View source for New Zealand cuisine

{{Short description|Culinary traditions of New Zealand}}
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{{Tone|date=July 2022}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2023}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Use New Zealand English|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox cuisine
| image = Mixed Berry Pavlova.jpg
| caption = A [[pavlova]], a popular dessert in Australia and New Zealand
| country = [[New Zealand]]
| regional =
| national_dishes = [[Fish and chips]], [[meat pie]]
| national_drinks = [[Beer]], [[coffee]], [[lemonade]], [[wine]]
| see_also = [[Beer in New Zealand]], [[list of restaurants in New Zealand]], [[Māori cuisine]], [[pub food]], [[wine in New Zealand]]
}}
The cuisine of '''New Zealand''' is largely driven by local ingredients and seasonal variations. As an island nation with a primarily agricultural economy, New Zealand yields produce from land and sea. Similar to the [[Australian cuisine|cuisine of Australia]], the [[cuisine]] of New Zealand is a diverse [[British cuisine|British-based cuisine]], with [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]] and [[Pacific Rim]] influences as the country has become more cosmopolitan.

Historical influences came from [[British cuisine]] and [[Māori culture]]. Since the 1970s, new cuisines such as [[New American cuisine]], [[Asian cuisine#Southeast Asia|Southeast Asian]], [[Asian cuisine#East Asia|East Asian]], and [[South Asian cuisine|South Asian]] have become popular.

==Māori cuisine==
[[File:Hāngi dinner.jpg|thumb|A [[hāngī]] dinner as served to tourists]]
When the [[Māori people|Māori]] arrived in New Zealand from tropical [[Polynesia]], they brought a number of [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|food plants]], including {{lang|mi|[[kūmara]]}}, [[taro]], [[Dioscorea alata|purple yam]], {{lang|mi|[[Lagenaria siceraria|hue]]}} and {{lang|mi|[[Cordyline fruticosa|tī-pore]]}}, most of which grew well only in the north of the [[North Island]]. Kūmara could be grown as far south as the northern [[South Island]], and became a staple food as it could be stored over the winter.<ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kumara/page-1|title=Kūmara|last=Adds|first=Peter|date=24 Nov 2008|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> Native New Zealand plants such as [[Pteridium esculentum|fernroot]] became a more important part of the diet, along with insects such as the [[huhu grub]]. [[Earthworms]], called {{lang|mi|[[Noke (worms)|noke]]}}, are a part of the traditional Māori diet as well. Problems with horticulture were made up for by an abundance of bird and marine life. The large, flightless [[moa]] was soon hunted to extinction for food and tools as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/why-did-new-zealands-moas-go-extinct-rev2|title=Why Did New Zealand's Moas Go Extinct?|last=Morell|first=Virginia|date=17 March 2014|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Perry|first1=George L. W.|last2=Wheeler|first2=Andrew B.|last3=Wood|first3=Jamie R.|last4=Wilmshurst|first4=Janet M.|date=2014|title=A high-precision chronology for the rapid extinction of New Zealand moa (Aves, Dinornithiformes)|journal=Quaternary Science Reviews|volume=105|pages=126–135|doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.025|bibcode=2014QSRv..105..126P |issn=0277-3791}}</ref> [[Rāhui]], or resource restrictions, included forbidding the hunting of certain species in particular places or at certain times of year to allow populations to be maintained.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Nathan |first=Simon |title=Conservation – a history – Māori conservation traditions |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/conservation-a-history/page-2 |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |date=24 September 2007 |access-date=24 January 2023}}</ref> Seafood consumed included {{lang|mi|[[Paranephrops|kōura]]}} or freshwater crayfish, {{lang|mi|[[pāua]]}} or abalone, and {{lang|mi|tio}} or [[bluff oyster]]s. The discovery of ''[[Typha orientalis]]'' led to the creation of a gritty unleavened bread made laboriously from its dried pollen called ''pungapunga''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neill |first1=Lindsay |last2=Sturny |first2=Arno |title=Pāraoa Rēwena: The Relegation of Aotearoa New Zealand's Indigenous Bread |journal=Sites: A Journal of Social Anthropology and Cultural Studies |date=Aug 2022 |volume=19 |issue=1 |page=65 |doi=10.11157/sites-id505}}</ref>

[[File:Hangi prepare.jpg|thumb|left|Preparation of a modern hāngī for tourists at Mitai Māori Village, Rotorua]]

