View source for Nestorianism

{{Short description|Umbrella term used for several related but distinct sets of Christian teachings}}
{{For|the church sometimes known as the Nestorian Church|Church of the East}}
{{redirect|Nestorian}}
{{Christology}}
[[File:EcumenicalCouncil 3rd 09-07.jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Nestorius]] being [[Defrocking|defrocked]] and having his [[Vestment|vestments]] removed at the [[Council of Ephesus]]. A 15c mural in [[Ferapontov Monastery]].]]
'''Nestorianism''' is a term used in [[Christian theology]] and [[Church history]] to refer to several mutually related but [[doctrinary|doctrinally]] distinct sets of teachings that fall under the umbrella term [[Dyophysitism]], such as two natures in Christ (human and Divine) or two persons in Christ (the Man and the Word).{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=177}} The extent to which those two definitions are actually distinct is also debatable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Philip John |date=Jan 2022 |title=Miaphysites in Iraq during the Last Great War of Antiquity (c. 604–28) and its Aftermath |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-ecclesiastical-history/article/abs/miaphysites-in-iraq-during-the-last-great-war-of-antiquity-c-60428-and-its-aftermath/5A779E4DA7814D2A95749E5772D342AA |journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |language=en |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=20–37 |doi=10.1017/S0022046920003061 |issn=0022-0469|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The first meaning of the term is related to the teachings of Christian theologian [[Nestorius]] ({{died in|{{circa|AD 451}}}}) as according to his immediate opponents at the [[Council of Ephesus]] and traditionally used by [[Miaphysites]]. The second meaning of the term relates to a set of later theological teachings that were traditionally labeled as Nestorian by [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonians]] but differ in the teachings of Nestorius in origin, scope and terminology.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|p=4}} Per the latter definition, the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' defines Nestorianism as:<blockquote>"The doctrine of Nestorius, [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] (appointed in 428), by which Christ is asserted to have had distinct human and divine persons."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/126276 |title=Nestorianism |encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary}}</ref></blockquote>

The original definition of Nestorianism, as articulated by [[Nestorius]] himself, is preserved primarily in his surviving writings on topics such as [[Mariology]] and [[Christology]]. Although many of his works were lost or destroyed, others have been transmitted through his opponents or preserved in [[Church of the East]] libraries. Most notable among these is the ''[[Bazaar of Heracleides]]'', composed during his exile following the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. The modern rediscovery of the ''Bazaar'' has prompted renewed scholarly interest in reconstructing Nestorius’s own theological positions, which appear to diverge in significant respects from the “two‐person” formulation of Christology attributed to him by both his contemporaries and later critics.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Driver |first=G. R. |url=http://archive.org/details/DriverHodgson1925TheBazaarOfHeracleides |title=The Bazaar Of Heracleides |last2=Hodgson |first2=Leonard |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] — Center for the Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts |language=English}}</ref> His theology was influenced by teachings of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] ({{died in|428}}), the most prominent theologian of the [[School of Antioch|Antiochian School]]. Nestorian Mariology prefers the title ''[[Christotokos]]'', which encompasses the term ''[[Theotokos]]'' ('God-bearer') for [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], thus emphasizing distinction between divine and human aspects of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], and at the same time their unity in the person of Christ. Nestorian Christology promotes the concept of a [[prosopic union]] of two concrete realities (divine and human) in [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]],{{sfn|Chesnut|1978|pp=392–409}} as opposed to the concept of a [[hypostatic union]] of two hypostases into one. The distinction is between 'two hypostases in one person' and 'two hypostases united into one hypostasis', respectively. Hypostasis is not seen as subject, but rather a nature existing in reality. This Christological position is viewed by the West as ''radical dyophysitism'',{{sfn|Burgess|1989|pp=90, 229, 231}} and, according to [[Chalcedonian Christianity]], differs from their [[dyophysitism]], which was reaffirmed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=}} Such teachings brought Nestorius into conflict with other prominent church leaders, most notably [[Cyril of Alexandria]], who issued 12 [[anathema]]s against him in 430. Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as [[heresy|heretical]] at the [[Council of Ephesus (431)|Council of Ephesus]] in 431, and again at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451. His teachings were considered as heretical not only in Chalcedonian Christianity, but even more so in [[Oriental Orthodoxy]].{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=}} The [[Assyrian Church of the East|Church of the East]] would affirm the orthodoxy of Nestorius, lining up with the tradition of the [[School of Antioch]] of its time.

