transnational Dimensions to Senegalese Modern Art, c. 1959–1980 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/48547476 |journal=African Arts |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=10–25 |doi=10.1162/afar_a_00413 |issn=1937-2108 |url-access=registration |jstor=48547476}}</ref><ref name="Njami-2007">{{Cite book |last=Njami |first=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rQbiP0M5tCUC&pg=PA229 |title=Africa Remix: Contemporary Art of a Continent |date=2007 |publisher=Jacana Media |isbn=978-1-77009-363-8 |pages=229 |language=en}}</ref>

==Development during the 20th century==
Each of the initiators had his own ideas about the purpose and styles of ''Négritude'', the philosophy was characterized generally by opposition to colonialism, denunciation of Europe's alleged inhumanity, and rejection of Western domination and ideas. The movement also appears to have had some [[Heidegger]]ian strands in the sense that its goal was to achieve black people's' "being-in-the-world", to emphasize that black individuals did have a history and a worthy culture capable of standing alongside the cultures of other countries as equals. Also important was the acceptance of and pride in being black and a celebration of African history, traditions, and beliefs. Their literary style was [[surrealistic]] and they cherished [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideas.

Motivation for the ''Négritude'' movement was a result of [[Aimé Césaire]]'s, [[Leopold Senghor]]'s, and [[Leon Damas]]'s dissatisfaction, disgust, and personal conflict over the state of the Afro-French experience in France. All three shared a personal sense of revolt for the racism and colonial injustices that plagued their world and their French education. Senghor refused to believe that the purpose of his education was "to build Christianity and civilization in his soul where there was only paganism and barbarism before". Césaire's disgust came as embarrassment when he was accused by some of the people of the Caribbean as having nothing to do with the people of Africa—whom they saw as savages. They separated themselves from Africa and proclaimed themselves as civilized. He denounced the writers from the Caribbean as "intellectually... corrupt and literarily nourished with white decadence". Damas believed this because of the pride these writers would take when a white person could read their whole book and would not be able to tell the author's complexion.

'''Aimé Césaire'''

Césaire was a poet, playwright, and politician from [[Martinique]]. He studied in Paris, where he discovered the black community and "rediscovered Africa". He saw ''Négritude'' as the fact of being black, acceptance of this fact, and appreciation of the history and culture, and of black people. It is important to note that for Césaire, this emphasis on the acceptance of the fact of "blackness" was the means by which the "decolonization of the mind" could be achieved. According to him, western imperialism was responsible for the inferiority complex of black people. He sought to recognize the collective colonial experience of black individuals —the slave trade and plantation system. Césaire's ideology was especially important during the early years of ''Négritude''.

Neither Césaire—who after returning to Martinique after his studies was elected mayor of [[Fort de France]], the capital, and a representative of Martinique in France's Parliament—nor Senghor in Senegal, envisaged political independence from France. Césaire called for France's political assimilation of Martinique with the {{ill|Loi de départementalisation|fr}} (the Departmentalization Law), which did not entail an abandonment of Martinique's distinct culture.

'''Leopold Senghor'''

''Négritude'' would, according to Senghor, enable black people in French lands to have a "seat at the give and take of the [French] table as equals". However, the French eventually granted Senegal and its other African colonies independence. Poet and later the first president of Sénégal, Senghor used ''Négritude'' to work toward a universal valuation of African people. He advocated a modern incorporation of the expression and celebration of traditional African customs and ideas. This interpretation of ''Négritude'' tended to be the most common, particularly during later years.

'''Leon Damas'''

Damas was a [[French Guiana|French Guianese]] poet and National Assembly member. He had a militant style of defending ''"black qualities"'' and rejected any kind of reconciliation with Caucasians. Two particular anthologies were pivotal to the movement; one was published by Damas in 1946, ''Poètes d'expression française 1900–1945''. Senghor would then go on to publish ''Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française'' in 1948. Damas's introduction to the work and the poetic anthology was meant to be a sort of manifesto for the movement, but Senghor's own anthology eventually took that role. Though it would be the "Preface" written by French philosopher and public intellectual [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] for the anthology that would propel ''Négritude'' into the broader intellectual conversation.

