View source for National Government (United Kingdom)

{{Short description|UK term for a government formed by an alliance of some or all of the major political parties}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
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{{Politics of the United Kingdom}}

In the [[politics of the United Kingdom]], a '''National Government''' is a [[Political alliance|coalition]] of some or all of the [[List of political parties in the United Kingdom#Parliamentary_parties|major political parties]].  In a historical sense, it refers primarily to the governments of [[Ramsay MacDonald]], [[Stanley Baldwin]] and [[Neville Chamberlain]] which held office from 1931 until 1940.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

The all-party coalitions of [[H. H. Asquith]] and [[David Lloyd George]] in the [[First World War]] were sometimes referred to as National Governments at the time, but are now more commonly called Coalition Governments.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}  The term "National Government" was chosen to dissociate itself from negative connotations of the earlier coalitions.<ref>{{cite web|date=25 August 1931|title=MacDonald forms a coalition|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2012/aug/25/archive-1931-macdonald-forms-coalition|work=The Guardian|access-date=20 December 2014}}</ref> Similarly the [[Churchill war ministry|all-party government]] of [[Winston Churchill]] in the [[Second World War]] was generally referred to as the National Government at the time.

==Crisis of 1931==
{{Main|Great Depression in the United Kingdom}}
[[File:(James) Ramsay MacDonald by Solomon Joseph Solomon.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ramsay MacDonald]] was Prime Minister for the first four years of National Government]]

The [[Wall Street crash of 1929]] heralded the global [[Great Depression]] and Britain was hit, although not as badly as most countries. The government was trying to achieve several different, contradictory objectives: trying to maintain Britain's economic position by maintaining the [[Pound sterling|pound]] on the [[gold standard]], balancing the [[United Kingdom budget|budget]], and providing assistance and relief to tackle unemployment. The gold standard meant that British prices were higher than its competitors', so the important export industries did poorly.

In 1931, the situation deteriorated and there was much fear that the budget was unbalanced, which was borne out by the independent [[May Report]] which triggered a confidence crisis and a run on the pound. The [[History of the British Labour Party#Second Labour government (1929–1931)|Labour government]] agreed in principle to make changes in taxation and to cut expenditure to balance the budget and restore confidence. However, the Cabinet could not agree on the two options available: either introduce tariffs (taxes on imports) or make 20% cuts in [[unemployment benefit]]. In the end, MacDonald and Snowden drafted a proposal that would cut benefits by 10%. Trade unions rejected this proposal. When a final vote was taken, the Cabinet was split 11–9 with a minority, including many political heavyweights such as [[Arthur Henderson]] and [[George Lansbury]], threatening to resign rather than agree. The unworkable split, on 24 August 1931, made the government resign.<ref>Neil Riddell, ''Labour in Crisis: The Second Labour Government 1929-1931'' (Manchester UP, 1999).</ref><ref>Chris Wrigley, "The Fall of the Second MacDonald Government, 1931." in T.  Heppell and K. Theakston, ''How Labour Governments Fall'' (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013) pp. 38–60.</ref>

The financial crisis grew worse and decisive government action was needed as the leaders of both the Conservative and Liberal Parties met with King [[George V]], and MacDonald, at first to discuss support for the measures to be taken but later to discuss the shape of the next government. MacDonald had originally wished to tender his resignation but was told to re-consider by the King on the grounds that the majority of opposition MPs and the country at large supported the cuts proposed by the [[May Report]], even if the Labour Party and the Trade Unions led by [[Ernest Bevin]] did not. MacDonald duly changed his mind during the night and met with the Conservative and Liberal MPs the following morning. On 24 August, MacDonald agreed and formed a National Government composed of men from all parties with the specific aim of balancing the Budget and restoring confidence. The new cabinet had four Labourites (now called "[[National Labour Organisation|National Labour]]") who stood with MacDonald, plus four Conservatives (led by Baldwin and Chamberlain) and two Liberals. Labour unions were strongly opposed and the Labour Party officially repudiated the new National government. It expelled MacDonald and made Henderson the leader of the main Labour party. Henderson led it into [[1931 United Kingdom general election|the general election]] on 27 October against the three-party National coalition.<ref>David Marquand, ''Ramsay Macdonald'' (Jonathan Cape, 1977) pp. 604–641.</ref>

==Early days==
{{main|National Government (1931)}}
[[File:Stanley Baldwin LCCN2014715475.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Stanley Baldwin]] was a dominant figure from the outset of National Government. He became Prime Minister when MacDonald retired.]]