After the condemnation, some supporters of Nestorius, who were followers of the Antiochian School and the [[School of Edessa]], relocated to the [[Sasanian Empire]], where they were affiliated with the local [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] community of the satrapy of [[Asuristan]] ([[Assyria]]), many who were followers of the [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Church]], known as the [[Church of the East]], while others were [[Syriac Orthodox]]. During the period from 484 to 612, gradual development led to the creation of specific doctrinal views within the Church of the East.{{sfn|Brock|1999|pp=281–298}} Evolution of those views was finalized by prominent [[East Syriac Rite|East Syriac]] theologian [[Babai the Great]] ({{died in|628}}) who was using the specific [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac]] term {{transliteration|syc|qnoma}} ({{lang|syc|ܩܢܘܡܐ}}) as a designation for dual (divine and human) substances within one [[prosopon]] (person) of Christ. Such views were officially adopted by the Church of the East at a council held in 612.{{sfn|Brock|2006|p=}} 

Opponents of such views in the West inaccurately labeled them as "Nestorian", leading to the practice of [[ Church of the East#Description as Nestorian |mislabeling]] the [[Church of the East]] as Nestorian, and indeed the [[Assyrian people]] themselves as "Nestorians".{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|pp=3–5}} However, in modern [[religious studies]] it has been criticized as improper and misleading,{{sfn|Brock|1996|pp=23–35}} even though Nestorius is officially venerated as a [[Christian saint|saint]] in the Assyrian Church of the East.{{sfn|Baum|Winkler|2003|pp=4–5}} As a consequence, both in scholarly literature and in the field of [[inter-denominational]] relations, the term ''Nestorian'' increasingly focuses on its primary meaning, the original teachings of Nestorius, rather than referring to the far older-originating Assyrian Church of the East or its offshoot, the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]].{{sfn|Seleznyov|2010|pp=165–190}}

==History==
[[File:Palm Sunday (probably), Khocho, Nestorian Temple, 683-770 AD, wall painting - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01741.JPG|thumb|right|Nestorian priests in a [[Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho|procession on Palm Sunday]], in a seventh- or eighth-century wall painting from a Nestorian church in [[Gaochang|Qocho]], China]]

Nestorianism was condemned as [[heresy]] at the [[Council of Ephesus (431)|Council of Ephesus]] (431). The [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Church]] rejected the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451) because they believed [[Chalcedonian Definition]] was too similar to Nestorianism. The [[Church of the East|Persian Nestorian Church]], on the other hand, supported the spread of Nestorianism in [[Persarmenia]]. The Armenian Church and other eastern churches saw the rise of Nestorianism as a threat to the independence of their Church. [[Peter the Iberian]], a [[Georgian people|Georgian]] prince, also strongly opposed the Chalcedonian Creed.<ref name=stopka>{{Cite book |publisher=Wydawnictwo UJ |isbn=978-83-233-9555-3 |last=Stopka |first=Krzysztof |title=Armenia Christiana: Armenian Religious Identity and the Churches of Constantinople and Rome (4th–15th Century) |date=2016 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eeq-DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 |pages=62–68 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Thus, in 491, Catholicos Babken I of Armenia, along with the [[Caucasian Albania|Albanian]] and [[Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)|Iberian]] bishops met in [[Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin|Vagharshapat]] and issued a condemnation of the Chalcedonian Definition.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Zvartnots and the Origins of Christian Architecture in Armenia |first=W. Eugene |last=Kleinbauer |magazine=The Art Bulletin |volume=54 |number=3 |date=September 1972 |page=261}}</ref>

Nestorians held that the Council of Chalcedon proved the [[orthodoxy]] of their faith and had started persecuting non-Chalcedonian or [[Miaphysite]] Syriac Christians during the reign of [[Peroz I]]. In response to pleas for assistance from the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Church]], Armenian [[prelate]]s issued a letter addressed to Persian Christians reaffirming their condemnation of the Nestorianism as heresy.<ref name=stopka />