Similar to other Polynesian people, Māori cooked food in earth ovens, known in New Zealand as [[hāngī]], although the word {{lang|mi|umu}} is also used.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jones|first=Kevin L.|date=1997|title=Umu and umu tī – Ngā Tohuwhenua Mai Te Rangi: A New Zealand Archeology in Aerial Photographs|url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-JonTohu-t1-body1-d4-d4-d4.html|access-date=2021-02-16|website=nzetc.victoria.ac.nz}}</ref> Stones are heated by fire and food packed in leaves placed on top. These packs are then covered with foliage, cloth, or wet sacks, and then a layer of earth.<ref name=":1">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori-foods-kai-maori/page-2|title=Māori foods – kai Māori|last1=Royal|first1=Charles|last2=Kaka-Scott|first2=Jenny|date=5 Sep 2013|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=2020-03-06}}</ref> Other cooking methods included roasting, boiling or steaming using geothermal heated water, and cooking over an open fire.<ref name=":1" />

Some foods were preserved using smoke, air-drying, fermentation, or layers of fat—particularly [[Muttonbirding|muttonbirds]].

Māori were one of the few people to have no form of [[alcoholic beverage]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Cook |first1=Megan |title=Māori use of alcohol |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/maori-smoking-alcohol-and-drugs-tupeka-waipiro-me-te-tarukino/page-2 |publisher=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 January 2023 |date=5 September 2013}}</ref>

===Food and religion===
In traditional [[Religion of Māori people|Māori religion]] food was noa, or non-sacred. This meant care had to be taken to prevent it from coming into contact with [[Tapu (Polynesian culture)|tapu]] places or objects. If it did, the tapu of the place or object, and often the people associated with it, would be at risk. High chiefs, and people engaged in tapu work such as tattooing, were tapu and were restricted in how they could deal with food, with the most tapu needing to be fed by others. One story tells of a war party which had to be postponed as no non-tapu people were available to load the food supplies into the party's [[Waka (canoe)|waka]].

===European influences===
[[File:Whitecliffs Sheep.jpg|thumb|Sheep grazing in Canterbury. Early British settlers introduced Western stock and crops. [[New Zealand agriculture]] now produces an abundance of fresh produce.]]

When Europeans ([[Pākehā]]) first arrived in New Zealand from the late eighteenth century, they brought their own foods with them. Some of these, especially [[pork]] and [[potatoes]], were quickly adopted by Māori. Potatoes were particularly popular as they were grown in a similar way to [[Sweet potato|kūmara]] but produced a much higher yield with less effort. Other European foods such as [[wheat]], [[pumpkin]], [[mutton]], [[sugar]], and many types of fruit also became a part of the Māori diet and were widely traded with visiting ships.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Reserve Bank and New Zealand's economic history |url=https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/-/media/ReserveBank/Files/Publications/Factsheets%20and%20Guides/factsheet-the-reserve-bank-and-nzs-economic-history.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125205620/https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/-/media/ReserveBank/Files/Publications/Factsheets%20and%20Guides/factsheet-the-reserve-bank-and-nzs-economic-history.pdf |archive-date=2019-01-25 |access-date=2022-09-14}}</ref> American sailors brought new varieties of [[sweet potato|kūmara]] to New Zealand, and these high-yield varieties quickly superseded the original varieties of kūmara. (Today, most kūmara are the commercial varieties: Owairaka Red, Toka Toka Gold and Beauregard.)<ref name=":0" /> The introduction of [[maize]] (''kōpakipaki''<!--refer to Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary (1891) page 163--> or ''kānga'') led to the creation of a meal called ''kōpiro'' which involves submerging corn cobs under running water to ferment before its kernels are scraped off and formed into cakes to roast or steam.<ref>{{cite book|page=101|first=Helen M.|last=Leach|title=A thousand years of gardening in New Zealand |publisher=A.H. & A.W. Reed|year=1984|location=Wellington}}</ref> A coffee and spice merchant of European descent, David Strang, invented instant coffee in Invercargill in 1890. The drink quickly spread around New Zealand and then around the world.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web |title=No.8 Re-Wired – Instant Coffee |url=http://www.no8rewired.kiwi/nz-inventions/instant-coffee/ |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=No.8 Re-Wired}}</ref>

[[Alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]], initially rejected as {{lang|mi|waipiro}} (stinking water), also became acceptable in Māori life.<ref>[http://rsnz.natlib.govt.nz/volume/rsnz_40/rsnz_40_00_002400.html 'Wai Piro'] in ''[[Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand]]''</ref> Most Māori tribes grew surpluses of food for trade with other tribes and with European visitors and settlers. Some tribes grew wealthy from this trade, although the Māori food industry declined in the mid-nineteenth century because of land loss and competition from settler farmers. Many traditional food sources, such as the [[kererū]] (wood pigeon) and other birds, as well as some types of fish and plants, became scarce as forests were destroyed and species were over-hunted.