Damas' introduction was more political and cultural in nature. A distinctive feature of his anthology and beliefs was that Damas felt his message was one for the colonized in general, and included poets from Indochina and Madagascar. This is sharply in contrast to Senghor's anthology. In the introduction, Damas proclaimed that now was the age where "the colonized man becomes aware of his rights and of his duties as a writer, as a novelist or a storyteller, an essayist or a poet." Damas outlines the themes of the work. He says, "Poverty, illiteracy, exploitation of man by man, social and political racism suffered by the black or the yellow, forced labor, inequalities, lies, resignation, swindles, prejudices, complacencies, cowardice, failure, crimes committed in the name of liberty, of equality, of fraternity, that is the theme of this indigenous poetry in French." Damas' introduction was indeed a calling and affirmation for a distinct cultural identification.

==Reception==
In 1948, [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] analyzed the ''Négritude'' philosophy in an essay called "Orphée Noir" ("[[Black Orpheus (essay)|Black Orpheus]]")<ref>The title subsequently inspired the name of the Nigerian magazine ''[[Black Orpheus (magazine)|Black Orpheus]]'' — see Peter Benson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=5gIQK1isP6cC&dq=black+orpheus+magazine+title+sartre&pg=PA24 ''Black Orpheus, Transition, and Modern Cultural Awakening in Africa''], University of California Press, 1986, p. 24.</ref> that served as the introduction to a volume of francophone poetry named ''Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache'', compiled by Léopold Senghor. In this essay, Sartre characterizes ''négritude'' as the opposite of colonial racism in a [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] [[dialectic]] and with it he helped to introduce ''Négritude'' issues to French intellectuals. In his opinion, ''négritude'' was an "anti-racist racism" (''racisme antiraciste''), a strategy with a final goal of racial unity.

''Négritude'' was criticized by some Black writers during the 1960s as insufficiently militant. [[Keorapetse Kgositsile]] said that the term ''Négritude'' was based too much on Blackness according to a European aesthetic, and was unable to define a new kind of perception of African-ness that would free Black people and Black art from Caucasian conceptualizations altogether.

The Nigerian dramatist, poet, and novelists Chinua Achebe and [[Wole Soyinka]] opposed ''Négritude''. They believed that by deliberately and outspokenly being proud of their ethnicity, Black people were automatically on the defensive. Chinua Achebe wrote: "A tiger doesn't proclaim its tigerness; it jumps on its prey."<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last1=Lauer |editor-first1=Helen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTUZ1y4HWocC&q=tiger+doesn%27t+proclaim+its+tigerness%3B+it+jumps+on+its+prey&pg=PA239|title=Identity Meets Nationality: Voices from the Humanities|editor-last2=Amfo|editor-first2=Nana Aba Appiah |editor-link2=Nana Aba Appiah Amfo |editor-last3=Anderson |editor-first3=Jemima Asabea |date=2011|publisher=African Books Collective|isbn=978-9988-647-96-4|language=en}}</ref> Soyinka in turn wrote in a 1960 essay for the ''Horn'', "the [[duiker]] will not paint 'duiker' on his beautiful back to proclaim his duikeritude; you'll know him by his elegant leap."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maduakor|first=Obiajuru|date=1986|title=Soyinka as a Literary Critic|journal=Research in African Literatures|volume=17|issue=1|pages=1–38|jstor=3819421}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://jimsligh.wordpress.com/2013/08/05/tigritude/|title=Tigritude|date=2013-08-05|work=This Analog Life|access-date=2018-10-09|language=en-US}}</ref>

After a long period of silence there has been a renaissance of ''Négritude'' developed by scholars such as [[Souleymane Bachir Diagne]] ([[Columbia University]]), Donna Jones ([[University of California, Berkeley]]),<ref>[http://english.berkeley.edu/profiles/42 "Donna V. Jones"], English Department, University of California, Berkeley.</ref> and [[Cheikh Thiam]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cheikh Thiam Appointed to Dean Post for the School of International Training|url=https://www.jbhe.com/2020/01/cheikh-thiam-appointed-to-dean-post-for-the-school-of-international-training/|date=2020-01-06|website=The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education|access-date=2020-06-01}}</ref> ([[Ohio State University]]) who all continue the work of [[Abiola Irele]] (1936–2017). Cheikh Thiam's book is the only book-length study of ''Négritude'' as philosophy. It develops Diagne's reading of ''Négritude'' as a philosophy of art, and Jones' presentation of ''Négritude'' as a [[lebensphilosophie]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2022}}