Following the exodus to [[Persia]], scholars expanded on the teachings of Nestorius and his mentors, particularly after the relocation of the [[School of Edessa]] to the city of Nisibis under Persian control in 489, where it became known as the [[School of Nisibis]].{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} Nestorian monasteries propagating the teachings of the Nisibis school flourished in 6th century Persarmenia.<ref name=stopka />

Despite this initial Eastern expansion, the Nestorians' missionary success was eventually deterred. [[David J. Bosch]] observes, "By the end of the fourteenth century, however, the Nestorian and other churches—which at one time had dotted the landscape of all of Central and even parts of East Asia—were all but wiped out. Isolated pockets of Christianity survived only in India. The religious victors on the vast Central Asian mission field of the Nestorians were [[Islam]] and [[Buddhism]]".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bosch |first=David |author-link=David Bosch |title=Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qEpf6wqHcGwC |year=1991 |publisher=[[Orbis Books]] |isbn=978-1-60833-146-8 |page=204 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

==Doctrine==
[[Image:Christological spectrum.svg|thumb|right|Christological spectrum during the 5th–7th centuries showing the views of the [[Church of the East]] (light blue), the [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedonian Churches]] (light purple), and the [[Miaphysite Churches]] (pink)]]
[[Image:nestorianism.svg|right|upright|thumb|A historical misinterpretation of the Nestorian view was that it taught that the human and divine persons of Christ are separate.<ref name=HoganDissentCreed>{{cite book |last=Hogan |title=Dissent from the Creed |pages=123–125}}</ref>]]

Nestorianism is described as a radical form of [[dyophysitism]]{{sfn|Burgess|1989|pp=90, 229, 231}} that, according to Chalcedonians, differs from their version of dyophysitism on several points, mainly by opposition to the concept of [[hypostatic union]]. It can be seen as the antithesis to [[monophysitism|Eutychian Monophysitism]], which emerged in reaction to Nestorianism after the conclusion of the [[Council of Ephesus]]. Where Nestorianism holds that Christ had two distinct natures, divine and human, Monophysitism holds that he had but a single nature, his human nature being absorbed into his divinity. A brief definition of Nestorian [[Christology]] can be given as: "[[Jesus]] Christ, who is not identical with the Son but personally united with the Son, who lives in him, is one [[hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]] and one nature: human."<ref>Martin Lembke, lecture in the course "Meetings with the World's Religions", Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, [[Lund University]], Spring Term 2010.</ref> This contrasts with Nestorius' own teaching that [[Logos (Christianity)|the Word]], which is eternal, and the Flesh, which is not, came together in a hypostatic union, 'Jesus Christ', Jesus thus being both fully man and God, of two ''[[ousia]]'' ({{langx|grc|[[:wikt:οὐσία|οὐσία]]}}) (essences) but of one {{transliteration|grc|[[prosopon]]}} (person).{{sfn|Hodgson|Driver|1925|p=}} Both Nestorianism and Monophysitism were condemned as heretical at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and the [[Second Council of Ephesus]].

[[Nestorius]] developed his Christological views as an attempt to understand and explain rationally the incarnation of the divine [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]], the Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus. He had studied at the [[School of Antioch]] where his mentor had been [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]]; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a [[Biblical literalism|literalist interpretation of the Bible]] and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] by [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Theodosius II]] in 428.

Nestorius's teachings sparked controversy when he publicly challenged the long-established title of ''[[Theotokos]]''<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |first=Eirini |last=Artemi |title=Cyril of Alexandria's critique of the term ''Theotokos'' by Nestorius Constantinople |journal=[[Acta Theologica]] |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=1–16 |date=December 2012|doi=10.4314/actat.v32i2.1|url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/viewFile/86003/75832 |access-date=2019-10-22 |doi-access=free}}</ref> ('God-Bearer') for the [[Virgin Mary]]. He argued that this title, while orthodox per se, was inadequate to fully encompass the nature of the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]], as it singled out Christ's divinity with no reference to His humanity. To address this perceived limitation, he proposed the alternative title of ''[[Christotokos]]'' ('Christ-Bearer') as a more appropriate designation for Mary.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Palmer-Anghel |first1=Martin |title=Kuan Yin: Myths and Prophecies of the Chinese Goddess of Compassion |last2=Ramsay |first2=Jay |last3=Kwok |first3=Man-ho |date=1995 |publisher=[[Thorsons]] |isbn=978-1-85538-417-0 |location=London |pages=22}}</ref>