===Māori cuisine today===
[[File:Maori boil-up.jpg|thumb|A Māori boil-up]]
Present-day Māori cuisine is a mixture of Māori tradition, old-fashioned English cookery, and contemporary dishes. Some Māori names for consumables, like [[pāua]] (also prized for its shell),<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Pāua |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/5105/paua |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=24 January 2023 }}</ref> have entered common New Zealand English usage.

Most large Māori gatherings feature a [[hāngī]], which is likely to contain foods brought to New Zealand by Māori and by pākehā. In recent decades, there has been much concern that Māori are disproportionately likely to suffer from [[obesity]], [[heart disease]], and [[diabetes]] as a result of eating habits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Metcalf |first1=Patricia A. |last2=Scragg |first2=Robert R.K. |last3=Schaaf |first3=David |last4=Dyall |first4=Lorna |last5=Black |first5=Peter N. |last6=Jackson |first6=Rod |title=Dietary intakes of European, Māori, Pacific and Asian adults living in Auckland: the Diabetes, Heart and Health Study |journal=Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health |date=October 2008 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=454–460 |doi=10.1111/j.1753-6405.2008.00279.x |pmid=18959550 |s2cid=41682168 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1753-6405.2008.00279.x |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Two dishes regarded as distinctively Māori are the [[boil-up]]—made of pork, potatoes, kūmara, and dumplings—and pork and pūhā ([[Sonchus|sow thistle]]), which combine introduced and indigenous foods. Both dishes owe much to nineteenth-century British cooking methods.

Another distinctive food is ''[[rēwena]]'' or "Māori bread", which is made with fermented potatoes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/218784|title=Making rewena bread|first1=Whiti|last1=Hereaka|first2=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|last2=Taonga|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]]}}{{Dead link|date=October 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}</ref> The 2020 cookbook ''Hiakai'' by chef [[Monique Fiso]], academic [[Tracy Berno]] and food writer Lucy Corry describes the history, development and [[Tikanga Māori|tikanga]] of modern Māori food.<ref>{{Cite Q|Q115488367}}</ref>

A dish served during Matariki feasts or at hākari (feasts) on the marae is parāoa parai (fry bread).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-01 |title=Parāoa Parai Recipe: Crispy and Fluffy Māori Fry Bread |url=https://maimoa.nz/blogs/news/the-best-fry-bread-recipe |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=Maimoa Creative }}</ref> They are described as crispy and golden brown on the outside and fluffy on the inside.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paraoa parai Fry bread |url=https://www.newworld.co.nz/recipes/baking/paraoa-parai-fry-bread |access-date=2023-07-13 |website=www.newworld.co.nz }}</ref>

==New Zealand European cuisine==
The majority of New Zealanders are [[Pākehā]] of British descent, so [[British cuisine]] has been very influential.

===British Isles settler food===
Nineteenth-century British settlers in New Zealand tried as much as possible to reproduce the foods of their homeland. In the early stages of colonisation this was difficult as many ingredients were unavailable. They ate native birds and fish, and used local ingredients in substitution for those which were unavailable, for example brewing [[tea]] and [[beer]] using unconventional plants. Most of these innovations were abandoned as the New Zealand British population increased and conventional ingredients began to be mass-imported or produced in New Zealand. One innovation which was commonly served on New Zealand tables until the mid-1980s was [[colonial goose]], a stuffed leg of lamb which substituted for goose.<ref name="Burton">{{cite journal |author=David Burton |date=March 2008 |title=Pavlova Paradise Lost |journal=Cuisine |volume=127 |pages=124–128}}</ref> A major difference between British and New Zealand British food was that meat was much more readily available to all social classes in New Zealand. Whereas in nineteenth-century [[United Kingdom|Britain]], labourers ate meat in very small quantities, in New Zealand they could have it for every meal. Since meat was a high-status food in Britain, British settlers in New Zealand ate vast quantities of it.<ref name="'Food' in Te Ara">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Food, drink and dress |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealandInBrief/Society/9/en}}</ref>

Like the British, New Zealand British have traditionally preferred sweet foods, and a wealth of baking dishes celebrate important occasions, reflected through [[cakes]], [[scones]], [[muffins]] and other mainly sweet baking dishes. The country's most iconic recipe book, the ''[[Edmonds Cookery Book]]'', originally began as publicity material for a [[baking powder]] company, and contains a high proportion of baking recipes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Palenski |first1=Ron |title=Kiwi Milestones: New Zealand's population through the millions |date=2004 |publisher=Hodder Moa Beckett |location=Auckland |isbn=978-1-86958-981-3 |page=25}}</ref>