==Other uses==

American physician [[Benjamin Rush]], a signer of the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|United States Declaration of Independence]] and early abolitionist, is often said to have used the term "''Negritude"'' to imagine a rhetorical "disease" that he said was a mild form of leprosy, the only cure for which was to become white.<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://academic.udayton.edu/health/01status/mental01.htm
 |title=An Early History&nbsp;– African American Mental Health
 |author=Randall, Vernellia R.
 |publisher=Institute on Race, Health Care and the Law, The University of Dayton School of Law
 |access-date=21 December 2008
 |archive-date=9 July 2011
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709081628/http://academic.udayton.edu/health/01status/mental01.htm
 |url-status=dead
 }}</ref> But this attribution has been disputed as a misreading of secondary sources.<ref name=":1"/> If there was such use, it might not have been known by the Afro-Francophones who developed the philosophy of Négritude during the 20th century. Still, [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]] did claim that he and [[Aimé Césaire]] were aware of discourse surrounding race and revolution from the US.<ref name=":1" />

Novelist [[Norman Mailer]] used the term to describe boxer [[George Foreman]]'s physical and psychological presence in his book ''The Fight'', a journalistic treatment of the legendary Ali vs. Foreman "[[Rumble in the Jungle]]" bout in [[Kinshasa]], [[Zaire]] (now [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]) in October 1974.

The word is also used by the rapper [[Youssoupha]] in his eponymous album "Négritude."

==See also==
* ''[[Black Skin, White Masks]]''
* [[Black Consciousness Movement]]
* [[Surrealism#Black surrealism and Negritude|Black Surrealism]]
* [[Black Arts Movement]]
* [[Black Power movement|Black Power Movement]]
* ''[[Angolanidade]]'' ("Angolan-ness")
* ''[[Authenticité (Zaire)|Authenticité]]''
* [[Afro-pessimism (United States)|Afro-pessimism]]
* [[Afro-Surrealism]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* [[Christian Filostrat]], "La Négritude et la 'Conscience raciale et révolution sociale' d'Aimé Césaire". ''Présence Francophone'', No. 21, Automne 1980, pp.&nbsp;119–130.
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre, Jean-Paul]]. "Orphée Noir". ''Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache''. ed. Léopold Senghor. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, p. xiv (1948).
* {{Citation | first=Maryse | last=Condé | author-link=Maryse Condé | title=O Brave New World | journal=Research in African Literatures | year=1998 | volume=29 | pages=1–7 | url=http://www.awigp.com/default.asp?numcat=conde | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010406161246/http://awigp.com/default.asp?numcat=conde | url-status=dead | archive-date=2001-04-06 }}.
* Rabanka, Leiland. « The Negritude Movement: W.E.B. Du Bois, Leon Damas, Aimé Césaire,&nbsp; Léopold Senghor, Frantz Fanon, and the Evolution of an Insurgent Idea. » Lexington Books, 2015.
* Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean. "Femme Négritude: Jane Nardal, La Dépêche Africaine, and the Francophone New Negro." ''Souls (Boulder, Colo.)'', vol. 2, no. 4, Taylor & Francis Group, 2000, pp.&nbsp;8–17,

==Bibliography==
'''Original texts'''
* Césaire, Aimé: ''[[Cahier d'un retour au pays natal|Return to My Native Land]]'', [[Bloodaxe Books]], 1997, {{ISBN|1-85224-184-5}}
* Césaire, Aimé: ''Discourse on Colonialism'', [[Monthly Review Press]] (1950), 2000, {{ISBN|1-58367-025-4}}
* Damas, Léon-Gontran, ''Poètes d'expression française.''Paris: [[Editions du Seuil]], 1947
* Damas, Léon-Gontan, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130510220125/http://www.leondamas-mine-de-rien.com/ ''Mine de Rien, Poèmes inédits''.]
* Diop, Birago, ''Leurres et lueurs.'' Paris: [[Présence Africaine]], 1960
* Senghor, Léopold Sedar, ''The Collected Poetry'', [[University of Virginia Press]], 1998
* Senghor, Léopold Sédar, ''Ce que je crois.'' Paris: Grasset, 1988
* [[Véronique Tadjo|Tadjo, Véronique]], ''Red Earth/Latérite.'' Spokane, Washington: [[Eastern Washington University Press]], 2006

