View source for Neurodiversity

{{Short description|Non-pathological explanation of variations in mental functions}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
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{{Autism rights movement}}
[[File:Neurodiversity Crowd 2.png|thumb|right|[[Autistic art]] depicting the natural diversity of human minds]]

The '''neurodiversity''' [[paradigm]] is a framework for understanding [[human brain]] function that considers the diversity within [[sensory processing]], [[Motor skill|motor abilities]], [[Social anxiety|social comfort]], [[cognition]], and [[Attention|focus]] as neurobiological differences. This diversity falls on a spectrum of neurocognitive differences.<ref name="Kapp 2020">{{harvnb |Kapp |2020 }}{{page needed|date=December 2024}}</ref> The neurodiversity movement views [[autism]] as a natural part of human neurological diversity—not a [[disease]] or a [[Disorder (medicine)|disorder]], just "a difference".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Runswick-Cole |first=Katherine |date=13 May 2014 |title='Us' and 'them': the limits and possibilities of a 'politics of neurodiversity' in neoliberal times |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09687599.2014.910107 |journal=Disability & Society |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=1117–1129 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2014.910107 |via=tandfonline|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Neurodivergences include autism, [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[developmental speech disorder]]s, [[dyslexia]], [[dysgraphia]], [[dyspraxia]], [[dyscalculia]], [[Dysnomia (disease)|dysnomia]], [[intellectual disability]], [[obsessive–compulsive disorder]], [[schizophrenia]] and [[Tourette syndrome]]. 

The neurodiversity movement started in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the start of [[Autism Network International]]. Much of the correspondence that led to the formation of the movement happened over autism conferences, namely the autistic-led [[Autreat]], penpal lists, and [[Usenet]]. The framework grew out of the [[disability rights movement]] and builds on the [[social model of disability]], arguing that disability partly arises from [[Disability rights movement#Disability barriers|societal barriers]] and person-environment mismatch (e.g. the [[double empathy problem]] theory by [[Damian Milton]]), rather than attributing disability purely to inherent deficits.<ref name="Dwyer-2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dwyer P | title = The Neurodiversity Approach(es): What Are They and What Do They Mean for Researchers? | journal = Human Development | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–92 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 36158596 | pmc = 9261839 | doi = 10.1159/000523723 }}</ref><ref name="Botha et al., 2024">{{cite journal |last1=Botha |first1=Monique |last2=Chapman |first2=Robert |last3=Giwa Onaiwu |first3=Morénike |last4=Kapp |first4=Steven K |last5=Stannard Ashley |first5=Abs |last6=Walker |first6=Nick |title=The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory |journal=Autism |date=12 March 2024 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=1591–1594 |doi=10.1177/13623613241237871 |pmid=38470140 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It instead situates human cognitive variation in the context of [[biodiversity]] and the politics of [[minority group]]s.<ref name="Manalili-2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manalili MA, Pearson A, Sulik J, Creechan L, Elsherif M, Murkumbi I, Azevedo F, Bonnen KL, Kim JS, Kording K, Lee JJ, Obscura M, Kapp SK, Röer JP, Morstead T | title = From Puzzle to Progress: How Engaging With Neurodiversity Can Improve Cognitive Science | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 47 | issue = 2 | article-number = e13255 | date = February 2023 | pmid = 36807910 | doi = 10.1111/cogs.13255 | pmc = 7616419 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm: What is Neurodiversity? |url=https://neurodiversity2.blogspot.com/p/what.html |access-date=April 12, 2022 |website=Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm |archive-date=April 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401064658/https://neurodiversity2.blogspot.com/p/what.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Singer J | isbn = 978-0-6481547-0-9 |title=NeuroDiversity: The Birth of an Idea |date=July 3, 2016 |publisher=Kindle Ebook |edition=2nd |language=English}}{{self-published inline|date=April 2022}}</ref> Some neurodiversity advocates and researchers, including [[Judy Singer]] and Patrick Dwyer, argue that the neurodiversity paradigm is the middle ground between a strong [[Medical model of disability|medical model]] and a strong social model.<ref name="Dwyer-2022"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Social work with disabled people| vauthors = Oliver M, Sapey B |date=2006 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=1-4039-1838-4|edition=3rd|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire |oclc=62326930}}</ref><ref name="Bloomsbury">{{Cite book |title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry |vauthors=Chapman R |date=January 10, 2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-02406-9 |veditors=Tekin S, Bluhm R |pages=371–387 |chapter=Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PV95DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA371 |access-date=May 12, 2020 |archive-date=July 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719160012/https://books.google.com/books?id=PV95DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Neurodivergent individuals face unique challenges in [[education]], in their social lives, and in the [[workplace]]. The efficacy of accessibility and support programs in career development and higher education differs from individual to individual.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education" /><ref name="Densberger-2021" /> Social media has introduced a platform where neurodiversity awareness and support has emerged, further promoting the neurodiversity movement.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Akhmedova A, Sutcliffe J, Greenhow C, Fisher MH, Sung C | title = Social media use among neurodivergent college students: benefits, harms and implications for education | journal = Information and Learning Sciences | date = 2024 | volume = 125 | issue = 10 | pages = 850–876 | doi = 10.1108/ILS-01-2024-0005 }}</ref>

The [[Controversies in autism#Neurodiversity paradigm|neurodiversity paradigm has been controversial]] among [[disability]] advocates, especially proponents of the [[medical model of autism]], with opponents arguing it risks downplaying the challenges associated with some disabilities (e.g., in those requiring little support becoming representative of the challenges caused by the disability, thereby making it more difficult to seek desired treatment),<ref name="Opar-2019">{{cite news |date=May 6, 2019 |title=A medical condition or just a difference? The question roils autism community. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/a-medical-condition-or-just-a-difference-the-question-roils-autism-community/2019/05/03/87e26f7e-6845-11e9-8985-4cf30147bdca_story.html?noredirect=on |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209054748/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/a-medical-condition-or-just-a-difference-the-question-roils-autism-community/2019/05/03/87e26f7e-6845-11e9-8985-4cf30147bdca_story.html?noredirect=on |archive-date=December 9, 2019 |access-date=May 12, 2019 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |vauthors=Opar A}}</ref> and that it calls for the acceptance of things some wish to be treated for.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/my-life-aspergers/201704/the-controversy-around-autism-and-neurodiversity|title=The Controversy Around Autism and Neurodiversity|vauthors=Robison JE|website=Psychology Today|language=en-US|access-date=May 14, 2019|archive-date=March 22, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322220535/https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/my-life-aspergers/201704/the-controversy-around-autism-and-neurodiversity|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mcgee |first1=Micki |title=Neurodiversity |journal=Contexts |date=August 2012 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=12–13 |doi=10.1177/1536504212456175 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sarrett |first1=Jennifer C. |title=Biocertification and Neurodiversity: the Role and Implications of Self-Diagnosis in Autistic Communities |journal=Neuroethics |date=April 2016 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1007/s12152-016-9247-x }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Bailin A |title=Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Neurodiversity |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/clearing-up-some-misconceptions-about-neurodiversity/ |access-date=April 12, 2022 |website=Scientific American Blog Network |language=en |archive-date=June 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629190546/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/clearing-up-some-misconceptions-about-neurodiversity/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In recent years, to address these concerns, some neurodiversity advocates and researchers have attempted to reconcile what they consider different seemingly contradictory but arguably partially compatible perspectives. Some researchers, such as Patrick Dwyer, [[Ari Ne'eman]] and Sven Bölte, have advocated for mixed, integrative or combined approaches that involve both neurodiversity approaches and [[Biomedical model|biomedical]] approaches, for example teaching functional communication (whether verbal or [[Nonverbal communication|nonverbal]]) and treating self-injurious behaviors or co-occurring conditions like epilepsy and depression with biomedical approaches.<ref name="Community views of neurodiversity">{{cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=Patrick |last2=Gurba |first2=Ava N |last3=Kapp |first3=Steven K |last4=Kilgallon |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Hersh |first5=Lynnette H |last6=Chang |first6=David S |last7=Rivera |first7=Susan M |last8=Gillespie-Lynch |first8=Kristen |title=Community views of neurodiversity, models of disability and autism intervention: Mixed methods reveal shared goals and key tensions |journal=Autism |date=18 September 2024 |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=2297–2314 |doi=10.1177/13623613241273029 |pmid=39291753 |pmc=12332218 }}</ref><ref name="Bridge-building between communities">{{cite journal |last1=Heraty |first1=Síofra |last2=Lautarescu |first2=Alexandra |last3=Belton |first3=David |last4=Boyle |first4=Alison |last5=Cirrincione |first5=Pietro |last6=Doherty |first6=Mary |last7=Douglas |first7=Sarah |last8=Plas |first8=Jan Roderik Derk |last9=Van Den Bosch |first9=Katrien |last10=Violland |first10=Pierre |last11=Tercon |first11=Jerneja |last12=Ruigrok |first12=Amber |last13=Murphy |first13=Declan G.M. |last14=Bourgeron |first14=Thomas |last15=Chatham |first15=Christopher |last16=Loth |first16=Eva |last17=Oakley |first17=Bethany |last18=McAlonan |first18=Grainne M. |last19=Charman |first19=Tony |last20=Puts |first20=Nicolaas |last21=Gallagher |first21=Louise |last22=Jones |first22=Emily J.H. |title=Bridge-building between communities: Imagining the future of biomedical autism research |journal=Cell |date=August 2023 |volume=186 |issue=18 |pages=3747–3752 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2023.08.004 |pmid=37657415 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1146/annurev-genet-111523-102614 | title=A Genetic Bridge Between Medicine and Neurodiversity for Autism | date=2024 | journal=Annual Review of Genetics | volume=58 | issue=1 | pages=487–512 | pmid=39585908 | vauthors = Leblond CS, Rolland T, Barthome E, Mougin Z, Fleury M, Ecker C, Bonnot-Briey S, Cliquet F, Tabet A, Maruani A, Chaumette B, Green J, Delorme R, Bourgeron T | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=January 31, 2022 |title=In Defense of the Medical Model of Neurodiversity |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/drnancydoyle/2022/01/31/in-defense-of-the-medical-model-of-neurodiversity/ |website=[[Forbes]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dwyer |first=Patrick |date=2022-02-22 |title=The Neurodiversity Approach(es): What Are They and What Do They Mean for Researchers? |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36158596 |journal=[[Human Development]] |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=73–92 |doi=10.1159/000523723 |issn=0018-716X |pmc=9261839 |pmid=36158596 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250901150405/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36158596/ |archive-date=2025-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ne'eman |first1=Ari |last2=Richman |first2=Kenneth A. |last3=McCarthy |first3=Allison M. |last4=Wilkenfeld |first4=Daniel |title=A Passing Problem: Evaluating Harm and Benefit in Autism Research |journal=Ethics & Human Research |date=November 2023 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=2–18 |doi=10.1002/eahr.500188 |pmid=37988276 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bölte |first1=Sven |last2=Lawson |first2=Wenn B. |last3=Marschik |first3=Peter B. |last4=Girdler |first4=Sonya |title=Reconciling the seemingly irreconcilable: The WHO's ICF system integrates biological and psychosocial environmental determinants of autism and ADHD: The International Classification of Functioning (ICF) allows to model opposed biomedical and neurodiverse views of autism and ADHD within one framework |journal=BioEssays |date=September 2021 |volume=43 |issue=9 |article-number=e2000254 |doi=10.1002/bies.202000254 |pmid=33797095 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== History and developments ==
The word ''neurodiversity'' first appeared in publication in 1998, in an article by American journalist Harvey Blume,<ref name="Blume, 1998">{{cite web |last1=Blume |first1=Harvey |title=Neurodiversity |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/09/neurodiversity/305909/ |website=The Atlantic |access-date=12 March 2024 |language=en |date=30 September 1998 |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105003900/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199809u/neurodiversity |url-status=live }}</ref> as a [[portmanteau]] of the words ''neurological diversity'', which had been used as early as 1996 in online spaces such as InLv to describe the growing concept of a natural diversity in humanity's neurological expression.<ref name="Botha et al., 2024"/> The same year, it was published in [[Judy Singer]]'s sociology honors thesis,<ref name="My Spectrum Suite" /><ref>{{Cite book |title=Disability Discourse |vauthors=Singer J |date=February 1, 1999 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK) |isbn=978-0-335-20222-5 |veditors=Corker M, French S |pages=59–67 |chapter='Why can't you be normal for once in your life?' From a 'problem with no name' to the emergence of a new category of difference |quote=For me, the key significance of the 'autism spectrum' lies in its call for and anticipation of a politics of neurological diversity, or neurodiversity. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nWTlAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |access-date=May 12, 2020 |archive-date=May 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513164334/https://books.google.com/books?id=nWTlAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> drawing on discussions on the independent living mailing list that included Blume.<ref>{{cite book |title=Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement |vauthors=Dekker M |date=November 8, 2019 |publisher=Springer Singapore |isbn=978-981-13-8436-3 |location=Singapore |pages=41–49 |chapter=From Exclusion to Acceptance: Independent Living on the Autistic Spectrum |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_3 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Singer has described herself as "likely somewhere on the [[Autism|autistic spectrum]]".<ref name="My Spectrum Suite">{{cite web |title=Meet Judy Singer Neurodiversity Pioneer |url= http://www.myspectrumsuite.com/meet-judy-singer/ |access-date=May 14, 2019 |website=My Spectrum Suite |archive-date=June 6, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190606235437/http://www.myspectrumsuite.com/meet-judy-singer/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Blume was an early advocate who predicted the role the Internet would play in fostering the international neurodiversity movement.<ref name="BlumeMIT">{{cite web |vauthors=Blume H |date=July 1, 1997 |title="Autism & The Internet" or "It's The Wiring, Stupid" |url= http://web.mit.edu/m-i-t/articles/index_blume.html |access-date=November 8, 2007 |website=Media In Transition |publisher= Massachusetts Institute of Technology |quote=A project called CyberSpace 2000 is devoted to getting as many people as possible in the autistic spectrum hooked up by the year 2000, the reason being that "the Internet is an essential means for autistic people to improve their lives because it is often the only way they can communicate effectively." |archive-date=April 27, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180427083839/http://web.mit.edu/m-i-t/articles/index_blume.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In a ''[[New York Times]]'' piece on June 30, 1997, Blume described the foundation of neurodiversity using the term ''neurological pluralism''.<ref name="BlumeNYT">{{Cite news |vauthors=Blume H |date=June 30, 1997 |title=Autistics, freed from face-to-face encounters, are communicating in cyberspace |work=The New York Times |url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E7DC1F31F933A05755C0A961958260 |access-date= November 8, 2007 |quote=Yet, in trying to come to terms with [a neurotypical-dominated] world, autistics are neither willing nor able to give up their own customs. Instead, they are proposing a new social compact, one emphasizing neurological pluralism. [...] The consensus emerging from the Internet forums and Web sites where autistics congregate [...] is that NT is only one of many neurological configurations – the dominant one certainly, but not necessarily the best. |archive-date=January 26, 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080126085905/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E7DC1F31F933A05755C0A961958260 |url-status=live}}</ref> Some authors<ref name="Solomon">{{cite news| vauthors = Solomon A |date=May 25, 2008 |title=The autism rights movement |work=New York |url= http://nymag.com/news/features/47225/ |url-status=live |access-date=May 27, 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080527025140/http://nymag.com/news/features/47225/ |archive-date=May 27, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Fenton-2007" /> also credit the earlier work of autistic advocate [[Jim Sinclair (activist)|Jim Sinclair]] in laying the foundation for the movement. Sinclair's 1993 speech "Don't Mourn For Us" emphasized autism as a way of being, claiming "it is not possible to separate the person from the autism."<ref name="Sinclair">Sinclair, Jim. [http://www.autreat.com/dont_mourn.html Don't Mourn For Us.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109055849/https://www.autreat.com/dont_mourn.html |date=November 9, 2019 }} Autism Network International. Retrieved May 7, 2013.</ref>