He also advanced the image of Jesus as a warrior-king and rescuer of [[Land of Israel|Israel]] over the traditional image of the {{lang|la|[[Man of Sorrows|Christus dolens]]}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neely |first=Brent |date=July 2017 |title=At cross purposes |journal=Transformations |volume=34 |issue=3 |jstor=90010414 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90010414 |pages=176–213 |doi=10.1177/0265378816631552 |s2cid=171352591 |access-date=September 7, 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of [[adoptionism]] – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]], [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], who argued that Nestorius's teachings undermined the unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|Incarnation]]. Some of Nestorius's opponents argued that he put too much emphasis on the human nature of Christ, and others debated that the difference that Nestorius implied between the human nature and the divine nature created a fracture in the singularity of Christ, thus creating two Christ figures.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jerry |last=Bentley |title=Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times |url=https://archive.org/details/oldworldencounte00jerr |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/oldworldencounte00jerr/page/105 105]}}</ref> Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed [[heresy|heretical]] at the [[Council of Ephesus]] in 431, leading to the [[Nestorian Schism]], when churches supportive of Nestorius and the rest of the Christian Church separated. However, this formulation was never adopted by all churches termed 'Nestorian'. Indeed, the modern Assyrian Church of the East, which reveres Nestorius, does not fully subscribe to Nestorian doctrine, though it does not employ the title ''Theotokos''.<ref name=BritannicaNestorius>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409867/Nestorius |title=Nestorius |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=January 29, 2010}}</ref>

==Nestorian Schism==
{{Main|Nestorian Schism}}

Nestorianism became a distinct sect following the [[Nestorian Schism]], beginning in the 430s. Nestorius had come under fire from Western theologians, most notably [[Cyril of Alexandria]]. Cyril had both theological and political reasons for attacking Nestorius; on top of feeling that Nestorianism was an error against true belief, he also wanted to denigrate the head of a competing patriarchate.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} Cyril and Nestorius asked [[Pope Celestine I]] to weigh in on the matter. Celestine found that the title ''[[Theotokos]]''<ref name=":1"/> was sufficiently orthodox, and authorized Cyril to ask Nestorius to recant. Cyril, however, used the opportunity to further attack Nestorius, who pleaded with Emperor Theodosius II to call a council so that all grievances could be aired.<ref name=BritannicaNestorius/>

In 431 [[Theodosius II]] called the [[Council of Ephesus]]. The council ultimately sided with Cyril, who held that the Christ is '''of''' (not ''in'') two natures (''hypostases)'' perfectly united into one nature (''hypostasis'') without mixture or separation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fairbairn |first=Donald |date=2021-04-01 |title=The Council of Ephesus of 431: Documents and Proceedings. Translated by Richard Price |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jts/flab055 |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=450–453 |doi=10.1093/jts/flab055 |issn=0022-5185|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and that the Virgin Mary, conceiving and bearing this divine person, is truly and sufficiently called the Mother of God (''Theotokos''). The council accused Nestorius of [[heresy]], and deposed him as patriarch.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.monachos.net/patristics/christology/cyril_to_nestorius_3.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704053517/http://www.monachos.net/patristics/christology/cyril_to_nestorius_3.shtml |archive-date=July 4, 2008 |title=Cyril of Alexandria, Third Epistle to Nestorius, with 'Twelve Anathemas'|website=Monachos.net}}</ref> Upon returning to his monastery in 436, he was banished to Upper Egypt. Nestorianism was officially anathematized, a ruling reiterated at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451. However, a number of churches, particularly those associated with the [[School of Edessa]], supported Nestorius – though not necessarily his doctrine – and broke with the churches of the West. Many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to the [[Sasanian Empire]] of Iran, home to a vibrant but persecuted Christian minority.<ref name=Britannica>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nestorianism "Nestorianism"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved January 28, 2010.</ref> In Upper Egypt, Nestorius wrote his ''Book of Heraclides'', responding to the two councils at Ephesus (431, 449).{{sfn|Hodgson|Driver|1925|p=}}