'''Secondary literature'''
* Filostrat, Christian. ''Negritude Agonistes'', Africana Homestead Legacy Publishers, 2008, {{ISBN|978-0-9818939-2-1}}
* Irele, Abiola. "Négritude or black cultural nationalism." ''Journal of Modern African Studies'' 3.3 (1965): 321–348.
* Le Baron, Bentley. "Négritude: A Pan-African Ideal?." ''Ethics'' 76.4 (1966): 267–276 [http://jpellegrino.com/teaching/senegal/articles/Negritude-APan-AfricanIdeal.pdf online].
* Reilly, Brian J. "''Négritude''{{'s}} Contretemps: The Coining and Reception of Aimé Césaire's Neologism". ''Philological Quarterly'' 99.4 (2020): 377–98.
* Rexer, Raisa. "Black and White and Re(a)d All Over: L'Étudiant noir, Communism, and the Birth of Négritude". ''Research in African Literatures'' 44.4 (2013): 1–14.
* Sharpley-Whiting, T. Denean.  ''Negritude Women'', [[University of Minnesota Press]], 2002, {{ISBN|0-8166-3680-X}}
* Stovall, Tyler, "Aimé Césaire and the making of black Paris." ''French Politics, Culture & Society'' 27#3 (2009): 44–46
* Thiam, Cheikh. ''Return to the Kingdom of Childhood: Re-envisioning the Legacy and Philosophical Relevance of Negritude'' (Ohio State University Press,  2014)
* Thompson, Peter, ''Negritude and Changing Africa: An Update,'' in ''Research in African Literatures'', Winter 2002
* Thompson, Peter, ''Négritude et nouveaux mondes—poésie noire: africaine, antillaise et malgache.'' Concord, Mass: Wayside Publishing, 1994
* Wilder, Gary. ''The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude & Colonial Humanism Between the Two World Wars'' (University of Chicago Press, 2005) {{ISBN|0-226-89772-9}}
* Wilder, Gary. ''Freedom time: Negritude, decolonization, and the future of the world'' (Duke University Press, 2015).
* Kemi Séba, ''Supra-négritude'', Fiat-Lux éditions 2013, {{ISBN|979-1091157018}}

==Filmography==
* ''Négritude: Naissance et expansion du concept'' a documentary by Nathalie Fave and Jean-Baptiste Fave, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzQ4NM_fJHI first minutes online], with the interventions of [[Amadou Lamine Sall]], Racine Senghor, [[Lylian Kesteloot]], [[Jean-Louis Roy]], [[Jacqueline Lemoine]], Gérard Chenêt, [[Victor Emmanuel Cabrita]], [[Nafissatou Dia Diouf]], Amadou Ly, Youssoufa Bâ, Raphaël Ndiaye, [[Alioune Badara Bèye]], [[Hamidou Dia]], Georges Courrèges, Baba Diop; Maison Africaine de la Poésie Internationale. Shot in Sénégal in 2005, 56' (DVD)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://letudiant-noir.webs.com/ Noir, Journal Mensuel de l'Association des Etudiants Martiniquais en France, Premiere Annee N. 3 May–June 1935] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618040053/http://letudiant-noir.webs.com/ |date=2019-06-18 }},
* [http://letudiantnoir.webs.com/ Césaire et l'introduction de la notion "négritude"]

{{Aimé Césaire}}
{{Pan-Africanism}}
{{Schools of poetry}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Negritude}}
[[Category:1930s in Africa]]
[[Category:African and Black nationalism]]
[[Category:Africana philosophy]]
[[Category:Black (human racial classification)]]
[[Category:French Caribbean]]
[[Category:French West Africa]]
[[Category:Latin American literature]]
[[Category:Literary movements]]
[[Category:Pan-Africanism]]
[[Category:Postcolonialism]]
[[Category:Aimé Césaire]]