The neurodiversity movement grew largely from online interaction. The internet's design lent well to the needs of many autistic people.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dekker |first=Martijn |date=1999 |title=On Our Own Terms: Emerging autistic culture |url=https://www.autscape.org/2015/programme/handouts/Autistic-Culture-07-Oct-1999.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424061005/https://www.autscape.org/2015/programme/handouts/Autistic-Culture-07-Oct-1999.pdf |archive-date=2024-04-24 |website=Autscape99}}</ref> People socialized over [[LISTSERV|listservs]] and [[IRC]]s. Some of the websites used for organizing in the neurodiversity movement's early days include sites like Autistics.Org<ref>{{Cite web |date=1998 |title=Autistics.Org |url=http://www.autistics.org/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040625213642/http://www.autistics.org/ |archive-date=June 25, 2004 }}</ref><ref name="Tisoncik2020">{{cite book |title=Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement |vauthors=Tisoncik LA |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-981-13-8437-0 |veditors=Kapp SK |place=Singapore |pages=65–76 |chapter=Autistics.Org and Finding Our Voices as an Activist Movement |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_5 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrews |first=David |date=1998 |title=Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse |url=http://apana.org.uk/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403225514/http://apana.org.uk/ |archive-date=April 3, 2005 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Murray |first=Dinah |title=Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse |date=2020 |work=Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline |pages=51–63 |editor-last=Kapp |editor-first=Steven K. |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_4 |isbn=978-981-13-8437-0|doi-access=free }}</ref> Core principles were developed from there. Principles such as advocating for the rights and autonomy of all people with brain disabilities with a focus on autism. The main conflicts from the beginning were about who the real experts on autism are, what causes autism, what interventions are appropriate, and who gets to call themselves autistic.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=INbKlMtcj94 |title=Introduction to the Neurodiversity Movement |date=2021-08-12 |last=Ira Eidle |access-date=2024-05-17 |via=YouTube}}</ref> During the 2000s, people started blogs such as [[Mel Baggs]]' ''Ballastexistenz''<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-09 |title=Ballastexistenz |url=https://ballastexistenz.wordpress.com/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=Ballastexistenz |language=en}}</ref> and Kevin Leitch's ''Left Brain Right Brain''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leitch |first=Kevin |date=2003 |title=Left Brain Right Brain |url=https://leftbrainrightbrain.co.uk/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512074214/https://leftbrainrightbrain.co.uk/ |archive-date=May 12, 2024 |access-date=May 16, 2024}}</ref> Eventually, [[Autistic Self Advocacy Network]] (ASAN) was started by [[Ari Ne'eman]] and Scott Robertson to further align the neurodiversity movement with the greater [[disability rights movement]]. ASAN led the Ransom Notes Campaign<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007-12-19 |title=Victory! The End of the Ransom Notes Campaign - Autistic Self Advocacy Network |url=https://autisticadvocacy.org/2007/12/victory-the-end-of-the-ransom-notes-campaign/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=autisticadvocacy.org/ |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kaufman |first=Joanne |date=2007-12-20 |title=Ransom-Note Ads About Children's Health Are Canceled |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/20/business/media/20child.html |access-date=2024-05-17 |work=The New York Times }}</ref> to successfully remove stigmatizing disability ads posted by the NYU Child Study Center. This was a massive turning point for the neurodiversity movement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kras |first1=Joseph F |title=The 'Ransom Notes' Affair: When the Neurodiversity Movement Came of Age |journal=Disability Studies Quarterly |date=14 December 2009 |volume=30 |issue=1 |doi=10.18061/dsq.v30i1.1065 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

From there, the neurodiversity movement continued to grow with the formation of more organizations in the early 2010s such as Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network<ref>{{Cite web |title=Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network (AWN) |url=https://awnnetwork.org/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=awnnetwork.org/ |language=en-US}}</ref> and The Thinking Person's Guide to Autism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-12 |title=THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM |url=https://thinkingautismguide.com/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM |language=en-US}}</ref> More autistic people were appointed to federal advisory boards like [[Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee]] and [[National Council on Disability]]. There were various campaigns like the ongoing #StopTheShock related to the use of aversive treatment at [[Judge Rotenberg Center]] and various protests against [[Autism Speaks]]. Various flashblogs<ref>{{Cite web |title=#IAmNOTKelliStapleton #WalkInIssysShoes Flash Blog |url=https://iamnotkellistapletonflashblog.blogspot.com/?fbclid=IwAR38QzGgNgYy_NyoLsjq0fh8wi0r5RbMRSlFBV307aeOjlCLkMNY3Q90c1M |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=iamnotkellistapletonflashblog.blogspot.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-07-18 |title=Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks |url=https://whyiboycottautismspeaks.wordpress.com/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks |language=en}}</ref> popped up during the 2010s to support campaigns. Annual traditions were formed such as Disability Day of Mourning<ref>{{Cite web |title=Disability Day of Mourning – Remembering the Disabled Murdered by Caregivers |url=https://disability-memorial.org/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |language=en-US}}</ref> and Autistics Speaking Day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Autistics Speaking Day |url=https://autisticsspeakingday.blogspot.com/ |access-date=2024-05-17 |website=autisticsspeakingday.blogspot.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Damian Milton]] notes that, in 2014, [[Nick Walker (scholar)|Nick Walker]] attempted to define neurodiversity, the neurodiversity movement, and the neurodiversity paradigm. Walker tied neurodiversity to the idea that "all brains are to a degree unique". She also defined the movement as a rights movement, and the paradigm as a broader discussion of diversity, cultural constructions and social dynamics.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors = Milton D |chapter = Neurodiversity past and present – an introduction to the neurodiversity reader. |veditors = Milton D, Ridout S, Martin N, Mills R, Murray D |date = 2020 |title = The Neurodiversity Reader |publisher = Pavilion |pages = 3–6 |isbn = 978-1-912755-39-4
}}</ref><ref name="Walker-2021">{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Nick |title=Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities |date=2021 |publisher=Autonomous Press |isbn=978-1-945955-27-3 |location=Fort Worth |chapter=Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions}}</ref>

An important question is which neurodivergences traditionally viewed as disorders should be depathologized and exempt from attempts to remove them.<ref name="Walker-2021" /> Autistic advocate Nick Walker suggested preserving "forms of innate or largely innate neurodivergence, like autism" while conditions like [[epilepsy]] or [[traumatic brain injury]] could be removed from the person without fundamentally changing the person because these are not pervasively linked to the individual's personality or perception of the world.<ref name="Walker-2021" />