The Government was initially applauded by most, but the Labour Party were left in a state of confusion with the loss of several of their most prominent figures, and MacDonald, [[Philip Snowden, 1st Viscount Snowden|Philip Snowden]] and [[James Henry Thomas]] did little to explain themselves, with the result that the Labour Party soon swung fully against the government. This was in part because of the Trade Unions' decision to oppose all forms of cuts proposed by MacDonald and Snowden in response to the [[May Report]], which had concluded the UK government needed to curb government expenditure to reduce the budget deficit amid the fallout from the [[Great Depression]] that began in 1929. The May Report in particular recommended to MacDonald that his Labour government cut unemployment benefit by 20%. The Trade Unions that represented a large proportion of the Labour party's base refused to support any cuts to benefits or wages except to "the salaries of Ministers". Efforts to bring public expenditure cuts produced further problems, including a mutiny in the [[Royal Navy]] over pay cuts (the [[Invergordon Mutiny]]), with the result that the [[pound sterling]] came under renewed pressure, and the government was forced to take the radical step of taking the pound off the [[gold standard]] altogether.<ref>[[Charles Loch Mowat]], ''Britain between the Wars: 1918-1945'' (1955) pp 413–79</ref>

Debate then broke out about further steps to tackle the economic problems. At the same time the Labour Party officially expelled all of its members who supported the National Government, including MacDonald. Increasingly, the majority of the Cabinet came to believe that a protective tariff was necessary to support British industry and provide revenue and that a general election should be fought to secure a mandate but this was anathema to the Liberal Party. The Liberals' acting leader and [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]], [[Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]], fought in Cabinet against an election but found the Liberal Party dividing in several directions over the course of action. One group, under [[John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon|Sir John Simon]] emerged as the [[National Liberal Party (UK, 1931)|Liberal Nationals]], was prepared to accept the tariff and expressed willingness to take the place of the main Liberals in the government. The party's official leader, [[David Lloyd George]] was incapacitated at this time but called for the Liberals to abandon the government altogether and stand independently in defence of [[free trade]], but his call was heeded only by four other MPs, all of whom were his close relatives.

It was eventually agreed that the government as a whole would seek a "Doctor's Mandate" to take a free hand and that each party would issue its own manifesto. Supporters of MacDonald formed the [[National Labour Organisation]] and the parties agreed to allow their local organisations to agree whether or not to oppose each other. The government was opposed by the Labour Party, Lloyd George and his Liberals and the [[New Party (Oswald Mosley)|New Party]] of [[Oswald Mosley|Sir Oswald Mosley]]. Within the parties there was particular conflict between the Conservatives and Liberals. The 1931 general election campaign run by the National Government figures stressed their policies would aim to avoid any risk of Britain seeing such events as those of Germany two years ago including [[hyperinflation]] and MacDonald famously waved worthless Deutschmarks to emphasise the point. The result of the [[1931 United Kingdom general election|1931 general election]] was the greatest landslide in British political history, the National Government winning a total of 556 seats and a Parliamentary majority of 500.<ref>Andrew Thorpe, "The British General Election of 1931" (Oxford UP, 1991) [http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198202189.001.0001/acprof-9780198202189 online]</ref> It was a disaster for Labour, which was reduced to a small minority of 52.  MacDonald was unified with the Conservatives and Liberal National leaders on one platform (he returning 13 of his 20 National Labour candidates).<ref>Andrew Thorpe, "Arthur Henderson and the British political crisis of 1931." ''Historical Journal'' 31#1 (1988): 117–139. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2639239 in JSTOR]</ref><ref>Nick Smart, ''The National Government, 1931–40'' (Macmillan Education UK, 1999) pp. 9-36.</ref>

As few Labour MPs refused to abandon the wishes of the Trade Unionists led by [[Ernest Bevin]], the support for the re-elected National Government was heavily Conservative.