===Christian denomination tree===
{{Christian denomination tree}}

==Church of the East==
{{main|Church of the East}}{{See also|Ancient Christianity in the Indian Subcontinent}}
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| total_width       = 330
| image1            = Da Qin Pagoda.jpg|
| caption1          = The [[Daqin Pagoda]], controversially claimed to be part of an early [[Church of the East in China|Nestorian church]] in what was then [[Chang'an]], now [[Xi'an]], China, built during the [[Tang dynasty]] (AD 618–907)
| image2            = Entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem, with a Female Figure in T'ang Costume, Chotscho, Sinkiang.jpg
| caption2          = [[Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho|Entry of Jesus Christ into Jerusalem]], with a female figure dressed in a [[Women's clothing in China|Tang dynasty costume]], AD 683–770
}}
[[File:Yuan stone Nestorian inscription (rep).JPG|thumb|right|Chinese stone inscription of a [[Nestorian Cross]] from a monastery of [[Fangshan District]] in [[Beijing]] (then called Dadu, or [[Khanbaliq]]), dated to the [[Yuan Dynasty]] (AD 1271–1368) of medieval China]]
[[File:An epitaph of a Nestorian Christian.jpg|thumb|right|Epitaph of a Nestorian, unearthed at [[Chifeng]], [[Inner Mongolia]]]]

The western provinces of the [[Sasanian Empire|Persian Empire]] had been home to Christian communities, headed by metropolitans, and later patriarchs of [[Seleucia-Ctesiphon]]. The Christian minority in Persia was frequently persecuted by the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] majority, which accused local Christians of political leanings towards the [[Roman Empire]]. In 424, the Church in Persia declared itself independent, in order to ward off allegations of any foreign allegiance. By the end of the 5th century, the Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the teachings of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] and his followers, many of whom became dissidents after the Councils of [[Council of Ephesus (431)|Ephesus]] (431) and [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] (451). The Persian Church became increasingly opposed to doctrines promoted by those councils, thus furthering the divide between [[Chalcedonian Christianity|Chalcedonian]] and Persian currents.{{sfn|Meyendorff|1989|p=}}

In 486, the Metropolitan [[Barsauma of Nisibis|Barsauma]] of [[Nisibis]] publicly accepted Nestorius' mentor [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] as a spiritual authority. In 489, when the [[School of Edessa]] in [[Mesopotamia]] was closed by Byzantine Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] for its pro-Nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the [[School of Nisibis]], leading to the migration of a wave of Christian dissidents into Persia. The Persian patriarch [[Babai (Nestorian patriarch)|Babai]] (497–502) reiterated and expanded upon the church's esteem for [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]].

Now firmly established in Persia, with centers in Nisibis, [[Ctesiphon]], and [[Gundeshapur]], and several [[Metropolis (religious jurisdiction)|''metropoleis'']], the Persian Church began to branch out beyond the Sasanian Empire. However, through the sixth century, the church was frequently beset with internal strife and persecution by Zoroastrians. The infighting led to a schism, which lasted from 521 until around 539 when the issues were resolved. However, immediately afterward Roman-Persian conflict led to the persecution of the church by the Sassanid emperor [[Khosrow I]]; this ended in 545. The church survived these trials under the guidance of Patriarch [[Aba I]], who had converted to Christianity from Zoroastrianism.<ref name=Britannica/>

The church emerged stronger after this period of ordeal, and increased missionary efforts farther afield. Missionaries established dioceses in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and [[India]] (the [[Saint Thomas Christians]]). They made some advances in [[Egypt]], despite the strong [[Miaphysitism|Miaphysite]] presence there.<ref>{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Ted |title=Christian Confessions: A Historical Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2mUxxxGt_sC&pg=PA62 |year=1996 |location=Westminster |publisher=[[John Knox Press]] |isbn=978-0-664-25650-0 |page=62 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Missionaries entered [[Central Asia]] and had significant success converting local [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes.