== Scientific debates, research findings, and neurodiversity-based reforms ==
In recent years, the concept of neurodiversity and many related findings that challenged traditional knowledge and practices in the autism field have gained traction among many members of the scientific and professional communities,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Happé F, Frith U | title = Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 61 | issue = 3 | pages = 218–232 | date = March 2020 | pmid = 31994188 | doi = 10.1111/jcpp.13176 | url = https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10091945/ }}</ref><ref name="Pellicano Shifting from normal science">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pellicano E, den Houting J | title = Annual Research Review: Shifting from 'normal science' to neurodiversity in autism science | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 63 | issue = 4 | pages = 381–396 | date = April 2022 | pmid = 34730840 | pmc = 9298391 | doi = 10.1111/jcpp.13534 }}</ref> who have argued that autism researchers and practitioners have sometimes been too ready to interpret differences as deficits and such deficit-oriented and neuronormative approaches may cause harm.<ref name="Pellicano Shifting from normal science" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dinishak |first1=Janette |title=The Deficit View and Its Critics |journal=Disability Studies Quarterly |date=2 December 2016 |volume=36 |issue=4 |doi=10.18061/dsq.v36i4.5236 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mottron L | title = Changing perceptions: The power of autism | journal = Nature | volume = 479 | issue = 7371 | pages = 33–35 | date = November 2011 | pmid = 22051659 | doi = 10.1038/479033a | bibcode = 2011Natur.479...33M | doi-access = free }}</ref> It has also been suggested that there are both ethical issues and practical risks in attempting to reduce or suppress some autistic traits (e.g. some [[stimming]] behaviors that do not cause harm to self or others, focused interests) that can sometimes be adaptive or instilling neurotypical social behaviors (e.g. eye contact, body language) through interventions.<ref name="When Disability Is Defined by Behav">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ne'eman A | title = When Disability Is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote 'Passing' | journal = AMA Journal of Ethics | volume = 23 | issue = 7 | pages = E569–E575 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 34351268 | pmc = 8957386 | doi = 10.1001/amajethics.2021.569 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ne'eman |first1=Ari |last2=Richman |first2=Kenneth A. |last3=McCarthy |first3=Allison M. |last4=Wilkenfeld |first4=Daniel |title=A Passing Problem: Evaluating Harm and Benefit in Autism Research |journal=Ethics & Human Research |date=November 2023 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=2–18 |doi=10.1002/eahr.500188 |pmid=37988276 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-16 |title=What Is Stimming and Why Do Neurodivergent People Do It? |url=https://brainworksbehavioralhealth.com/2025/05/16/what-is-stimming-and-why-do-neurodivergent-people-do-it/ |access-date=2025-06-13 |website=San Diego |language=en-US}}</ref> Researchers and advocates are concerned about such issues and risks as most recent studies and multiple systematic reviews have indicated that higher levels of [[Autistic masking|masking]], [[Passing (sociology)|passing]] as neurotypical, or camouflaging are generally associated with poorer mental health outcomes including depression, clinical anxiety, and [[suicidality]] among autistic people (including children, adolescents, and adults) and across various regions or cultures.{{efn|see the following:<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Radulski |first=Elizabeth M. |title=Conceptualising Autistic Masking, Camouflaging, and Neurotypical Privilege: Towards a Minority Group Model of Neurodiversity |url=https://karger.com/hde/article-pdf/66/2/113/3750919/000524122.pdf |journal=Human Development |date=2022 |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=113–127 |doi=10.1159/000524122}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1002/jcv2.12294 | title=Camouflaging in neurodivergent and neurotypical girls at the transition to adolescence and its relationship to mental health: A participatory methods research study | date=2024 | journal=JCPP Advances | volume=4 | issue=4 | vauthors = McKinney A, o'Brien S, Maybin JA, Chan SW, Richer S, Rhodes S | article-number=e12294 | pmid=39734921 | pmc=11669776 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kuo |first1=Yen-Chun |last2=Ni |first2=Hsing-Chang |last3=Liu |first3=Chun-Hao |title=The associations between self-rated autistic traits, social camouflaging, and mental health outcomes in Taiwanese anime, comics and games (ACG) doujin creators: an exploratory study |journal=BMC Psychology |date=3 October 2024 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=531 |doi=10.1186/s40359-024-02019-7 |doi-access=free |pmid=39363367 |pmc=11451212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hongo |first1=Minako |last2=Oshima |first2=Fumiyo |last3=Guan |first3=Siqing |last4=Takahashi |first4=Toru |last5=Nitta |first5=Yusuke |last6=Seto |first6=Mikuko |last7=Hull |first7=Laura |last8=Mandy |first8=William |last9=Ohtani |first9=Toshiyuki |last10=Tamura |first10=Masaki |last11=Shimizu |first11=Eiji |title=Reliability and validity of the Japanese version of the camouflaging autistic traits questionnaire |journal=Autism Research |date=June 2024 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=1205–1217 |doi=10.1002/aur.3137 |pmid=38661257 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1080/20473869.2023.2181273 | title='Struggling to appear normal': A moderated mediational analysis of empathy and camouflaging in the association between autistic traits and depressive symptoms | date=2024 | journal=International Journal of Developmental Disabilities | volume=70 | issue=8 | pages=1422–1432 | pmid=39713512 | pmc=11660420 | vauthors = Lu M, Pang F, Peng T, Liu Y, Wang R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Libsack |first1=Erin J. |last2=Keenan |first2=Elliot Gavin |last3=Freden |first3=Caroline E. |last4=Mirmina |first4=Julianne |last5=Iskhakov |first5=Nathaniel |last6=Krishnathasan |first6=Darsiya |last7=Lerner |first7=Matthew D. |title=A Systematic Review of Passing as Non-autistic in Autism Spectrum Disorder |journal=Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review |date=December 2021 |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=783–812 |doi=10.1007/s10567-021-00365-1 |pmid=34505231 |pmc=10613328 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khudiakova |first1=Valeria |last2=Russell |first2=Emmeline |last3=Sowden-Carvalho |first3=Sophie |last4=Surtees |first4=Andrew D.R. |title=A systematic review and meta-analysis of mental health outcomes associated with camouflaging in autistic people |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |date=October 2024 |volume=118 |article-number=102492 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102492 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keating |first1=Connor Tom |last2=Hickman |first2=Lydia |last3=Geelhand |first3=Philippine |last4=Takahashi |first4=Toru |last5=Leung |first5=Joan |last6=Monk |first6=Ruth |last7=Schuster |first7=Bianca |last8=Rybicki |first8=Alicia |last9=Girolamo |first9=Teresa Marie |last10=Clin |first10=Elise |last11=Papastamou |first11=Fanny |last12=Belenger |first12=Marie |last13=Eigsti |first13=Inge-Marie |last14=Cook |first14=Jennifer Louise |last15=Kosaka |first15=Hirotaka |last16=Osu |first16=Rieko |last17=Okamoto |first17=Yuko |last18=Sowden-Carvalho |first18=Sophie |title=Cross-cultural variation in experiences of acceptance, camouflaging and mental health difficulties in autism: A registered report |journal=PLOS ONE |date=20 March 2024 |volume=19 |issue=3 |article-number=e0299824 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0299824 |doi-access=free |pmid=38507392 |pmc=10954134 |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1999824K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhuang |first1=Sici |last2=Tan |first2=Diana Weiting |last3=Reddrop |first3=Susan |last4=Dean |first4=Lydia |last5=Maybery |first5=Murray |last6=Magiati |first6=Iliana |title=Psychosocial factors associated with camouflaging in autistic people and its relationship with mental health and well-being: A mixed methods systematic review |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=November 2023 |volume=105 |article-number=102335 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102335 |pmid=37741059 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=Jessica |last2=Krahn |first2=Rachel |last3=Howe |first3=Stephanie |last4=Lewis |first4=Jessi |last5=McMorris |first5=Carly |last6=Macoun |first6=Sarah |title=A systematic review of social camouflaging in autistic adults and youth: Implications and theory |journal=Development and Psychopathology |date=7 October 2024 |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=1320–1334 |doi=10.1017/S0954579424001159 |pmid=39370528 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Schuck et al Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention" /><ref name="McGill Robinson Recalling hidden harms">{{cite journal |last1=McGill |first1=Owen |last2=Robinson |first2=Anna |title='Recalling hidden harms': autistic experiences of childhood applied behavioural analysis (ABA) |journal=Advances in Autism |date=26 October 2021 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=269–282 |doi=10.1108/aia-04-2020-0025 |url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/73753/1/McGill_Robinson_AA_2020_autistic_experiences_of_childhood_Applied_Behavioural_Analysis.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cook J, Hull L, Crane L, Mandy W | title = Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review | journal = Clinical Psychology Review | volume = 89 | article-number = 102080 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34563942 | doi = 10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080 | url = https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10134806/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ai W, Cunningham WA, Lai MC | title = Reconsidering autistic 'camouflaging' as transactional impression management | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 26 | issue = 8 | pages = 631–645 | date = August 2022 | pmid = 35641372 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2022.05.002 }}</ref><ref name="When Disability Is Defined by Behav" />}} In addition, three reviews published in 2024 and 2025 indicated some forms of repetitive behaviors can be adaptive for sensory regulation and [[emotional regulation]] of some autistic people, and masking or suppressing some autistic repetitive behaviors that can be adaptive may risk worsening mental health and well-being.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petty |first1=S. |last2=Clegg |first2=V. |title=Expanded Descriptions of Autistic Repetitive Behaviours: a Constructivist Grounded Theory Review Exploring the Perspectives of Autistic Young People and Other Stakeholders |journal=Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=20 May 2025 |doi=10.1007/s40489-025-00505-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Collis |first1=Emma |last2=Dark |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Russell |first3=Ailsa |last4=Brosnan |first4=Mark |title=Self-Report of Restricted Repetitive Behaviors in Autistic Adults: A Systematic Review |journal=Autism in Adulthood |date=30 August 2024 |article-number=aut.2023.0111 |doi=10.1089/aut.2023.0111 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lung |first1=Stephanie Lock Man |last2=Picard |first2=Ève |last3=Soulières |first3=Isabelle |last4=Bertone |first4=Armando |title=Identifying the functions of restricted and repetitive behaviours and interests in Autism: A scoping review |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |date=September 2024 |volume=117 |article-number=102458 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102458 |doi-access=free }}</ref> One multiple-year longitudinal study found that autistic children who showed decrease in repetitive behaviors experienced more severe and worsening in mental health symptoms, whereas autistic children who showed increase in repetitive behaviors experienced less severe mental health challenges.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waizbard-Bartov |first1=Einat |last2=Ferrer |first2=Emilio |last3=Heath |first3=Brianna |last4=Andrews |first4=Derek S |last5=Rogers |first5=Sally |last6=Kerns |first6=Connor M |last7=Wu Nordahl |first7=Christine |last8=Solomon |first8=Marjorie |last9=Amaral |first9=David G |title=Changes in the severity of autism symptom domains are related to mental health challenges during middle childhood |journal=Autism |date=May 2024 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1216–1230 |doi=10.1177/13623613231195108 |pmid=37691349 |pmc=10924781 }}</ref> Relatedly, qualitative studies have shown some forms of applied behavioral interventions increase camouflaging or masking of autistic traits (e.g. stimming) for some autistic people, with negative effects on mental health.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McCormack |first1=Lynne |last2=Wong |first2=Sze Wing |last3=Campbell |first3=Linda E. |title='If I don't Do It, I'm Out of Rhythm and I Can't Focus As Well': Positive and Negative Adult Interpretations of Therapies Aimed at 'Fixing' Their Restricted and Repetitive Behaviours in Childhood |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=September 2023 |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=3435–3448 |doi=10.1007/s10803-022-05644-6 |pmid=35781855 |pmc=10465631 }}</ref><ref name="McGill Robinson Recalling hidden harms" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Laura K |title=Autistic experiences of applied behavior analysis |journal=Autism |date=April 2023 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=737–750 |doi=10.1177/13623613221118216 |pmid=35999706 }}</ref> In addition, quantitative evidence regarding adverse effects (e.g. in terms of trauma, worsened mental health or mental health hospitalizations, reinforcement of masking or making autistic people "look normal") of some applied behavioral interventions is emerging, and appears widespread.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Mental health outcomes associated with applied behavior analysis in a US national sample of privately insured autistic youth | journal=Autism | date=2025 | article-number=13623613251390604 | doi=10.1177/13623613251390604 | pmid=41206741 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/13623613251390604 | vauthors = Aguirre Mtanous NG, Koenig J, Nikahd M, Effertz SE, Silinonte S, Hyer JM, Hand BN, Bishop L }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Autistic Experiences of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA): Toward Improved Autistic-Centered Supports | journal=Journal of Social Issues | date=2025 | volume=81 | issue=4 | article-number=e70037 | doi=10.1111/josi.70037 | url=https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/josi.70037 | vauthors = Marshall N, Damon K, Kendra, Russel, Clara }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1089/aut.2022.0115 | title=What You Are Hiding Could be Hurting You: Autistic Masking in Relation to Mental Health, Interpersonal Trauma, Authenticity, and Self-Esteem | date=2024 | journal=Autism in Adulthood | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=229–240 | pmid=39139513 | pmc=11317797 | vauthors = Evans JA, Krumrei-Mancuso EJ, Rouse SV }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stabler |first1=Nicole Meyer |last2=Kavner |first2=Alyssa |last3=Nwi-Mozu |first3=Isaac |last4=Pompa-Craven |first4=Paula |last5=Lotfizadeh |first5=Amin D. |date=2025-10-01 |title=Predictors of perceptions of ABA services from the autistic community |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S3050656525001981 |journal=Research in Autism |volume=128 |article-number=202726 |doi=10.1016/j.reia.2025.202726 |issn=3050-6565|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jonkman |first1=Kim M. |last2=den Hartog |first2=Charlotte |last3=Sloot |first3=Bart |last4=Begeer |first4=Sander |last5=Back |first5=Elisa |last6=Scheeren |first6=Anke M. |title=Experiences of Autistic Individuals, Caregivers and Healthcare Providers with ABA-Derived Therapies: a Sequential Exploratory Mixed Methods Study |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=18 July 2025 |doi=10.1007/s10803-025-06958-x |pmid=40679749 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Apart from studies on adverse effects of early behavioral interventions, multiple dozens of qualitative studies, including studies systematically reviewed by Brede et al. (2022) have shown negative experiences accessing and receiving mental health services (e.g. lack of accurate understanding from clinicians, iatrogenic harm) are common and reported by most autistic participants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brede |first1=Janina |last2=Cage |first2=Eilidh |last3=Trott |first3=Joseph |last4=Palmer |first4=Lisa |last5=Smith |first5=Anika |last6=Serpell |first6=Lucy |last7=Mandy |first7=Will |last8=Russell |first8=Ailsa |title='We Have to Try to Find a Way, a Clinical Bridge' - autistic adults' experience of accessing and receiving support for mental health difficulties: A systematic review and thematic meta-synthesis |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |date=April 2022 |volume=93 |article-number=102131 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102131 |pmid=35180632 |hdl=1893/33930 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

<!-- Keep in mind MOS:COLORS when selecting cell colors -->
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible floatright" style="text-align: center;max-width: 30em"
|+ Descriptive statements of autism
| rowspan="2" |
! Disordered !! Intrinsic disability !! Intrinsic impairment
! Social determinism !! Superpower
|- style="font-size: 80%"
|autism is a disorder
|disability is intrinsic to an individual
|impairment is intrinsic to an individual
|disability is an impairment unaccommodated by society
|autism is largely positive, with little negative implications
|-
! scope="row" | Social model<ref name="shakespeare 2013">{{Cite book| publisher = Routledge| isbn = 978-1-134-57766-8| last = Shakespeare| first = Tom| title = Disability Rights and Wrongs Revisited| date = 2013-10-30}}</ref>
| abstains
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
|-
! scope="row" |Neurodiversity movement<ref name="asan whose benefit">{{cite web |title=For Whose Benefit?: Evidence, Ethics, and Effectiveness of Autism Interventions |url=https://autisticadvocacy.org/policy/briefs/intervention-ethics/ |website=ASAN |date=December 6, 2021 |access-date=10 May 2025}}</ref><ref name="chapman 2019">{{Cite book| publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing| isbn = 978-1-350-02406-9| last1 = Chapman| first1 = Robert| last2 = Tekin| first2 = Serife| last3 = Bluhm| first3 = Robyn| title = The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry| chapter = Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability| date = 2019-01-10}}</ref>
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
| style="background-color: #fee;"|varying views
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #ffc;"| varying views<ref name="chapman 2023">{{Cite book| publisher = Pluto Press| isbn = 978-0-7453-4867-4 | last = Chapman| first = Robert| title = Empire of Normality: Neurodiversity and Capitalism| location = London| date = 2023| pages = 141–142}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |Medical pathology paradigm<ref name="kapp 2023">{{Cite book| isbn = 978-0-367-52107-3| pages = 255–269| last = Kapp| first = Steven| title = The Routledge International Handbook of Critical Autism Studies| chapter = Models of helping and coping with autism| date = 2022-12-22| publisher = Routledge}}</ref>
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
|}

Moreover, researchers have found that psychoeducation based on the medical model is associated with higher stigma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bury |first1=Simon M. |last2=Haschek |first2=Alex |last3=Wenzel |first3=Michael |last4=Spoor |first4=Jennifer R. |last5=Hedley |first5=Darren |title=Brief Report: Learning About Autism: Is the Source of Autism Knowledge Associated with Differences in Autism Knowledge, Autism Identity, and Experiences of Stigma |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=November 2024 |volume=54 |issue=11 |pages=4346–4353 |doi=10.1007/s10803-022-05823-5 |pmid=36443495 }}</ref> Another study found that endorsements of normalization and curative goals (goals of some medical models) are associated with heightened stigma.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00438 | doi-access=free | title=Whose Expertise is It? Evidence for Autistic Adults as Critical Autism Experts | date=2017 | journal=Frontiers in Psychology | volume=8 | page=438 | pmid=28400742 | pmc=5368186 | vauthors = Gillespie-Lynch K, Kapp SK, Brooks PJ, Pickens J, Schwartzman B }}</ref> Similarly, some researchers and advocates also argue that a [[Medical model of autism|medicalizing approach]] can contribute to [[Social stigma|stigma]] and [[ableism]],<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1050897|doi-access=free |title='Autism research is in crisis': A mixed method study of researcher's constructions of autistic people and autism research |date=2022 |last1=Botha |first1=Monique |last2=Cage |first2=Eilidh |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=13 |article-number=1050897 |pmid=36506950 |pmc=9730396 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bottema-Beutel K, Kapp SK, Lester JN, Sasson NJ, Hand BN | title = Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers | journal = [[Autism in Adulthood]] | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–29 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 36601265 | pmc = 8992888 | doi = 10.1089/aut.2020.0014 }}</ref> and that the persistent focus on biological research in autism based on deficit-based medical model is at odds with the priorities of those in the autism community.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1040446 | doi-access=free | title=Editorial: Addressing community priorities in autism research | date=2022 | journal=Frontiers in Psychology | volume=13 | pmid=36237673 | vauthors = Pearson A, Surtees A, Crompton CJ, Goodall C, Pillai D, Sedgewick F, Au-Yeung SK | article-number=1040446 | pmc=9552333 | hdl=20.500.11820/1f5ee35e-4a42-4e75-9d77-aa51644d7784 | hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = den Houting J, Pellicano E | title = A Portfolio Analysis of Autism Research Funding in Australia, 2008–2017 | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 49 | issue = 11 | pages = 4400–4408 | date = November 2019 | pmid = 31375971 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-019-04155-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Frazier TW, Dawson G, Murray D, Shih A, Sachs JS, Geiger A | title = Brief Report: A Survey of Autism Research Priorities Across a Diverse Community of Stakeholders | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 48 | issue = 11 | pages = 3965–3971 | date = November 2018 | pmid = 29948533 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-018-3642-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jose C, George-Zwicker P, Tardif L, Bouma A, Pugsley D, Pugsley L, Bélanger M, Gaudet J, Robichaud M | title = "We are the stakeholders with the most at stake": scientific and autism community co-researchers reflect on their collaborative experience in the CONNECT project | journal = Research Involvement and Engagement | volume = 6 | article-number = 58 | date = 2020 | pmid = 33005439 | pmc = 7520966 | doi = 10.1186/s40900-020-00233-2 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The neurodiversity paradigm is controversial in autism advocacy.{{Undue weight inline|date=September 2025}} A prevalent criticism is that autistic people with higher support needs would continue to have challenges even if society was fully accommodating and accepting of them. Some critics of the neurodiversity paradigm, such as family members that are responsible for the care of such an autistic individual, think it might lead to overlooking or downplaying these challenges.<ref name="Dwyer-2022" /> In response, it has been stated that neurodiversity does not deny disability and support needs<ref name="Dwyer-2022" /> and that not having certain abilities or needing support is not intrinsically a bad thing, because notions of normal functioning are culturally and economically relative<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chapman |first=Robert |title=Empire of Normality: Neurodiversity and Capitalism |date=2023 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-4866-7 |edition=1st |location=London}}</ref> and historically contingent and there are cultures in which questions like "Will my child ever be able to live independently?" or "Who will care for my child after I die?" do not arise because support is provided by other members of the community as a matter of course.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grinker |first=Roy Richard |title=Nobody's normal: how culture created the stigma of mental illness |date=2021 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-53164-0 |edition=1st |location=New York}}</ref> <!-- Keep in mind MOS:COLORS when selecting cell colors -->
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible floatright" style="text-align: center;max-width: 30em"
|+ Prescriptive statements on autism
| rowspan="2" |
!Participatory interventions
!Integrationary interventions
!Environmental modifications
!Participatory research
|- style="font-size: 80%;"
|interventions should prioritize outcomes deemed important by the autistic person
|interventions should give autistic people the skills to appear closer to a species-norm
|an autistic person's environment should be modified to better suit them
|every stage of autism studies should involve autistic input
|-
! scope="row" |Social model<ref name="shakespeare 2013"/>
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
|-
! scope="row" |Neurodiversity movement<ref name="asan whose benefit"/><ref name="chapman 2019"/>
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #ffc;"|varying views
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
|-
! scope="row" |Medical pathology paradigm<ref name="kapp 2023"/>
| style="background-color: #fee;"|disagrees
| style="background-color: #afa;"|agrees
|
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|}