==1931–1935==
{{Main|National Government (1931–1935)}}

Although the Conservatives had a bare majority in Cabinet of 11, compared to nine non-Conservatives, the former held comparatively few of the most important jobs. The two groups of Liberals were similarly unbalanced in terms of posts, the official Liberals holding one more seat than the National Liberals, despite the parliamentary position being reversed. That balance was to cause tensions, particularly as the [[Diehard Conservatism|Diehard]] wing of the Conservative party felt unrepresented.<ref>Stuart Ball,  "The Conservative Party and the Formation of the National Government: August 1931." ''Historical Journal'' 29#1 (1986): 159-182.</ref>

The government entered protracted wrangling over whether or not to introduce tariffs. Both the Liberals and Snowden found it particularly difficult to accept but were in a heavy minority. However, both MacDonald and Baldwin wished to maintain the multiparty nature of the Government. On the suggestion of Hailsham, it was agreed to suspend the principle of [[Cabinet collective responsibility]] to allow the Liberals to oppose the introduction of tariffs while remaining in government. This held for some months.<ref>David Marquand, ''Ramsay MacDonald'' (1977).</ref>

In 1932, [[Donald Maclean (British politician)|Sir Donald MacLean]] died. MacDonald came under pressure not to merely appoint another Liberal, particularly as it was felt that they would be over-represented, and so instead appointed the Conservative [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Irwin]] (later Lord Halifax). Further tensions emerged over the [[British Empire Economic Conference|Ottawa Agreement]], which set up a series of tariff agreements within the [[British Empire]], and the remaining Liberals and Snowden resigned their ministerial posts although they continued to support the government from the backbenches for another year. MacDonald considered resigning as well to allow a party government to take office but was persuaded to remain even though his health was now in decline. In domestic politics, he increasingly allowed Baldwin to give a lead, but in foreign affairs, the main direction was determined by MacDonald and Simon.

The most prominent policy of the National Government in the early 1930s was the proposal to introduce [[Indian Home Rule]], a measure fiercely opposed by the [[Diehard Conservatism|Diehard]] wing of the Conservative party, with [[Winston Churchill]] one of the most open opponents. The bill was fiercely opposed but eventually passed in 1947 in very different circumstances.

==Baldwin takes over==
{{main|National Government (1935–1937)}}

With MacDonald's health failing, he retired as prime minister in June 1935, to be succeeded by Baldwin.<ref>Keith Middlemas and A. J. L. Barnes, ''Baldwin: a biography'' (1969).</ref>

Increasingly foreign affairs were coming to dominate political discourse and in November Baldwin led the government to victory in the [[1935 United Kingdom general election|1935 general election]] on a platform of support for the [[League of Nations]] and sanctions against Italy for invading [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]]. The following month a massive storm developed when it emerged that the new Foreign Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]], had negotiated the [[Hoare-Laval Pact]] which proposed to cede most of Abyssinia to Italy. Many were outraged, including many government MPs, and the agreement was dropped and Hoare sacked, though he later returned to government.<ref>Paul W. Doerr, ''British foreign policy, 1919-1939'' (Manchester UP, 1998).</ref> The government sponsored a series of conferences to enable more home rule in India and other colonies.<ref>Spencer Mawby, "The Transformation and Decline of the British Empire: Decolonisation After the First World War" (Palgrave Macmillan, 2015).</ref>

Baldwin's last years in office were seen as a period of drift, but in late 1936 he achieved a notable triumph in resolving the [[Edward VIII abdication crisis]] without major repercussions. Baldwin took the occasion of [[George VI]]'s coronation as an opportune moment to retire.<ref>James C. Ching, "Stanley Baldwin's speech on the abdication of Edward VIII." ''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 42.2 (1956): 163–169.</ref>

==Peacetime government of Neville Chamberlain==
{{main|National Government (1937–1939)}}
[[File:Neville Chamberlain by William Orpen - 1929.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Neville Chamberlain]] had succeeded Baldwin as Prime Minister in 1937]]

[[Neville Chamberlain]] was seen by many as the only possible successor to Baldwin, and his appointment as prime minister was widely credited with bringing a new dynamism to the government. With a strong track record as a radical [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]] and competent [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] many expected Chamberlain to provide a strong lead in domestic affairs and here the government had a number of successes, such as over the nationalisation of coal mining royalties, the curtailing of excess working hours by the Factory Act and much [[Slum clearance in the United Kingdom|slum clearance]]. Another success was the [[Holidays with Pay Act 1938]], which gave a fortnight's paid holiday a year to workers, starting in 1939. The school leaving age was also to be increased from Autumn 1939, but was deferred as war loomed. Further reforms were curtailed by the increased international tension which came to occupy most of his time.<ref>Robert C. Self, ''Neville Chamberlain: a biography'' (Ashgate, 2006) pp 261–90.</ref>