The [[Anuradhapura cross|Anuradhapura Cross]] discovered in Sri Lanka strongly suggests a strong presence of Nestorian Christianity in Sri Lanka during the 6th century AD according to [[H. W. Codrington|Humphrey Codrington]], who based his claim on a 6th-century manuscript, [[Christian Topography]], that mentions of a community of Persian Christians who were known to reside in Taprobanê (the Ancient Greek name for Sri Lanka).<ref name="Assyrian Church News">{{cite news |title=Mar Aprem Metropolitan Visits Ancient Anuradhapura Cross in Official Trip to Sri Lanka |url=http://news.assyrianchurch.org/2013/08/06/mar-aprem-metropolitan-visits-ancient-anuradhapura-cross-in-official-trip-to-sri-lanka/4480 |access-date=6 August 2013 |publisher=Assyrian Church News |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226144609/http://news.assyrianchurch.org/2013/08/06/mar-aprem-metropolitan-visits-ancient-anuradhapura-cross-in-official-trip-to-sri-lanka/4480 |archive-date=2015-02-26}}</ref><ref name="Sunday Times">{{cite news |last1=Weerakoon |first1=Rajitha |title=Did Christianity exist in ancient Sri Lanka? |url=https://www.sundaytimes.lk/110626/Plus/plus_07.html |access-date=2 August 2021 |publisher=Sunday Times |date=June 26, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Main interest">{{cite news |title=Main interest |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2326613141.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150329194052/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2326613141.html |access-date=2 August 2021 |work=Daily News |date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329194052/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2326613141.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150329194052/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2326613141.html |archive-date=2015-03-29}}</ref>

Nestorian missionaries were firmly established in China during the early part of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907); the Chinese source known as the [[Nestorian Stele]] records a mission under a Persian proselyte named [[Alopen]] as introducing Nestorian Christianity to China in 635. The [[Jingjiao Documents]] (also described by the Japanese scholar P. Y. Saeki as "Nestorian Documents") or [[Jesus Sutras]] are said to be connected with Alopen.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riegert |first1=Ray |title=The Lost Sutras of Jesus: Unlocking the Ancient Wisdom of the Xian Monks |year= 2006 |publisher=Ulysses Press |isbn=1-56975-522-1 |pages=9–23 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDuNAAAAMAAJ&q=the+lost+sutras+of+jesus |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>

Following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab conquest of Persia]], completed in 644, the Persian Church became a {{transliteration|ar|[[dhimmi]]}} community under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. The church and its communities abroad grew larger under the caliphate. By the 10th century it had 15 metropolitan sees within the caliphate's territories, and another five elsewhere, including in China and India.<ref name=Britannica/> After that time, however, Nestorianism went into decline.{{Disputed inline|date=October 2019}}

===Assyrian Church of the East===
[[File:Church of Saint Mary - Urmia - Iran - کلیسای ننه مریم، ارومیه - ایران.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[St. Mary Church, Urmia|Saint Mary Church]]: an ancient [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] church located in the city of [[Urmia]], [[West Azerbaijan Province]], [[Iran]]]]

In a 1996 article published in the ''[[Bulletin of the John Rylands Library]]'', [[Fellow of the British Academy]] [[Sebastian Brock]] wrote: "the term 'Nestorian Church' has become the standard designation for the ancient oriental church which in the past called itself 'The Church of the East', but which today prefers the fuller title 'The [[Assyrian Church of the East]]'. The Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East signed by Pope [[John Paul II]] and Mar [[Dinkha IV]] underlines the Chalcedonian Christological formulation as the expression of the common faith of these Churches and recognizes the legitimacy of the title ''Theotokos''."<ref>{{cite web |title=Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East |url=https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html |access-date=8 February 2020}}</ref>

In a 2017 paper, [[Mar Awa Royel]], Bishop of the [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian Church]], stated the position of that church: "After the Council of Ephesus (431), when Nestorius the patriarch of Constantinople was condemned for his views on the unity of the Godhead and the humanity in Christ, the Church of the East was branded as 'Nestorian' on account of its refusal to anathematize the patriarch."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://bethkokheh.assyrianchurch.org/articles/855 |title=The Assyrian Church of the East: A Panoramic View of a Glorious History- Mar Awa Royel |date=2017-10-04 |website=Church of Beth Kokheh Journal |language=en-AU |access-date=2019-10-25}}</ref>

Several historical records suggest that the Assyrian Church of the East may have been in Sri Lanka between the mid-5th and 6th centuries.<ref name="Assyrian Church News"/><ref name="Sunday Times"/><ref name="Main interest"/>