Some scholars have noted points of contact between the neurodiversity movement and [[evolutionary psychiatry]] and [[evolutionary psychology]]. A 2024 perspective in ''Autism Research'' argued that evolutionary psychiatry can, in some contexts, support neurodiversity's goals by framing certain neurocognitive traits as part of human variation while remaining agnostic about clinical management or rights‑based advocacy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hunt |first1=Adam D. |last2=Procyshyn |first2=Tanya L. |title=Changing perspectives on autism: Overlapping contributions of evolutionary psychiatry and the neurodiversity movement |journal=Autism Research |year=2024 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=459–466 |doi=10.1002/aur.3078 |pmid=38233966}}</ref> Related commentaries in psychiatric journals have encouraged careful evaluation of evolutionary accounts of autism alongside neurodiversity perspectives.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Procyshyn |first1=Tanya L. |last2=Tsompanidis |first2=Alex |last3=Baron-Cohen |first3=Simon |title=Embracing evolutionary theories of autism: Implications for psychiatry |journal=Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica |year=2024 |volume=149 |issue=2 |pages=85–87 |doi=10.1111/acps.13653 |pmid=38221858}}</ref>

Autistic self-advocate and researcher [[Ari Ne'eman]] has suggested a trait-based approach, where elements of the medical (or pathology) model can be applied in treating certain traits, behaviors, or conditions that are intrinsically harmful (e.g. self-injury behaviors, epilepsy, or other co-occurring health conditions), while neurodiversity approaches can be applied to non-harmful or sometimes adaptive autistic traits (e.g. some stimming behaviors that do not result in self-injury, [[Special interest (autism)|intense interests]]) of the same individual.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ne'eman A, Pellicano E | title = Neurodiversity as Politics | journal = Human Development | volume = 66 | issue = 2 | pages = 149–157 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 36714278 | pmc = 9881465 | doi = 10.1159/000524277 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Charlton |first1=Rebecca A. |last2=Entecott |first2=Timothy |last3=Belova |first3=Evelina |last4=Nwaordu |first4=Gabrielle |title='It feels like holding back something you need to say': Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults accounts of sensory experiences and stimming |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |date=November 2021 |volume=89 |article-number=101864 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101864 }}</ref> Relatedly, some neurodiversity researchers, as well as autistic people, advocates and researchers, have advocated for application and sometimes integration or combination of both neurodiversity approaches and biomedical research plus practice.<ref name="Reconciling the seemingly irreconci">{{cite journal |last1=Bölte |first1=Sven |last2=Lawson |first2=Wenn B. |last3=Marschik |first3=Peter B. |last4=Girdler |first4=Sonya |date=September 2021 |title=Reconciling the seemingly irreconcilable: The WHO's ICF system integrates biological and psychosocial environmental determinants of autism and ADHD: The International Classification of Functioning (ICF) allows to model opposed biomedical and neurodiverse views of autism and ADHD within one framework |journal=BioEssays |volume=43 |issue=9 |article-number=e2000254 |doi=10.1002/bies.202000254 |pmid=33797095 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kwok |first1=Kim |last2=Kwok |first2=Diana K. |title=More than comfort and discomfort: Emotion work of parenting children with autism in Hong Kong |journal=Children and Youth Services Review |date=November 2020 |volume=118 |article-number=105456 |doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105456 }}</ref>

In recent years, researchers, providers of various support services, and neurodivergent people have advocated for more neurodiversity-affirming support services/therapies, with both new therapy strategies being developed and advancements or reforms of existing therapy strategies (e.g. social skills programs, [[applied behavior analysis]] (ABA) interventions, [[occupational therapy]]) informed by experiences, strengths, interests, preferences, and feedback of autistic people as well as neurodiversity approaches and findings, with some evidence for beneficial effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Lauren Lestremau |last2=Mellon |first2=Leanna S. |last3=Syed |first3=Noor |last4=Johnson |first4=Joy F. |last5=Bernal |first5=Armando J. |title=Neurodiversity-Affirming Applied Behavior Analysis |journal=Behavior Analysis in Practice |date=25 March 2024 |doi=10.1007/s40617-024-00918-0 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Elinda Ai Lim |last2=Scott |first2=Melissa |last3=Black |first3=Melissa H. |last4=D'Arcy |first4=Emily |last5=Tan |first5=Tele |last6=Sheehy |first6=Louise |last7=Bölte |first7=Sven |last8=Girdler |first8=Sonya |title='He Sees his Autism as a Strength, Not a Deficit Now': A Repeated Cross-Sectional Study Investigating the Impact of Strengths-Based Programs on Autistic Adolescents |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |date=May 2024 |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=1656–1671 |doi=10.1007/s10803-022-05881-9 |pmid=36745275 |pmc=9900207 }}</ref><ref name="Schuck et al Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schuck RK, Tagavi DM, Baiden KM, Dwyer P, Williams ZJ, Osuna A, Ferguson EF, Jimenez Muñoz M, Poyser SK, Johnson JF, Vernon TW | title = Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 52 | issue = 10 | pages = 4625–4645 | date = October 2022 | pmid = 34643863 | pmc = 9508016 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernhardt |first1=Jamie B. |last2=Lam |first2=Gary Yu Hin |last3=Thomas |first3=Toni |last4=Cubells |first4=Joseph F. |last5=Bohlke |first5=Kelsey |last6=Reid |first6=Morganne |last7=Rice |first7=Catherine E. |title=Meaning in Measurement: Evaluating Young Autistic Adults' Active Engagement and Expressed Interest in Quality-of-Life Goals |journal=Autism in Adulthood |date=September 2020 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=227–242 |doi=10.1089/aut.2019.0081 |pmid=36601444 |pmc=8992872 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Strengths-Based Practice to Enhance Mental Health for Autistic People: A Scoping Review | journal=The American Journal of Occupational Therapy | date=2023 | volume=77 | issue=2 | article-number=7702185060 | doi=10.5014/ajot.2023.050074 | vauthors = Murthi K, Chen Y, Shore S, Patten K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Adapting the PEERS® for Young Adults Program for Autistic Adults across the Lifespan | journal=Healthcare | date=2024 | volume=12 | issue=16 | page=1586 | doi=10.3390/healthcare12161586 | pmid=39201145 | pmc=11354006 | doi-access=free | vauthors = Harker S, Baxter L, Gallegos S, Mitchell M, Zerga L, Matthews N, Braden B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Twinley R |date=2024 |title=Neurodivergent affirming practice in occupational therapy: Scoping review and qualitative content analysis of the literature |url=https://research.brighton.ac.uk/en/publications/0644ece4-924a-491e-8209-8ad4cffa1d4f |journal=Neurodiversity |volume=2 |doi=10.1177/27546330241301740 |article-number=27546330241301740}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=The process of co-design for a new anxiety intervention for autistic children | journal=JCPP Advances | date=2025 | volume=5 | issue=2 | article-number=e12255 | doi=10.1002/jcv2.12255 | pmid=40519955 | vauthors = Cullingham T, Rennard U, Creswell C, Milton D, Buckle KL, Godber L, Gordon K, Larkin M, Green J | pmc=12159306 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wagland |first1=Zoe |last2=Sterman |first2=Julia |last3=Scott-Cole |first3=Louise |last4=Spassiani |first4=Natasha |last5=Njelesani |first5=Janet |date=2025 |title=Promoting Neurodiversity-Affirming Care for Autistic Children: A Scoping Review |journal=Neurodiversity |language=en |volume=3 |article-number=27546330251357479 |doi=10.1177/27546330251357479 |issn=2754-6330|doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition, some researchers and advocates have called for more neurodiversity-affirming psychoeducation and stigma reduction methods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scheerer |first1=Nichole E. |last2=Ng |first2=Catalina Sau Man |last3=Gurba |first3=Ava N. |last4=McNair |first4=Morgan L. |last5=Lerner |first5=Matthew D. |last6=Hargreaves |first6=April |title=Editorial: Break the stigma: autism |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |date=4 December 2024 |volume=15 |article-number=1513447 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1513447 |doi-access=free |pmid=39698208 |pmc=11653068 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Den Plas |first1=Lies |last2=Vanaken |first2=Gert-Jan |last3=Steyaert |first3=Jean |last4=Hens |first4=Kristien |last5=Noens |first5=Ilse |title=Towards a neurodiversity-affirmative conceptualisation of psycho-education in the context of autism |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |date=June 2024 |volume=114 |article-number=102391 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102391 }}</ref><ref name="Schuck2024">{{cite journal |last1=Schuck |first1=Rachel K. |last2=Fung |first2=Lawrence K. |title=A dual design thinking – universal design approach to catalyze neurodiversity advocacy through collaboration among high-schoolers |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |date=10 January 2024 |volume=14 |article-number=1250895 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1250895 |doi-access=free |pmid=38268559 |pmc=10806093 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Yulin |last2=Dwyer |first2=Patrick |last3=Keating |first3=Connor Tom |title=Factors underlying differences in knowledge, explicit stigma and implicit biases towards autism across Hong Kong, the United Kingdom and the United States |journal=Autism |date=2 November 2024 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=868–883 |doi=10.1177/13623613241290565 |pmid=39487729 |doi-access=free |pmc=11967188 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lam |first1=Gary Yu Hin |last2=MacCormack |first2=Jeffrey |last3=Williams |first3=Deondre |last4=Antony |first4=Theresa |last5=Kofner |first5=Bella |last6=Gillespie-Lynch |first6=Kristen |title=Online training module to reduce stigma and improve knowledge about autism in pre-service teachers: Cross-cultural comparison of Hong Kong and Canada |journal=Research in Autism |date=August 2025 |volume=126 |article-number=202651 |doi=10.1016/j.reia.2025.202651 }}</ref>

==Neurodivergent and neurotypical/neuroconforming==
{{anchor|Neurodivergent|neurodivergent|Neurotypical|neurotypical}}
{{Redirect-multi|2|Neurodivergent|Neurotypical|the 2013 film|Neurotypical (film){{!}}''Neurotypical'' (film)}}
According to [[Kassiane Asasumasu]], who coined the terms in the year 2000, ''neurodivergent/neurodivergence'' refers to those "whose neurocognitive functioning diverges from dominant societal norms in multiple ways".<ref name="Walker-2021" /> She emphasized that it should not be used to exclude people but rather to include them<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chapman |first=Robert |date=August 18, 2021 |title=Negotiating the Neurodiversity Concept |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/neurodiverse-age/202108/negotiating-the-neurodiversity-concept |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308162055/https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/neurodiverse-age/202108/negotiating-the-neurodiversity-concept |archive-date=March 8, 2024 |access-date=March 4, 2024 |website=[[Psychology Today]] |language=en-US}}</ref> and therefore intended for these terms to apply to a broad variety of people,<ref name="Walker-2021" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurodivergence |url=https://www.umassp.edu/inclusive-by-design/who-before-how/understanding-disabilities/neurodivergence |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304010926/https://www.umassp.edu/inclusive-by-design/who-before-how/understanding-disabilities/neurodivergence |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |access-date=March 4, 2024 |website=[[University of Massachusetts]] Office of the President}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coates |first1=Shannon |title=Neurodiversity in the Voice Studio, Clinic, and Performance Space: Using a Neurodiversity Affirming Lens to Build More Inclusive Spaces for Singers. Part 1, Current Understanding of Neurodiversity |journal=Journal of Singing |date=25 October 2022 |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=213–219 |id={{Project MUSE|867856}} |doi=10.53830/VHSX6387 }}</ref> not just people with neurodevelopmental differences, such as autism, [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]], and [[dyslexia]]. It is also used as an umbrella term to describe people with atypical [[mental disorder|mental]] and [[emotional and behavioral disorders|behavioral]] traits, such as [[mood disorder|mood]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Adams |first1=Danya |last2=Kaliss |first2=Nicholas |last3=Missner |first3=Alexander |last4=Valentine |first4=Mary Meg |title=The Interplay of Nicotine and Social Stress Mediate Dopaminergic Neuron Firing in the Ventral Tegmental Area - Nucleus Accumbens Pathway, Contributing to Stress andDepressive Mood Disorder |journal=Georgetown Scientific Research Journal |date=2021 |pages=70–83 |doi=10.48091/SUVN5250 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[personality disorder|personality]],<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Homan P, Reddan MC, Brosch T, Koenigsberg HW, Schiller D |date=November 2017 |title=Aberrant link between empathy and social attribution style in borderline personality disorder |journal=Journal of Psychiatric Research |volume=94 |pages=163–171 |doi=10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.012 |pmid=28735169 |doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Sensory processing disorder|sensory processing]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=What Happened to Sensory Processing Disorder (SPD)? |url=https://sensoryhealth.org/node/2079 |access-date=2025-11-14 |website=sensoryhealth.org |language=en}}</ref>, and [[eating disorder]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Corsi E, Cardi V, Sowden S, Coll MP, Cascino G, Ricca V, Treasure J, Bird G, Monteleone AM |date=August 2021 |title=Socio-cognitive processing in people with eating disorders: Computerized tests of mentalizing, empathy and imitation skills |journal=The International Journal of Eating Disorders |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=1509–1518 |doi=10.1002/eat.23556 |pmc=8453969 |pmid=34056730}}</ref> However, people with non-cognitive neurological conditions, such as [[cerebral palsy]], [[Parkinson's disease]], and [[multiple sclerosis]], are normally excluded.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Neurodiversity |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Autism Spectrum Disorders |publisher=Springer International Publishing AG |location=Cham |last=Chown |first=Nick |date=2021 |editor-last=Volkmar |editor-first=Fred R. |edition=2nd |isbn=978-3-319-91280-6}}</ref>