In foreign affairs, the government sought to increase Britain's armaments, while maintaining the unity of the Empire and [[Dominion]]s and preventing any one power from becoming dominant on the continent of Europe. These proved increasingly difficult to reconcile, as many Dominions were reluctant to support Britain in the event of her going to war, and so military action risked splitting the Empire. Chamberlain took a strong personal lead in foreign affairs and sought to bring about peaceful revision of European frontiers in areas where many commentators had long-acknowledged grievances. In this, he received much popular support at the time, but the policy has been much attacked since. The most prominent point in the policy of [[appeasement]] came in September 1938, when the [[Munich Agreement]] was negotiated. Following the agreement, the government sped up the re-armament process in the hope of being ready for war when it came. At the same time, it took a tougher line in foreign affairs, including making a guarantee to defend [[Poland]] against Germany.<ref>Maurice Cowling, ''The Impact of Hitler: British Politics and British Policy, 1933-1940'' (Cambridge UP, 1975).</ref>

==Outbreak of war==
{{Main|Chamberlain war ministry|Churchill war ministry}}
[[File:Winston Churchill cph.3b13157.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Winston Churchill]] succeeded Chamberlain in 1940. He served as prime minister for [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|most of the Second World War]].]]

When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, Britain declared war in tandem with France, supported by all of the Dominions except [[Irish neutrality during World War II|Ireland]]. For some time there had been calls to expand Chamberlain's war ministry by bringing in members of the official Labour and Liberal parties but both parties refused to join (with the one exception of Liberal MP [[Gwilym Lloyd&nbsp;George]], who joined the government as [[Parliamentary&nbsp;Secretary to the Board of Trade]]). For the first few months of war Britain saw comparatively little action apart from at sea, but the failure of the [[Norwegian campaign]] led to a massive outcry in Parliament.

On 7 and 8 May 1940, a two-day debate took place in Parliament, known to history as the [[Norway Debate]]. Initially a discussion of what had gone wrong in that field, it soon turned into a general debate on the conduct of the war with fierce criticism expressed by all sides of the House. The government won the debate, albeit with a reduced majority, but over the next two days it became increasingly clear that Labour and the Liberals would have to be brought into government and that Chamberlain was unable to achieve this. On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded the [[Low Countries]] and Chamberlain finally bowed to pressure and resigned, bringing the life of the National Government to a close. It was succeeded by an all-party coalition headed by [[Winston Churchill]].<ref>Malcolm Smith, ''Britain and 1940: history, myth and popular memory'' (Routledge, 2014).</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Bassett, Reginald. ''1931 Political Crisis'' (2nd ed., Aldershot: Macmillan 1986) {{ISBN|0-566-05138-9}} [https://archive.org/details/nineteenthirtyon0000bass/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* Howell, David. ''MacDonald's Party: Labour Identities and Crisis, 1922–1931'' (Oxford U. P. 2002). {{ISBN|0-19-820304-7}}.
* Hyde, H. Montgomery. ''Baldwin: The Unexpected Prime Minister'' (1973){{publisher missing}}{{isbn missing}}
* [[Jenkins, Roy]] (1987). '' Baldwin'' [https://www.amazon.com/Baldwin-Roy-Jenkins/dp/000217586X/  excerpt and text search]{{publisher missing}}{{isbn missing}}
* Marquand, David. ''Ramsay Macdonald'' (Jonathan Cape, 1977) pp. 604–701.
* [[Mowat, Charles Loch]]. ''Britain between the Wars: 1918–1945'' (1955) pp. 413–79{{publisher missing}}{{isbn missing}}
* Raymond, John, ed. ''The Baldwin Age'' (1960), essays by scholars; 252 pages; [https://www.questia.com/library/1564179/the-baldwin-age online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010211434/https://www.questia.com/library/1564179/the-baldwin-age |date=10 October 2019 }}{{publisher missing}}{{isbn missing}}
* Smart, Nick.  ''The National Government. 1931–40'' (Macmillan 1999). {{ISBN|0-333-69131-8}}.
* Taylor, A. J. P. ''English History 1914–1945'' (1965). pp. 321–88.{{publisher missing}}{{isbn missing}}
* Thorpe, Andrew. ''Britain in the 1930s. The Deceptive Decade'', (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992). {{ISBN|0-631-17411-7}}.
* Williamson, Philip. ''National Crisis and National Government. British Politics, the Economy and the Empire, 1926–1932'' (Cambridge U. P., 1992). {{ISBN|0-521-36137-0}}.

{{British ministries}}
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[[Category:Coalition governments]]
[[Category:Coalition governments of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Ramsay MacDonald]]