== Modern discourse ==
The accusations of Nestorianism have been used in contemporary theological discourse. One notable example is the case of [[John MacArthur (American pastor)|John MacArthur]], as he has asserted that when [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] gave birth to Jesus, she did not give birth to God, but rather gave birth to Jesus in his humanity and that "it’s heretical to call the blood of Jesus Christ the blood of God."<ref>{{Cite web |last=MacArthur |first=John |date=1987-01-01 |title=The Blood of Christ |url=https://www.gty.org/library/sermons-library/80-44/the-blood-of-christ |website=Grace to You}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=MacArthur |first=John |date=2006-04-02 |title=Exposing the Idolatry of Mary Worship: An Overview |url=https://www.gty.org/library/sermons-library/90-314/exposing-the-idolatry-of-mary-worship-an-overview |website=Grace to You}}</ref> These statements have been critiqued as resembling Nestorianism by other Christians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Horn |first=Trent |date=2024-08-14 |title="Mary is NOT the Mother of God" REBUTTED |url=https://www.catholic.com/audio/cot/mary-is-not-the-mother-of-god-rebutted |website=Catholic Answers}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hymers |first=Robert |date=2005-07-23 |title=DR. MACARTHUR AND THE BLOOD OF GOD |url=https://www.rlhymersjr.com/Online_Sermons/2005/072305PM_Dr.MacArthur.html |website=Sermons For the World}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Christianity}}