Under the neurodiversity framework, these differences are often referred to as neurodivergences, in an effort to challenge the [[medical model of disability]] (sometimes referred to in the neurodiversity community as the "pathology paradigm"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simpson |first1=Ellen |last2=Dalal |first2=Samantha |last3=Semaan |first3=Bryan |title='Hey, Can You Add Captions?': The Critical Infrastructuring Practices of Neurodiverse People on TikTok |journal=Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction |date=14 April 2023 |volume=7 |issue=CSCW1 |pages=1–27 |doi=10.1145/3579490 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2212.06204 }}</ref>). This term provided activists a way to advocate for increased rights and accessibility for people with atypical neurocognitive functioning, both autistic and non-autistic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Liebowitz |first=Cara |date=March 4, 2016 |title=Here's What Neurodiversity Is – And What It Means For Feminism |url=https://everydayfeminism.com/2016/03/neurodiversity-101/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304172242/https://everydayfeminism.com/2016/03/neurodiversity-101/ |archive-date=March 4, 2024 |access-date=March 8, 2024 |website=Everyday Feminism |language=en-US}}</ref>

Neurotypical (an abbreviation of ''neurologically typical'', sometimes NT) is a [[neologism]] widely used in the neurodiversity movement as a label for anyone who has a neurotype that fits into the norm of thinking patterns. Thus, the term "neurotypical" includes anyone who is not autistic, and does not have ADHD, dyslexia, anxiety, or any other difference that would be considered neurodivergent.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Advice {{!}} He's been diagnosed with autism. Is it too late to keep his job? |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/10/13/autism-workplace-challenges/ |access-date=March 30, 2023 |archive-date=March 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230314172111/https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/10/13/autism-workplace-challenges/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurotypical |work=Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/neurotypical |access-date=May 23, 2022 |archive-date=February 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221203721/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/neurotypical |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="bk-neuroqueer-heresies">{{Cite book | vauthors = Walker N |title=Neuroqueer Heresies |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-945955-26-6 |page=40|publisher=Autonomous Press }}</ref> The term has been adopted by both the neurodiversity movement and some members of the scientific community.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hare DJ, Jones S, Evershed K | title = A comparative study of circadian rhythm functioning and sleep in people with Asperger syndrome | journal = Autism | volume = 10 | issue = 6 | pages = 565–575 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17088273 | doi = 10.1177/1362361306068509 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Connor K, Hamm JP, Kirk IJ | title = The neurophysiological correlates of face processing in adults and children with Asperger's syndrome | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 82–95 | date = October 2005 | pmid = 16009478 | doi = 10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.004 }}</ref>

Neuroscience writer Mo Costandi views terms like ''neurotypical'' as not being of use in neuroscience,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Timberlake |first1=Howard |title=Why there is no such thing as a 'normal' brain |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20191008-why-the-normal-brain-is-just-a-myth |work=BBC |date=10 October 2019 }}</ref> while others, including [[Uta Frith]] and [[Francesca Happé]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Happé |first1=Francesca |last2=Frith |first2=Uta |title=Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |date=March 2020 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=218–232 |doi=10.1111/jcpp.13176 |pmid=31994188 }}</ref> use the term freely. Ginny Russell mentions that there is no clear bimodal distribution separating autistic and non-autistic people because many non-autistic people have some autistic traits.<ref name="Russell-2020">{{cite book |title=Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement |vauthors=Russell G |date=2020 |isbn=978-981-13-8436-3 |pages=287–303 |chapter=Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_21}}</ref> Another criticism, that neurotypicality is a dubious construct because nobody can be considered truly neurotypical,<ref name="Russell-2020" /> has been said by [[Nick Walker (scholar)|Nick Walker]] to reflect a misunderstanding of the term because it is meant to describe those who can adapt to society's norms without much effort, not to imply that all neurotypical people's brains are the same.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Nick |title=Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities |date=2021 |publisher=Autonomous Press |isbn=978-1-945955-27-3 |location=Fort Worth |chapter=Defining Neurotypicality & Neurodivergence}}</ref>

Early definitions described neurotypicals as individuals who are not autistic.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 6, 2008 |title=Language and abbreviations |url=http://web.syr.edu/~jisincla/language.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606024118/http://web.syr.edu/~jisincla/language.htm |archive-date=June 6, 2008 |access-date=April 19, 2022}}{{self-published inline|date=December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Arnold L |date=October 7, 2017 |title=A brief history of "Neurodiversity" as a concept and perhaps a movement |url=http://www.larry-arnold.net/Autonomy/index.php/autonomy/article/view/AR23 |url-status=live |journal=Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies |language=en |volume=1 |issue=5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221201131715/http://larry-arnold.net/Autonomy/index.php/autonomy/article/view/AR23 |archive-date=December 1, 2022 |access-date=December 30, 2022}}</ref> Early uses of NT were often satirical, as in the Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical,<ref name="Tisoncik2020" /><ref name="Blume, 1998" /> but it has been adopted by the neurodiversity movement too, and is now used in a serious manner.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://neuroqueer.com/neurodiversity-terms-and-definitions/ |title=Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities |vauthors=Walker N |publisher=Autonomous Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-945955-26-6 |pages=33–46 |oclc=1287945422 |access-date=December 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230150209/https://neuroqueer.com/neurodiversity-terms-and-definitions/ |archive-date=December 30, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In contrast to some of the shortcomings of terms like ''neurotypical'' (such as its underlying assumption that neurodivergent experiences are an anomaly, i.e. not typical), a growing group of advocates in the neurodivergent movement prefer other terms such as ''neuroconforming''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Legault |first1=Mylène |last2=Bourdon |first2=Jean-Nicolas |last3=Poirier |first3=Pierre |date=December 2021 |title=From neurodiversity to neurodivergence: the role of epistemic and cognitive marginalization |journal=Synthese |volume=199 |issue=5–6 |pages=12843–12868 |doi=10.1007/s11229-021-03356-5}}</ref> The term ''allistic'' is also used, meaning {{Gloss|not autistic}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Allistic |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/allistic |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130230323/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/allistic |archive-date=November 30, 2022 |access-date=April 18, 2022 |work=Cambridge English Dictionary}}</ref>

== Double empathy theory ==
{{Main|Double empathy problem}}
[[File:Double empathy problem image.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Both autistic and non-autistic people can find it difficult to empathize with each other. The fact that both people in the interaction have trouble with understanding and empathy is why the theory is called the "double empathy problem".<ref name="double-empathy-why">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Crompton CJ, DeBrabander K, Heasman B, Milton D, Sasson NJ |date=2021-05-11 |title=Double Empathy: Why Autistic People Are Often Misunderstood |journal=[[Frontiers for Young Minds]] |volume=9 |article-number=554875 |doi=10.3389/frym.2021.554875 |doi-access=free |hdl=20.500.11820/94ee032a-6103-470a-bc06-08337dd6b512 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>]]
The theory of the double empathy problem argues that autistic people do not inherently lack empathy as often supposed by people who see autism as pathological, but most autistic people may struggle in understanding and empathizing with non-autistic people whereas most non-autistic people also lack understanding and empathy for autistic people. It was originally conceived in 2012 by autistic scholar [[Damian Milton]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milton |first1=Damian E.M. |title=On the ontological status of autism: the 'double empathy problem' |journal=Disability & Society |date=October 2012 |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=883–887 |doi=10.1080/09687599.2012.710008 |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/62639/1/Double%20empathy%20problem.pdf }}</ref> The theory argues that characteristics and experiences of autistic and non-autistic people are so different that it is hard for one to understand how the other thinks and empathize with each other; for example, non-autistic people may not understand when an autistic person is overwhelmed.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeThorne |first1=Laura S. |title=Revealing the Double Empathy Problem: It's not that autistic* people lack empathy. Rather, their different neurotypes and experiences may make it harder for nonautisic people to understand them—and vice versa |journal=The ASHA Leader |date=April 2020 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=58–65 |doi=10.1044/leader.FTR2.25042020.58 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

An increasing number of studies in the 2010s and 2020s have found support for double empathy theory and related concepts such as bidirectional social interaction.<ref>{{cite book |title=Conversations on Empathy |chapter=Autism and the 'double empathy problem' |date=2023 |pages=78–97 |doi=10.4324/9781003189978-6 |isbn=978-1-003-18997-8 | vauthors = Milton DE, Waldock KE, Keates N }}</ref><ref name="Watts Crompton A certain magic">{{cite journal |last1=Watts |first1=Georgina |last2=Crompton |first2=Catherine |last3=Grainger |first3=Catherine |last4=Long |first4=Joseph |last5=Botha |first5=Monique |last6=Somerville |first6=Mark |last7=Cage |first7=Eilidh |title='A certain magic' – autistic adults' experiences of interacting with other autistic people and its relation to Quality of Life: A systematic review and thematic meta-synthesis |journal=Autism |date=3 June 2024 |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=2239–2253 |doi=10.1177/13623613241255811 |pmid=38829019 |hdl=1893/36127 |hdl-access=free |pmc=12332227 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Peter |last2=Sheppard |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Cassidy |first3=Sarah |title=Autism and the double empathy problem: Implications for development and mental health |journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology |date=March 2021 |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |doi=10.1111/bjdp.12350 |pmid=33393101 }}</ref> One study comparing the conversations and socialization of autistic groups, non-autistic groups, and mixed groups found that autistic people were more able to build rapport with other autistic people than with non-autistic people, and at a level similar to the purely non-autistic group.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rifai OM, Fletcher-Watson S, Jiménez-Sánchez L, Crompton CJ | title = Investigating Markers of Rapport in Autistic and Nonautistic Interactions | journal = [[Autism in Adulthood]] | volume = 4 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–11 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 36600904 | pmc = 8992924 | doi = 10.1089/aut.2021.0017 }}</ref> A systematic review published in 2024 found that most autistic people have good interpersonal relations and social-communication experiences with most autistic people, and interactions between autistic people are associated with better quality of life across multiple domains, including mental health and emotional well-being.<ref name="Watts Crompton A certain magic"/>

The double empathy problem theory implies there is no simple fix that can help each group better empathize with each other, but it is worthwhile to bridge the double [[empathy gap]] through more equal contact and enhancing public understanding and empathy about autistic people based on neurodiversity-affirming approaches.<ref name="Schuck2024" /> The advantage of the theory is reducing pathologization of autistic people by identifying that most people struggle to empathize with people with different neurotypes. It can also help neurotypical individuals to better understand how neurodivergent people think and empathize and to recognize their own limitations in empathizing with autistic people.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The double empathy problem |url=https://www.autism.org.uk/advice-and-guidance/professional-practice/double-empathy |access-date=June 3, 2023 |website=www.autism.org.uk |language=en |archive-date=March 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330104453/https://www.autism.org.uk/advice-and-guidance/professional-practice/double-empathy |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Vikram Jaswal|Jaswal]] and Akhtar (2019) highlight the difference between ''being'' socially uninterested and ''appearing'' socially uninterested, and challenge preconceived notions of a lack of social motivation. For example, testimonies from autistic individuals report that avoiding eye contact serves an important function of helping them to concentrate during conversation, and should not be interpreted as expressing social disinterest.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaswal VK, Akhtar N | title = Being versus appearing socially uninterested: Challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism | journal = The Behavioral and Brain Sciences | volume = 42 | article-number = e82 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29914590 | doi = 10.1017/s0140525x18001826 }}</ref>

== Neurodiversity lite ==
The term ''neurodiversity lite'' has been used to describe a diluted form of the neurodiversity paradigm that has appeared as the concept has entered mainstream discourse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Nick |title=Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities |date=2021 |publisher=Autonomous Press |isbn=978-1-945955-26-6 |location=Fort Worth}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chapman |first1=Robert |title=Neurodiversity Studies |chapter=Neurodiversity, disability, wellbeing |date=2020 |pages=57–72 |doi=10.4324/9780429322297-7 |isbn=978-0-429-32229-7 }}</ref>  
The phrase is used to refer to applications of neurodiversity language that emphasize difference as a benign or fashionable form of human diversity, but critics argue that these applications omit the paradigm's original grounding in disability rights and structural critiques of ableism.<ref name="chapman 2023" />  

In this framing, conditions such as [[autism]] and [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] are often associated with positive traits (or "superpowers") including creativity, attention to detail, hyperfocus, or unconventional problem-solving.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dwyer |first1=Patrick |last2=Gurba |first2=Ava N |last3=Kapp |first3=Steven K |last4=Kilgallon |first4=Elizabeth |last5=Hersh |first5=Lynnette H |last6=Chang |first6=David S |last7=Rivera |first7=Susan M |last8=Gillespie-Lynch |first8=Kristen |date=2024-09-18 |title=Community views of neurodiversity, models of disability and autism intervention: Mixed methods reveal shared goals and key tensions |journal=Autism |volume=29 |issue=9 |language=EN |pages=2297–2314 |doi=10.1177/13623613241273029 |pmid=39291753 |issn=1362-3613|pmc=12332218 }}</ref>  
This perspective has been linked to reductions in stigma, increased self-acceptance, and the promotion of workplace initiatives that seek to recognize neurodivergent strengths.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Armstrong |first=Thomas |title=The power of neurodiversity: unleashing the advantages of your differently wired brain |date=2011 |publisher=Da Capo Lifelong |isbn=978-0-7382-1354-5 |series=Lifelong books |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref>  

Commentators have also identified limitations in the concept. Critics note that it may overemphasize exceptional abilities while downplaying the barriers faced by individuals with high support needs, intellectual disabilities, or limited speech.<ref name="chapman 2023" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yergeau |first=Melanie |title=Authoring autism: on rhetoric and neurological queerness |date=2018 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-7020-8 |series=Thought in the act |location=Durham London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Disability, Culture and Identity |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-14474-3 |editor-last=Riddell |editor-first=Sheila |location=London |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=Nick}}</ref>  
This tendency has been described as particularly evident in corporate and media discourses, where neurodivergence is portrayed as a "superpower" aligned with productivity and innovation, often positioning autistic people as desirable employees in [[science, technology, engineering, and mathematics]] fields.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What neurodivergent employees need to succeed {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/people-and-organizational-performance/our-insights/understanding-what-neurodivergent-employees-need-to-succeed |access-date=2025-05-28 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}</ref> Critics argue that such portrayals highlight individuals who can succeed in neurotypical environments with minimal accommodations, while overlooking those who require greater support.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lutz |first=Amy |date=November 8, 2023 |title=I'm tired of disability activists pretending my son doesn't exist |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2023/11/08/14c-programs-severe-autism-disability-activists |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=August 16, 2025}}</ref>  

Scholars suggest that by centering traits valued by institutions, such as technical skills or problem-solving ability, neurodiversity-lite may promote forms of inclusion that do not address accessibility or systemic barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=den Houting |first1=Jacquiline |date=December 17, 2018 |title=Neurodiversity: An Insider's Perspective |journal=Autism |volume=23 |issue=2 |publisher=Sage Journals |pages=271–273 |doi=10.1177/1362361318820762 |pmid=30556743 }}</ref> Some commentators argue that this usage shifts neurodiversity from a rights-based and justice-oriented paradigm toward a branding strategy.<ref name="chapman 2023" />

== Within disability rights movements ==
{{further|Autistic rights movement}}
{{Autism rights movement}}
The neurodiversity paradigm was developed and embraced first by [[autism|autistic people]],<ref name="Jaarsma">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jaarsma P, Welin S | title = Autism as a natural human variation: reflections on the claims of the neurodiversity movement | journal = Health Care Analysis | volume = 20 | issue = 1 | pages = 20–30 | date = March 2012 | pmid = 21311979 | doi = 10.1007/s10728-011-0169-9 | url = http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-72172 }}</ref><ref name="Woodford">{{cite journal | vauthors = Woodford G | title = 'We Don't Need to be Cured' Autistics Say | journal = National Review of Medicine | date = 2006 | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | url = http://www.nationalreviewofmedicine.com/issue/2006/04_30/3_patients_practice05_8.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160303202254/http://www.nationalreviewofmedicine.com/issue/2006/04_30/3_patients_practice05_8.html| archive-date=March 3, 2016 }}</ref> but has been applied to other conditions such as [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[Speech disorder|developmental speech disorders]], [[dyslexia]], [[dysgraphia]], [[developmental coordination disorder|dyspraxia]],<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Arnold L |chapter=Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies |date=2020 | title = Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline |pages=211–220 | veditors = Kapp SK |location=Singapore |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_15 |isbn=978-981-13-8437-0 }}</ref> [[dyscalculia]], [[Anomic aphasia|dysnomia]], [[intellectual disability]], [[obsessive–compulsive disorder]], [[Tourette syndrome]],<ref name="Mackenzie 2011-01-31">{{cite journal| vauthors = Mackenzie R, Watts J |date=January 31, 2011|title=Is our legal, health care and social support infrastructure neurodiverse enough? How far are the aims of the neurodiversity movement fulfilled for those diagnosed with cognitive disability and learning disability?|journal=Tizard Learning Disability Review|volume=16|issue=1|pages=30–37|doi=10.5042/tldr.2011.0005|quote=We recommend, therefore, that the term neurodiverse include the conditions ASD, ADHD, OCD, language disorders, developmental coordination disorder, dyslexia and Tourette's syndrome.}}</ref> [[schizophrenia]],<ref name="Bloomsbury" /><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Morrice P | date = January 29, 2006 | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/29/books/review/29morrice.html | title = Otherwise Minded | work = The New York Times | access-date = February 11, 2017 | archive-date = November 21, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151121085700/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/29/books/review/29morrice.html | url-status = live }} review of ''A Mind Apart: Travels in a Neurodiverse World''</ref> [[bipolar disorder]],<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Antonetta S |title=A mind apart: travels in a neurodiverse world |date=2005 |publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin |isbn=1-58542-382-3 |location=New York |oclc=60671914}}{{page needed|date=December 2024}}</ref> [[schizoaffective disorder]], and, somewhat more controversially, personality disorders such as [[antisocial personality disorder]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anton |first1=Audrey L |chapter=The Virtue of Sociopaths: how to appreciate the neurodiversity of sociopathy without becoming a victim |pages=111–130 |editor1-last=Perry |editor1-first=Alexandra |editor2-last=Yankowski |editor2-first=Anthony |title=Ethics and Neurodiversity |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-6759-7 }}</ref> Neurodiversity advocates and organizations like the [[Autistic Self Advocacy Network]] (ASAN) do not agree with using medical interventions as a way to remove neurodevelopmental differences that are fundamentally linked to the personality and perception of the world, such as autism.<ref name="What We Believe-2021" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Nick |title=Neuroqueer Heresies: Notes on the Neurodiversity Paradigm, Autistic Empowerment, and Postnormal Possibilities |publisher=Autonomous Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-945955-26-6 |pages=33–45 |chapter=Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions}}</ref> Rather, they promote support systems such as inclusion-focused services, accommodations, communication and assistive technologies, occupational training, and independent living support.<ref name="Leadbitter-2021">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leadbitter K, Buckle KL, Ellis C, Dekker M |date=2021-04-12 |title=Autistic Self-Advocacy and the Neurodiversity Movement: Implications for Autism Early Intervention Research and Practice |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |article-number=635690 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635690 |pmc=8075160 |pmid=33912110 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="What We Believe-2021">{{Cite web |date=2021 |title=What We Believe - Autistic Self Advocacy Network |url=https://autisticadvocacy.org/about-asan/what-we-believe/ |access-date=2023-09-30 |website= |language=en-US |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212063825/https://autisticadvocacy.org/about-asan/what-we-believe/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The intention is for individuals to receive support that honors human [[Diversity (politics)|diversity]] and feel that they are able to freely express themselves. Other forms of interventions may cause them to feel as though they are being coerced or forced to adapt to [[social norm]]s, or to conform to a behavioral standard or clinical ideal.<ref name="Syracuse">{{cite web|url=http://neurodiversitysymposium.wordpress.com/what-is-neurodiversity/|title=What is Neurodiversity?|year=2011|publisher=National Symposium on Neurodiversity at Syracuse University|access-date=October 2, 2012|archive-date=April 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416095212/https://neurodiversitysymposium.wordpress.com/what-is-neurodiversity/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Subramanyam AA, Mukherjee A, Dave M, Chavda K | title = Clinical Practice Guidelines for Autism Spectrum Disorders | journal = Indian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 61 | issue = Suppl 2 | pages = 254–269 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30745701 | pmc = 6345133 | doi = 10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_542_18 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Proponents of neurodiversity strive to reconceptualize autism and related conditions in society by acknowledging that neurodivergence is not something that needs to be cured<ref>{{Cite book |last=Veskis |first=Kaarel |title=Autismi olemus: neuroloogilise mitmekesisuse kaitseks |trans-title=Nature of Autism: In Defense of Neurodiversity |publisher=Pilgrim |location=Tallinn |date=2018 |language=et |isbn=9789949621552 |url=http://www.digar.ee/id/nlib-digar:359675 }}</ref> and that the idea of curing it makes no conceptual sense because differences like autism are so pervasive that removing the autistic parts of the person is tantamount to replacing the autistic person by a different person.<ref name="Bloomsbury" /> An important aim is also changing the language from the current "condition, disease, disorder, or illness"-based nomenclature, "broadening the understanding of healthy or independent living", acknowledging new types of autonomy, and giving neurodivergent individuals more control over their interventions, including the type, timing, and whether there should be interventions at all.<ref name="Fenton-2007">{{cite journal |last1=Fenton |first1=Andrew |last2=Krahn |first2=Tim |date=2007 |title=Autism, neurodiversity and equality beyond the 'normal' |journal=Journal of Ethics in Mental Health |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=1–6 |url=https://irp.cdn-website.com/c0d44f22/files/uploaded/JEMH_V2N2_Theme_Article2_Neurodiversity_Autism.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Bloomsbury" />

{{anchor|Neurodiversity symbol|Symbol|symbol|Neurodiversity infinity symbol|infinity symbol}}
[[File:Neurodiversity_Symbol.svg|thumb|upright|The neurodiversity symbol, a rainbow infinity sign, describes the diversity of human brains.]]
Activists such as [[Jennifer White-Johnson]] have helped bring attention to the neurodiversity movement, by creating symbols of protest and recognition, including a combination of the [[black power fist]] and [[infinity symbol]].<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Lupton E, Kafei F, Tobias J, Halstead JA, Sales K, Xia L, Vergara V |title=Extra bold: a feminist inclusive anti-racist nonbinary field guide for graphic designers |date=2021 |location=Hudson, NY| publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |isbn=978-1-61689-918-9 |edition=1st}}{{page needed|date=January 2025}}</ref>

A 2009 study<ref name="Griffin">{{cite journal | vauthors = Griffin E, Pollak D | title = Student experiences of neurodiversity in higher education: insights from the BRAINHE project | journal = Dyslexia | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 23–41 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19140120 | doi = 10.1002/dys.383 }}</ref> separated 27 students with conditions including autism, dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, and having suffered a stroke into two categories of self-view: "A 'difference' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a difference incorporating a set of strengths and weaknesses, or a 'medical/deficit' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a disadvantageous medical condition". They found that, although all of the students reported uniformly difficult schooling careers involving exclusion, abuse, and bullying, those who viewed themselves from the "difference" view (41% of the study cohort) "indicated higher academic self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and many (73%) expressed considerable career ambitions with positive and clear goals".<ref name="Griffin" /> Many of these students reported gaining this view of themselves through contact with neurodiversity advocates in online support groups.<ref name="Griffin" />

A 2013 online survey which aimed to assess conceptions of autism and neurodiversity suggested that conception of autism as a difference, and not a deficit, is developmentally beneficial and "transcend[s] a [[false dichotomy]] between celebrating differences and ameliorating deficit".<ref name="Kapp">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kapp SK, Gillespie-Lynch K, Sherman LE, Hutman T | title = Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity | journal = Developmental Psychology | volume = 49 | issue = 1 | pages = 59–71 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 22545843 | doi = 10.1037/a0028353 | url = https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/deficit-difference-or-both-autism-and-neurodiversity(59e6fbde-15d4-4a2f-8ea5-b833bdec2404).html }}</ref>

Neurodiversity advocate [[John Elder Robison]] argues that the disabilities and strengths conferred by neurological differences may be mutually inseparable. "When 99 neurologically identical people fail to solve a problem, it's often the 1% fellow who's different who holds the key. Yet that person may be disabled or disadvantaged most or all of the time. To neurodiversity proponents, people are disabled because they are at the edges of the bell curve, not because they are sick or broken."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robison |first1=John Elder |title=What Is Neurodiversity? |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/my-life-with-aspergers/201310/what-is-neurodiversity |work=Psychology Today |date=7 October 2013 |archive-date=May 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513164340/https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/my-life-aspergers/201310/what-is-neurodiversity |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Higher education ==
There are several models that are used to understand disability. There is the [[medical model of disability]] that views people as needing to be treated or cured.<ref name="Kwon Guadalupe Archer et al Understanding career development">{{Cite journal |last1=Kwon |first1=Chang-kyu |last2=Guadalupe |first2=Sarah S. |last3=Archer |first3=Matthew |last4=Groomes |first4=Darlene A. |date=August 2023 |title=Understanding career development pathways of college students with disabilities using crip theory and the theory of whole self |journal=Journal of Diversity in Higher Education |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=520–525 |doi=10.1037/dhe0000464 }}</ref> Another model is the [[social model of disability]], which puts emphasis on the way that society treats people with disabilities.<ref name="Kwon Guadalupe Archer et al Understanding career development"/> Through the social model of disability, the experiences of neurodivergent students in higher education are partially influenced by the reactions and attitudes of other students and the institution itself.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education">{{cite journal |last1=Clouder |first1=Lynn |last2=Karakus |first2=Mehmet |last3=Cinotti |first3=Alessia |last4=Ferreyra |first4=María Virginia |last5=Fierros |first5=Genoveva Amador |last6=Rojo |first6=Patricia |title=Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis |journal=Higher Education |date=October 2020 |volume=80 |issue=4 |pages=757–778 |doi=10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6 |url=https://pure.coventry.ac.uk/ws/files/42442824/Binder1.pdf }}</ref>

=== Experiences of neurodivergent students ===
The emotional experiences of neurodivergent students in higher education depend on a combination of factors, including the type of disability, the level of support needs, and the student's access to resources and accommodations.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> A common difficulty for neurodivergent students is maintaining social relationships, which can give rise to [[loneliness]], [[anxiety]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]].<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> There is also the added stress and difficulty of transitioning into higher education, as well as the responsibilities and task management required in college.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> Many neurodivergent students may find that they need added support.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> As for academics, neurodivergent students may experience difficulties in learning, [[Executive functions|executive function]], managing peer relationships in the classroom or in group work, and other difficulties that can affect academic performance and success in higher education.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> However, neurodivergent students may find that their differences are a strength and an integral part of their new social roles as adults.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/>

=== Higher education institutions ===
The typical curriculum and format of higher education may pose as a challenge for neurodivergent students, and a lack of support and flexibility from staff may further complicate the university experience.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> Thus, reasonable adjustments are available to students who disclose their disabilities.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> However, these adjustments or accommodations may put an emphasis on academics, and less on the various challenges of higher education on neurodivergent students.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> For instance, neurodivergent students in higher education also report a need for non-academic supports, such as social mentorships and resources for strength-based interventions in order to further assist neurodivergent students in the social aspects of college life.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/> Similarly, career preparation that is specifically targeted for neurodivergent students is lacking. There are several programs, such as [[supported employment]], that exist to help assist neurodivergent individuals in finding and obtaining a job. However, many of these programs do not exist in schools. This can make it difficult for neurodivergent students to find a career path that they feel is attainable for them.<ref name="Kwon Guadalupe Archer et al Understanding career development"/> Another consideration is the implementation of a [[Universal Design for Learning|universal design for learning]] approach (UDL) when building learning spaces or communal areas that considers the needs of neurodivergent students. A UDL design incorporates a design that accommodates the needs of all students, including the neurodivergent population.<ref name="Densberger-2021">{{cite journal |id={{Gale|A679898761}} |last=Densberger |first=Kathryn |date=2021 |title=Book Review: Supporting Neurodiverse College Student Success: A Guide for Librarians, Student Support Services, and Academic Learning Environments |journal=The Learning Assistance Review |volume=26 |issue=2 }}</ref>

According to a 2023 article, universities and post-secondary establishments would show more tolerance towards neurodivergent people.{{Clarify|reason=would?|date=August 2025}} A tolerant environment can increase autonomy, leading to kindness and understanding among students.<ref name="Hamilton-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=Lorna G. |last2=Petty |first2=Stephanie |date=2023-02-16 |title=Compassionate pedagogy for neurodiversity in higher education: A conceptual analysis |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |language=English |volume=14 |article-number=1093290 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093290 |doi-access=free |pmc=9978378 |pmid=36874864 }}</ref> Higher education institutions offer counseling and support services to students. However, neurodivergent students face particular challenges that impair their ability to receive consistent support and care. Additionally, counseling and support services face a lack of funding, personnel, and specialists that can adequately support neurodivergent students. Overall, these services work for some students and not for others.<ref name="Clouder et al Neurodiversity in higher education"/>