* [[Nestorius]]
* [[Miaphysitism]]
* [[Monophysitism]]
* [[Hypostatic union]]
* [[Nestorian Evangelion]]
* [[Nestorianism and the church in India]]
* [[Christian influences in Islam]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last=Badger |first=George Percy |author-link=George Percy Badger |title=The Nestorians and Their Rituals |year=1852 |volume=1 |location=London |publisher=Joseph Masters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOPWPqa0aH8C |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Badger |first=George Percy |author-link=George Percy Badger |title=The Nestorians and Their Rituals |year=1852 |volume=2 |location=London |publisher=Joseph Masters |isbn=9780790544823 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cnURAAAAYAAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Baum |first1=Wilhelm |author1-link=Wilhelm Baum (historian) |last2=Winkler |first2=Dietmar W. |title=The Church of the East: A Concise History |year=2003 |location=London & New York |publisher=[[Routledge]]-Curzon |isbn=9781134430192 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CnSCAgAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Bethune-Baker |first=James F. |author-link=James Bethune-Baker |title=Nestorius and His Teaching: A Fresh Examination of the Evidence |year=1908 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781107432987 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4ZxBAAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=The 'Nestorian' Church: A Lamentable Misnomer |journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands Library |year=1996 |volume=78 |number=3 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.7227/BJRL.78.3.3 |url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2396&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |archive-date=2023-03-06 |access-date=2020-11-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306234238/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/api/datastream?publicationPid=uk-ac-man-scw:1m2396&datastreamId=POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF |url-status=dead }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |chapter=The Christology of the Church of the East in the Synods of the Fifth to Early Seventh Centuries: Preliminary Considerations and Materials |title=Doctrinal Diversity: Varieties of Early Christianity |year=1999 |location=New York & London |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |pages=281–298 |isbn=9780815330714 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GC4vwTXJSaMC |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brock |first=Sebastian P. |author-link=Sebastian P. Brock |title=Fire from Heaven: Studies in Syriac Theology and Liturgy |year=2006 |location=Aldershot |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing]] |isbn=9780754659082 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ey_FW7acTycC |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Burgess |first=Stanley M. |title=The Holy Spirit: Eastern Christian Traditions |year=1989 |location=Peabody, Mass. |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8bYAAAAMAAJ |isbn=9780913573815 |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Chabot |first=Jean-Baptiste |author-link=Jean-Baptiste Chabot |title=Synodicon orientale ou recueil de synodes nestoriens |language=fr |trans-title=Eastern Synodicon or Compendium of Nestorian Synods |year=1902 |location=Paris |publisher=Imprimerie Nationale |url=https://archive.org/download/ChabotSynodiconOrientale/chabot%20synodicon%20orientale.pdf }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chesnut |first=Roberta C. |title=The Two Prosopa in Nestorius' Bazaar of Heracleides |journal=The Journal of Theological Studies |year=1978 |volume=29 |issue=29 |pages=392–409 |doi=10.1093/jts/XXIX.2.392 |jstor=23958267 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23958267 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Hill |editor-first=Henry |title=Light from the East: A Symposium on the Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Churches |year=1988 |location=Toronto |publisher=Anglican Book Centre |isbn=9780919891906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BmaQAAAACAAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Hodgson |editor1-first=Leonard |editor1-link=Leonard Hodgson |editor2-last=Driver |editor2-first=Godfrey R. |editor2-link=Godfrey Rolles Driver |title=Nestorius: The Bazaar of Heracleides |year=1925 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=9781725202399 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YVn7DwAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jugie |first=Martin |title=L'ecclésiologie des Nestoriens |language=fr |trans-title=The ecclesiology of the Nestorians |journal=Échos d'Orient |year=1935 |volume=34 |issue=177 |pages=5–25 |doi=10.3406/rebyz.1935.2817 |url=https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/rebyz_1146-9447_1935_num_34_177_2817.pdf }}{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kuhn |first=Michael F. |title=God is One: A Christian Defence of Divine Unity in the Muslim Golden Age |year=2019 |location=Carlisle |publisher=Langham Publishing |isbn=9781783685776 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXPnDwAAQBAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyendorff |first=John |author-link=John Meyendorff |title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. |year=1989 |location=Crestwood, NY |publisher=St. Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=9780881410563 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ |via=[[Google Books]] }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Reinink |first=Gerrit J. |title=Tradition and the Formation of the 'Nestorian' Identity in Sixth- to Seventh-Century Iraq |journal=Church History and Religious Culture |year=2009 |volume=89 |number=1–3 |pages=217–250 |doi=10.1163/187124109X407916 |jstor=23932289 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23932289 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rossabi |first=Morris |title=Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the first journey from China to the West |year=1992 |isbn=4770016506 |publisher=[[Kodansha International Ltd.]] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagerfromxanad00ross }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Seleznyov |first=Nikolai N. |title=Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration: With special reference to the role of his name in East-Syriac Christianity |journal=Journal of Eastern Christian Studies |year=2010 |volume=62 |issue=3–4 |pages=165–190 |url=http://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=2061116&journal_code=JECS&download=yes2 }}
* {{Cite book|author=Stewart, John|title=Nestorian missionary enterprise, the story of a church on fire|year=1928|location=Edinburgh |publisher=T. & T. Clark}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wigram|first=William Ainger|author-link=William Ainger Wigram|title=An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church or The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire 100–640 A.D.|year=1910|location=London|publisher=Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge|isbn=9780837080789|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUYKAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|title=The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318–1913|year=2000|location=Louvain|publisher=Peeters Publishers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jB8ir0ek8bgC|isbn=9789042908765}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilmshurst|first=David|title=The martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East|year=2011|location=London|publisher=East & West Publishing Limited|isbn=9781907318047|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zfxNtwAACAAJ}}
* Luise Abramowski, "Der Bischof von Seleukia-Ktesiphon als Katholikos und Patriarch der Kirche des Ostens," in Dmitrij Bumazhnov u. Hans R. Seeliger (hg), ''Syrien im 1.–7. Jahrhundert nach Christus. Akten der 1. Tübinger Tagung zum Christlichen Orient (15.–16. Juni 2007).''  (Tübingen, [[Mohr Siebeck]], 2011) (Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum / Studies and Texts in Antiquity and Christianity, 62)
*{{cite news |last1=Leonard |first1=Pinto |title=A Brief History of Christianity In Sri Lanka |year=2013 |url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/ }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{wikisourcecat|Nestorianism}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.nestorian.org/index.html|publisher=Nestorian.org |title=Unofficial Web Site of the 'Church of the East'}}
* {{Cite web|url=http://www.anchist.mq.edu.au/doccentre/Zayton.htm|title=Manichaean and (Nestorian) Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China)|author1=Lieu, Sam|author2=Parry, Ken|access-date=January 24, 2010|publisher=[[Macquarie University]]|archive-date=July 19, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719190544/http://www.anchist.mq.edu.au/doccentre/Zayton.htm|url-status=dead}} 
* {{Cite web|author=Dickens, Mark|title=The Church of the East|year=1999|access-date=February 6, 2010|publisher=Oxus Communications|url=http://www.oxuscom.com/ch-of-east.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514111157/http://www.oxuscom.com/ch-of-east.htm|archive-date=May 14, 2011|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10755a.htm |title=Nestorius and Nestorianism|encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia}}

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[[Category:Nestorianism| ]]
[[Category:Church of the East]]