Nachman and colleagues reviewed several articles published by two-year community colleges and found some discrepancies in the way that they perceived and categorized "disabled" students and "non-disabled" students. They found that all of the articles were attempting to normalize disability. Many of them put a distinct separation between typical and atypical learners as well as their potential academic achievement. Nachman also found that many of the articles showed a lack of autonomy for neurodivergent students. They had little power in regard to academic choices and classroom management.<ref name="Nachman-2024">{{cite journal |last1=Nachman |first1=Brett Ranon |last2=Brown |first2=Kirsten R. |title=Crip places: Dismantling disability discourse in the 2-year college literature |journal=Journal of Diversity in Higher Education |date=August 2024 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=634–647 |doi=10.1037/dhe0000443 }}</ref>

== In the workplace ==
Neurodivergent individuals are subjected to bias when applying and interviewing for job positions.<ref name="Whelpley-2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Whelpley CE, May CP | title = Seeing is Disliking: Evidence of Bias Against Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Traditional Job Interviews | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 1363–1374 | date = April 2023 | pmid = 35294714 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-022-05432-2 }}</ref> Specifically, neurodivergent individuals can have their social engagement style compared to neurotypical individuals, which can affect their ability to obtain a job position.<ref name="Whelpley-2023" /> Stigmas against neurodivergence (especially against autistic individuals) and cognition challenges in social situations can hinder an individual's ability to perform well in a traditional job interview.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Willis C, Powell-Rudy T, Colley K, Prasad J | title = Examining the Use of Game-Based Assessments for Hiring Autistic Job Seekers | journal = Journal of Intelligence | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | page = 53 | date = November 2021 | pmid = 34842751 | pmc = 8628896 | doi = 10.3390/jintelligence9040053 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Organizations such as [[Specialisterne]] aim to use neurodivergent employees' particular skills – such as [[Pattern recognition (psychology)|pattern recognition]], detection of deviations, attention to detail, [[analytical thinking]], and extended focus – in the workforce, as well as educate companies on supporting neurodivergent employees.<ref name="Specialisterne-2017">{{cite book |doi=10.1787/9789264268500-22-en |chapter=Specialisterne & SAP: A partnership for access to markets, multiple countries/ Denmark |title=Boosting Social Enterprise Development |series=Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) |date=2017 |pages=215–223 |isbn=978-92-64-26849-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Moran |first=Gwen |date=2019-12-07 |title=Companies Like Microsoft and Goldman Sachs Are Hiring More Neurodiverse Talent |url=https://fortune.com/2019/12/07/autism-aspergers-adhd-dyslexia-neurodiversity-hiring-jobs-work/ |access-date=2024-07-07 |website=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Neurodiversity inclusion projects |url=https://specialisternebrasil.com/en/neurodiversity-inclusion-projects/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |website=Specialisterne Brasil}}</ref>

In a [[systematic review]] that considered developmental [[dyslexia]] as "an expression of neurodiversity", it was suggested that neurodiversity is not yet an established concept in the workplace, and therefore, support from social relationships and work accommodations is minimal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = de Beer J, Heerkens Y, Engels J, van der Klink J | title = Factors relevant to work participation from the perspective of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review of qualitative studies | journal = BMC Public Health | volume = 22 | issue = 1 | article-number = 1083 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 35642026 | pmc = 9158268 | doi = 10.1186/s12889-022-13436-x | doi-access = free }}</ref> Furthermore, another systematic review that focused on [[pharmacological]] and combined pharmacological/[[psychosocial]] interventions for adults with [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] found that there were few workplace-based intervention studies, and suggested that additional research needs to be conducted to figure out how to best support neurodivergent employees in the workplace.<ref name="Lauder-2022">{{cite journal |vauthors=Lauder K, McDowall A, Tenenbaum HR |date=2022 |title=A systematic review of interventions to support adults with ADHD at work – Implications from the paucity of context-specific research for theory and practice |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=13 |article-number=893469 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.893469 |pmc=9443814 |pmid=36072032 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Military service and conscription ===
{{Main|Military service and conscription for autistic people}}
Military policies around the world have excluded individuals with autism from service, which neurodiversity advocates argue is a form of discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nelken-Zitser |first=Joshua |date=Jan 12, 2023 |title=Most armies ignore autistic people. Israel is calling them up. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/army-autistic-people-israel-idf-calling-up-military-conscription-2023-1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230222101821/https://www.businessinsider.com/army-autistic-people-israel-idf-calling-up-military-conscription-2023-1 |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=businessinsider}}; {{Cite web |last1=Donvan |first1=John |last2=McAfee |first2=Marjorie |last3=Sheward |first3=Katy |last4=Green |first4=Justin |last5=Young |first5=Aria |date=May 2, 2024 |title=People with autism navigate roadblocks to serving in the military |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/people-autism-navigate-roadblocks-serving-military/story?id=109748037 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214092036/https://abcnews.go.com/US/people-autism-navigate-roadblocks-serving-military/story?id=109748037 |archive-date=February 14, 2025 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=[[ABC News (United States)|abc news]]}}</ref>

In the United States, the Department of Defense officially bars all autistic individuals from joining the military. However, a soldier diagnosed with autism while already on active duty can continue to serve. This often leads to individuals pursuing a diagnosis in secret, as they fear it could jeopardize their careers. Advocates like Cortney Weinbaum argue that the military should embrace neurodiversity to enhance national security and that the U.S. government is wrong to classify neurodivergent individuals as disabled. They recommend systematic reforms, including providing accommodations, updating job descriptions, and training staff.<ref>{{Harvard citation|Donvan|McAfee|Sheward|Green|2024}}; {{Cite web |last=Weinbaum |first=Cortney |date=July 17, 2023 |title=In national security, autism is in the closet. Here's why. |url=https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2023/07/17/in-national-security-autism-is-in-the-closet-heres-why/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250720202935/https://www.militarytimes.com/opinion/2023/07/17/in-national-security-autism-is-in-the-closet-heres-why/ |archive-date=July 20, 2025 |access-date=August 12, 2025 |website=military times}}; {{Cite web |last=Advanced Therapy Clinic |date=March 22, 2025 |title=Can You Join The Military With Autism? |url=https://www.advancedtherapyclinic.com/blog/can-you-join-the-military-with-autism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420121836/https://www.advancedtherapyclinic.com/blog/can-you-join-the-military-with-autism |archive-date=April 20, 2025 |access-date=August 12, 2025}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Weinbaum |first1=Cortney |last2=Khan |first2=Omair |last3=Thomas |first3=Teresa D. |last4=Stein |first4=Bradley D. |date=March 27, 2023 |title=Neurodiversity and National Security, How to Tackle National Security Challenges with a Wider Range of Cognitive Talents |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA1875-1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250415062901/https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA1875-1.html |archive-date=April 15, 2025 |access-date=August 12, 2025 |journal=Rand Health Quarterly |volume=10 |issue=4 |page=9 |pmid=37720075 |pmc=10501819 }}</ref>

In Sweden, a policy of excluding autistic individuals from military service has led to legal challenges. While Sweden made changes to allow some individuals with mild ADHD to serve, it has maintained its strict exclusion of those with autism. This has prompted several lawsuits from neurodiversity advocates, who argue the policy is discriminatory. Erik Fenn, who was initially denied enlistment due to his autism diagnosis, successfully sued the government and was deemed eligible for conscription. As of early 2025, Fenn is serving, and the Swedish military is facing multiple lawsuits over its exclusionary policies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DO |date=June 29, 2021 |title=Automatisk uteslutning av personer med autism och ADHD är diskriminering |url=https://www.do.se/om-do/pressrum/aktuellt/2021/2021-06-29-automatisk-uteslutning-av-personer-med-autism-och-adhd-ar-diskriminering |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250119200759/https://www.do.se/om-do/pressrum/aktuellt/2021/2021-06-29-automatisk-uteslutning-av-personer-med-autism-och-adhd-ar-diskriminering |archive-date=January 19, 2025 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=DO}}; {{Cite web |last=Autism Sverige |date=November 21, 2024 |title=Försvarsmakten bröt mot diskrimineringslagen mot sökande med autism |url=https://www.autism.se/aktuellt/forsvarsmakten-brot-mot-diskrimineringslagen-mot-sokande-med-autism/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325193524/https://www.autism.se/aktuellt/forsvarsmakten-brot-mot-diskrimineringslagen-mot-sokande-med-autism/ |archive-date=March 25, 2025 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=Autism Sverige}}; {{Cite web |last=Olsson |first=Jonas |date=April 7, 2022 |title=Nya regler: Försvarsmakten tillåter "lindrig adhd" för värnpliktiga |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/nya-regler-forsvarsmakten-tillater-lindrig-adhd-vid-monstring-for-varnplikt |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240911012936/https://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/nya-regler-forsvarsmakten-tillater-lindrig-adhd-vid-monstring-for-varnplikt |archive-date=September 11, 2024 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=SVT NYHETER}}; {{Cite web |last=DO |date=April 25, 2024 |title=Man med autism fick inte mönstra för värnplikt |url=https://www.do.se/rattsfallbeslutlagarochstodmaterial/tvisterdomarochtillsynsbeslut/ovrigt/manmedautismfickintemonstraforvarnplikt.4.185e7ba818e17cdd617529.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250420222340/https://www.do.se/rattsfallbeslutlagarochstodmaterial/tvisterdomarochtillsynsbeslut/ovrigt/manmedautismfickintemonstraforvarnplikt.4.185e7ba818e17cdd617529.html |archive-date=April 20, 2025 |access-date=August 11, 2025 |website=DO}}; {{Cite web |last=Lundbäck |first=Maja |date=March 18, 2025 |title=Diagnosen Erik Fenn fick som tioåring satte stopp för att få mönstra – 28 gånger. Försvarsmakten anklagas för att diskriminera unga med autism i sju pågående rättsfall. |url=https://www.svd.se/a/250p5q/professor-sven-bolte-forsvarsmakten-har-foraldrad-syn-pa-autism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250402175945/https://www.svd.se/a/250p5q/professor-sven-bolte-forsvarsmakten-har-foraldrad-syn-pa-autism |archive-date=April 2, 2025 |access-date=August 12, 2025 |website=Svenska Dagbladet}};</ref>

== In social media ==
The increase in representation of the neurodiversity movement in the media came about with changes in the technology of the media platforms themselves.<ref name="Leadbitter-2021"/> The recent addition of text-based options on various social media sites allows disabled users to communicate, enjoy, and share at a more accessible rate.<ref name="Leadbitter-2021" /> [[Social media]] has a two-fold benefit to the neurodivergent community: it can help spread awareness and pioneer the neurodiversity movement, and it can also allow members of the communities themselves to connect.<ref name="Wang-2020">{{cite conference | vauthors = Wang T, Garfield M, Wisniewski P, Page X |chapter=Benefits and Challenges for Social Media Users on the Autism Spectrum |date=October 17, 2020 |book-title=Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing |pages=419–424 |location=New York |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |doi=10.1145/3406865.3418322 |isbn=978-1-4503-8059-1 |title=Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing }}</ref><ref name="Gabarron-2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gabarron E, Dechsling A, Skafle I, Nordahl-Hansen A | title = Discussions of Asperger Syndrome on Social Media: Content and Sentiment Analysis on Twitter | journal = JMIR Formative Research | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | article-number = e32752 | date = March 2022 | pmid = 35254265 | pmc = 8938830 | doi = 10.2196/32752 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Social media as a platform ===
Media platforms allow the connection of individuals of similar backgrounds to find a community of support with one another.<ref name="Wang-2020"/> Online networking and connections enable users to determine their comfort level in interactions, giving them control over their relationships with others. For the neurodivergent community, social media has proven to be a valuable tool for forming relationships, especially for those who find social situations challenging.<ref name="Brownlow-2015">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Brownlow C, Bertilsdotter Rosqvist H, O'Dell L |date=November 2, 2015 |title=Exploring the potential for social networking among people with autism: challenging dominant ideas of 'friendship' |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=188–193 |doi=10.1080/15017419.2013.859174 |doi-access=free }}</ref> By connecting neurodivergent users, media platforms provide "[[safe space]]s" that are helpful in forming relationships.<ref name="Brownlow-2015" /> Some media developers have created platforms like "Blausm" that are designed specifically to connect neurodivergent users and families.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 26, 2022 |title=Blossom: An App for the Neurodiverse Community |url=https://mittalsouthasiainstitute.harvard.edu/2022/01/blossom-app/ |access-date=April 11, 2022 |website=The Lakshmi Mittal and Family South Asia Institute |archive-date=May 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529021500/https://mittalsouthasiainstitute.harvard.edu/2022/01/blossom-app/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Blausm |url=https://www.blausm.app/ |access-date=October 1, 2025 |website=Blausm }}</ref>

=== Social media as a driving force ===
Social media also allows users to spread awareness about the [[Autism rights movement|neurodiversity movement]].<ref name="Calhoun-2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Calhoun AJ, Gold JA | title = 'I Feel Like I Know Them': the Positive Effect of Celebrity Self-disclosure of Mental Illness | journal = Academic Psychiatry | volume = 44 | issue = 2 | pages = 237–241 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32100256 | doi = 10.1007/s40596-020-01200-5 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Increasing awareness about mental conditions has been shown to increase the amount of factual information spread.<ref name="Calhoun-2020" /> The spread of information through social media exposure can assist the neurodiversity movement in educating the public about understanding disabilities such as autism and sifting out misinformation.<ref name="Gabarron-2022"/> By sharing neurodivergent experiences from a first-hand perspective, social media can educate the public and destigmatize certain conditions. Still, negative portrayals of neurodivergence can have an obstructive impact on members of the community.<ref name="Calhoun-2020" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stuart H | title = Media portrayal of mental illness and its treatments: what effect does it have on people with mental illness? | journal = CNS Drugs | volume = 20 | issue = 2 | pages = 99–106 | date = February 1, 2006 | pmid = 16478286 | doi = 10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002 }}</ref>

Higher awareness and acceptance through social media can lead people to self-identify as neurodivergent.<ref name="David-2024">{{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Anthony S. |last2=Deeley |first2=Quinton |title=Dangers of self-diagnosis in neuropsychiatry |journal=Psychological Medicine |date=April 2024 |volume=54 |issue=6 |pages=1057–1060 |doi=10.1017/S0033291724000308 |pmid=38379196 }}</ref> Generally, self-diagnosis is discouraged in psychiatry because it is thought to be wrong more often than a professional assessment and because it is said that it trivializes challenges by turning them into fashion labels.<ref name="David-2024" /> Robert Chapman, in contrast, questions the reliability of professional autism assessments as they often overlook the experiences of individuals who are not white cisgender male children and states that self-identification is not done for fashion purposes but because it helps understanding one's strengths and challenges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Is Psychiatric Self-Diagnosis Valid? {{!}} Psychology Today |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/neurodiverse-age/201912/is-psychiatric-self-diagnosis-valid |access-date=2025-02-02 |website=www.psychologytoday.com |language=en}}</ref> Sue Fletcher-Watson argues that because autism should not be classified as a disorder and no treatment should follow a diagnosis, autistic individuals should have the autonomy to self-identify as autistic, liberating them from the power of medical professionals in defining autism and determining who belongs to the autistic community.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fletcher-Watson |first1=Sue |title=What's in a name? The costs and benefits of a formal autism diagnosis |journal=Autism |date=February 2024 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1177/13623613231213300 |pmid=37997793 |hdl=20.500.11820/8b02c4c7-ebcc-4fb3-848e-c172d1b816fd |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A group of researchers created a preliminary self-report questionnaire for autistic people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ratto |first1=Allison B. |last2=Bascom |first2=Julia |last3=daVanport |first3=Sharon |last4=Strang |first4=John F. |last5=Anthony |first5=Laura G. |last6=Verbalis |first6=Alyssa |last7=Pugliese |first7=Cara |last8=Nadwodny |first8=Nicole |last9=Brown |first9=Lydia X.Z. |last10=Cruz |first10=Mallory |last11=Hector |first11=Becca Lory |last12=Kapp |first12=Steven K. |last13=Giwa Onaiwu |first13=Morénike |last14=Raymaker |first14=Dora M. |last15=Robison |first15=John Elder |last16=Stewart |first16=Catriona |last17=Stone |first17=Ren |last18=Whetsell |first18=Emma |last19=Pelphrey |first19=Kevin |last20=Kenworthy |first20=Lauren |title=Centering the Inner Experience of Autism: Development of the Self-Assessment of Autistic Traits |journal=Autism in Adulthood |date=March 2023 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1089/aut.2021.0099 |pmid=36941856 |pmc=10024271 }}</ref>

=== Challenges within media ===
Although representation of the neurodivergent community has grown with the help of social media platforms, those users are often criticized and misunderstood.<ref name="Bitman-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Bitman |first1=Nomy |title='Authentic' digital inclusion? Dis/ability performances on social media by users with concealable communicative disabilities |journal=New Media & Society |date=February 2022 |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=401–419 |doi=10.1177/14614448211063183 }}</ref> Social media has not entirely removed the social barriers that restrict inclusion of neurodivergent people. Some have reported needing to conform to the mainstream view of their disability to be seen as "authentic" users.<ref name="Bitman-2022" /> Doing so has indirectly made it more difficult for neurodivergent users to grow platforms.<ref name="Bitman-2022" /><ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Salisbury M, Pooley J |date=January 20, 2017 |title=The #nofilter Self: The Contest for Authenticity among Social Networking Sites, 2002–2016 |journal=Social Sciences |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=10 |doi=10.3390/socsci6010010 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Non-disabled users assessing the authenticity of neurodivergent individuals based on stereotypes indicates that the neurodiversity movement has not achieved its goal of inclusion.<ref name="Bitman-2022" />

== Clinical setting ==
=== Medicine and healthcare ===
Medical and healthcare professionals have begun to acknowledge neurodivergence among employees.<ref name="Duong-2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Duong D, Vogel L | title = Untapped potential: embracing neurodiversity in medicine | journal = CMAJ | volume = 194 | issue = 27 | pages = E951–E952 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35851534 | pmc = 9299741 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.1096006 }}</ref><ref name="Im Tamarelli ADHD in Medical Learners">{{cite journal | vauthors = Im DS, Tamarelli CM | title = Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Medical Learners and Physicians and a Potentially Helpful Educational Tool | journal = Advances in Medical Education and Practice | volume = 14 | pages = 435–442 | date = 2023 | pmid = 37131931 | pmc = 10149068 | doi = 10.2147/AMEP.S398196 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Specifically, more groups are being created that are centered around advocacy and peer support among medical and healthcare professionals who associate themselves with neurodiversity, such as Autistic Doctors International, created by Dr. Mary Doherty.<ref name="Duong-2022" /> Another approach is the implementation of a 5-minute video summary (5MVS) for medical learners and physicians who have [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD).<ref name="Im Tamarelli ADHD in Medical Learners"/> It consists of a 5-minute recorded video summary in which an engaging speaker presents the relevant information from a scientific article about ADHD using a brief [[PowerPoint]] presentation shared using videoconferencing technology. The researchers state that providing this educational tool for helping medical learners and physicians with ADHD acquire relevant information from scientific articles could help in addressing their inattention, impulsivity or hyperactivity, and improve their development of critical appraisal skills when working in healthcare.<ref name="Im Tamarelli ADHD in Medical Learners"/>

Similarly, healthcare systems may benefit from hiring neurodivergent individuals to gain a unique perspective when caring for patients.<ref name="www.aap.org">{{Cite web |title=Embracing Neurodiversity in Our Health Systems |url=https://www.aap.org/en/news-room/aap-voices/embracing-neurodiversity-in-our-health-systems/ |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=www.aap.org |language=en}}</ref> Some healthcare staff agree that inviting neurodivergent individuals to join patient advisory groups or hiring them as staff are essential steps to acceptance and integration in the workforce. Neurodivergent people's unique strengths can be vital to health system innovation and improvement efforts.<ref name="www.aap.org" /> One example of the push toward this is the Stanford Neurodiversity Project, in which one of their goals is to discover the strengths of neurodivergent individuals and make use of their talents to increase innovation and productivity of their society, such as working in the field of healthcare and medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Stanford Neurodiversity Project |url=https://med.stanford.edu/neurodiversity.html |access-date=2023-10-26 |website=Stanford Neurodiversity Project |language=sm}}</ref>

Neurodiversity has also recently been investigated as a new way of working within neurodevelopmental clinics in the UK.<ref name="Dunn-2024">{{cite journal | vauthors = Dunn ZD, Gowda A, Horsfall Turner IC | title = The viability of a proposed psychoeducational neurodiversity approach in children services: The PANDA (the Portsmouth alliance's neuro-diversity approach) | journal = Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–212 | date = January 2024 | pmid = 37311174 | doi = 10.1177/13591045231184121 }}</ref> A team of researchers in Portsmouth, England, have created an approach in aiding neurodivergent individuals known as PANDA, or the Portsmouth Alliance Neurodiversity Approach. This approach may help medical and healthcare professionals facilitate understanding, communication and early support for children who may identify as being neurodivergent.<ref name="Dunn-2024" />

== Therapy ==
Neurodiversity and the role it plays in therapeutic settings has been a central focal point in recent years. Many therapists and mental health professionals have pushed for more inclusive psychotherapeutic frameworks appropriate for neurodivergent individuals.<ref name="Chapman-2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chapman R, Botha M | title = Neurodivergence-informed therapy | journal = Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 310–317 | date = March 2023 | pmid = 36082483 | doi = 10.1111/dmcn.15384 }}</ref><ref name="Healey-2023">{{Cite web |vauthors=Healey G |date=2023 |title=What is neurodiversity affirming therapy? |url=https://www.lawsonpsychology.com.au/neurodiversity-affirming-therapy/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=Lawson Clinical Psychology |language=en-GB |archive-date=November 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128164222/https://www.lawsonpsychology.com.au/neurodiversity-affirming-therapy/ |url-status=live }}</ref> One example is neurodivergence-informed therapy, which reframes dysfunction as interconnectedness among society rather than strictly individual, advocating for acceptance and pride in the neurodiversity community, and the push for therapists to pursue [[humility]] regarding the knowledge and education associated with individuals who identify as neurodivergent.<ref name="Chapman-2023" /> Similarly, neurodiversity-affirming therapy supports neurodivergent differences, rather than viewing them as something that should be eliminated, and to offer ways to support the individual with difficult areas, while still appreciating their needs and strengths.<ref name="Healey-2023" />

Therapeutic programs and interventions are also being investigated for the neurodivergent community.<ref name="McDonald-2023">{{cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=T. A. Meridian |last2=Lalani |first2=Salima |last3=Chen |first3=Ivy |last4=Cotton |first4=Claire M. |last5=MacDonald |first5=Lydia |last6=Boursoulian |first6=Lana J. |last7=Wang |first7=Jiahao |last8=Malow |first8=Beth A. |date=August 2023 |title=Appropriateness, Acceptability, and Feasibility of a Neurodiversity-Based Self-determination Program for Autistic Adults |journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders |volume=53 |issue=8 |pages=2933–2953 |doi=10.1007/s10803-022-05598-9 |pmc=9934918 |pmid=35618972}}</ref><ref name="Manning-2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manning C, Scerif G | title = Understanding perceptual decisions by studying development and neurodiversity | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 300–306 | date = August 2023 | pmid = 37547284 | pmc = 7614885 | doi = 10.1177/09637214231162369 }}</ref> [[Self-determination]] programs that help neurodivergent individuals achieve their goals in life have been found to be successful, with neurodivergent participants finding it to be "appropriate, acceptable, and feasible".<ref name="McDonald-2023" /> Various approaches (e.g., eye-tracking, longitudinal data, computational modeling) in understanding perceptual decision-making in neurodivergent individuals are also being studied and the implications it may have in the therapeutic environment in working with the neurodivergent population.<ref name="Manning-2023" />

Another form of therapeutic intervention in that has been investigated in neurodivergent individuals is the use of Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs).<ref name="Schuck et al Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention"/> NDBIs have been shown to have positive effects on language and social-communication while, at the same time, respecting individuals' needs and autonomy. One of the key goals in this type of intervention is putting the focus of therapy on the neurodivergent individual themselves in the creation of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. In doing so, they are likely to be seen as more acceptable, useful, and effective to that individual.<ref name="Schuck et al Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention"/>

In addition to support from neurodiversity advocates for affirming therapies, concerns have been raised about the role of certain approaches such as [[applied behavior analysis]]. Neurodivergent individuals and activists tend to emphasize that these interventions aim to enforce conformity with expectations of society rather than addressing the needs of the person receiving the intervention.<ref name="Leaf-2022">{{cite journal | vauthors = Leaf JB, Cihon JH, Leaf R, McEachin J, Liu N, Russell N, Unumb L, Shapiro S, Khosrowshahi D | title = Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations | journal = Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 2838–2853 | date = June 2022 | pmid = 34132968 | pmc = 9114057 | doi = 10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y }}</ref> While a large body of research on the role of ABA seems to support its efficacy in cognitive and behavioral outcomes, a meta-analysis by Sandbank et al. challenges the evidence.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sandbank |first1=Micheal |last2=Bottema-Beutel |first2=Kristen |last3=Crowley |first3=Shannon |last4=Cassidy |first4=Margaret |last5=Dunham |first5=Kacie |last6=Feldman |first6=Jacob I. |last7=Crank |first7=Jenna |last8=Albarran |first8=Susanne A. |last9=Raj |first9=Sweeya |last10=Mahbub |first10=Prachy |last11=Woynaroski |first11=Tiffany G. |title=Project AIM: Autism intervention meta-analysis for studies of young children |journal=Psychological Bulletin |date=January 2020 |volume=146 |issue=1 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.1037/bul0000215 |pmc=8783568 |pmid=31763860 }}</ref> Additionally, there are concerns regarding long-term mental health impacts and with the measures used in determining social validity by those who have raised these concerns. In addition to advocates from within the neurodivergent community, some behavioral analysts have begun to reconsider the role of these therapies with the context of a neurodiversity framework.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shkedy |first1=Gary |last2=Shkedy |first2=Dalia |last3=Sandoval-Norton |first3=Aileen H. |title=Long-term ABA Therapy Is Abusive: A Response to Gorycki, Ruppel, and Zane |journal=Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders |date=June 2021 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=126–134 |doi=10.1007/s41252-021-00201-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Leaf-2022" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|Psychology|Psychiatry|Medicine}}
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order. -->
* [[Autistic Pride Day]]
* [[Mad pride]]
* [[Mental illness denial]]
* [[Neuroqueer theory]]
* [[Neuroinclusive design]]
* [[Psychiatric survivors movement]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{refbegin}}

* {{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0 |title=Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement |date=2020 |isbn=978-981-13-8436-3 |editor-last1=Kapp |editor-first1=Steven K. |hdl=20.500.12657/23177 }}

{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Omeiza KA | date = 2024| title = Autistic and Black: Our Experiences of Growth, Progress, and Empowerment | publisher = Jessica Kingsley Publishers| location = London | isbn = 978-1-83997-620-9 | url = https://us.jkp.com/products/autistic-and-black}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Praslova LN | url = https://hbr.org/2021/12/autism-doesnt-hold-people-back-at-work-discrimination-does | title = Autism Doesn't Hold People Back at Work. Discrimination Does | journal = Harvard Business Review | date = December 13, 2021 | access-date = August 5, 2022 | url-status = live | archive-date = August 5, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220805224346/https://hbr.org/2021/12/autism-doesnt-hold-people-back-at-work-discrimination-does }}
* {{cite web | vauthors = Praslova LN | url = https://www.fastcompany.com/90706149/neurodivergent-people-make-great-leaders-not-just-employees | title = Neurodivergent people make great leaders, not just employees | work = Fast Company | date = December 15, 2021 | access-date = August 5, 2022 | url-status = live | archive-date = August 5, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220805214413/https://www.fastcompany.com/90706149/neurodivergent-people-make-great-leaders-not-just-employees }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Praslova LN | url = https://hbr.org/2022/06/an-intersectional-approach-to-inclusion-at-work | title = An Intersectional Approach to Inclusion at Work | journal = Harvard Business Review | date = June 21, 2022 | access-date = August 5, 2022 | url-status = live | archive-date = August 5, 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220805214150/https://hbr.org/2022/06/an-intersectional-approach-to-inclusion-at-work }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Smith T, Kirby A | date = 2021 | title = Neurodiversity at Work: Drive Innovation, Performance and Productivity with a Neurodiverse Workforce | publisher = Kogan Page Limited | location = London | isbn = 978-1-3986-0024-9 }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{sister project links|auto=yes}}
{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}
{{Dyslexia and specific developmental disorders}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Neurodiversity| ]]
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[[Category:Mental health]]
[[Category:Disability rights]]
[[Category:Sociological terminology]]
[[Category:1998 neologisms]]