===From Antipodean British fare to Asia-Pacific fusion===
For most of the twentieth century, New Zealand cuisine remained highly derivative of British food.<ref name="'Food' in Te Ara"/> Unlike Britain, New Zealand escaped major food shortages during World War II. However, demands of the US forces in the Pacific as well as exports to Britain saw meat and butter [[rationing|rationed]] between 1943 and 1950.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Econ-c17-35.html|title=Rationing of New Zealand-Grown Foods – NZETC|website=nzetc.victoria.ac.nz}}</ref>  From about the 1960s, the advent of affordable air travel allowed New Zealanders to travel overseas more easily. Many New Zealanders went to Europe on [[overseas experience]] where they encountered French and Italian cooking, and also the Indian and Chinese restaurants of [[United Kingdom|Britain]] as well as the [[Modern British cuisine|New British cuisine]]. When they returned home they helped create a demand for better-quality food and more variety.<ref name="'Food' in Te Ara"/> They also tried to discover what New Zealand cuisine was, experimenting with [[hāngī]] and gaining a greater appreciation of New Zealand produce.

The United Kingdom's joining of the [[European Economic Community]] (EEC) (now the [[European Union]]) in 1973 sounded the death knell of New Zealand's identity as an agricultural producer for the British Isles, and the formal cultural ties, including cuisine, with the United Kingdom started to become diluted.  During this period, certain non-British or Irish European dishes, such as [[beef bourguignon]], had shed the 'ethnic' connotation and entered mainstream New Zealand cooking. The 1970s also saw major changes in take-away food with the arrival of the first American fast-food chains: [[KFC|Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC)]] in 1971,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dining out – Food in the 20th century {{!}} NZHistory, New Zealand history online|url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/no-pavlova-please/dining-out|access-date=2021-03-25|website=nzhistory.govt.nz}}</ref> [[Pizza Hut]] in 1974,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Walters|first=Laura|date=2016-03-03|title=The evolution of New Zealand's pizza industry|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/industries/77077227/the-evolution-of-new-zealands-pizza-industry|access-date=2021-03-25|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] }}</ref> and [[McDonald's]] in 1976.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fallon|first=Virginia|date=2016-06-10|title=McDonald's NZ was born in Porirua 40 years ago with queues out the door|url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/food-wine/80889583/mcdonalds-born-in-porirua-celebrates-the-big-40|access-date=2021-03-25|website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] }}</ref>

The 1980s was marked with economic liberalisation dubbed [[Rogernomics]] (named for the then-Minister of Finance, Roger Douglas) that abolished farm subsidies, forcing many farmers to find alternative means of survival. Many chose to produce specialty cheese types like [[Havarti]], [[Brie]] and [[Stilton cheese|Stilton]], or diversified into growing olives{{efn|As an example, in 1984 there were only two producers of olive oil hailing from New Zealand. Twenty years later, the figure stood at 600.<ref>{{harvp|Taber|2007|p=9}}</ref>}} or grapes instead of traditional meat and dairy farming. [[Avocado oil]] for cooking was commercialised in New Zealand in 1999 by a group of growers based in the [[Tauranga]] region.

Rogernomics also abolished most import tariffs and instituted a more relaxed agricultural product import quarantine regime. This allowed hitherto prohibited or prohibitively expensive specialty foods, such as genuine [[Jamón serrano|serrano]] ham from Spain, [[extra virgin olive oil]] from Italy, and [[mango]] from Thailand, to be available in New Zealand at reasonable costs. These two developments from Rogernomics have given birth to a proliferation of specialist food products available in New Zealand.

On top of changes in available ingredients, the 1980s also witnessed a wholescale liberalisation in attitude towards the formerly 'foreign muck' cooking styles and segmentation of lifestyles according to income and socio-economic status. New Zealand had by this time developed a largely distinct cultural outlook away from the British Isles, and this also made foreign cooking styles more acceptable among the general public.<ref>{{harvp|Veart|2008|pp=216–294}}</ref> The same era also saw the moneyed populations feeling free to openly emulate the luxurious eating and drinking habits of upper and upper middle classes overseas, as the traditional New Zealand preference of egalitarianism, manifested in widespread prejudice against any deviation from lower-middle-class lifestyles, waned in influence. In the words of New Zealand-based anthropologist [[David Veart]], this period of sea change in New Zealand's culinary culture was akin to "being let out after a long school detention".{{sfnp|Veart|2008|p=303}}

==Other cuisines in New Zealand==
People from many different backgrounds have settled in New Zealand, and many have tried to reproduce their native cuisines or national dishes in New Zealand. Similar to early Pākehā settlers, this often proved difficult. Larger ethnic groups, such as the Chinese, were able to import some ingredients, but often dishes had to be modified to use local ingredients. Ethnic restaurants have served as community meeting places and have also given other New Zealanders a chance to try different cuisines. However, for most of its history there were few ethnic restaurants in New Zealand other than inauthentic Chinese, Indian and Italian eateries.<ref name="Rowland">{{cite book |last1=Rowland |first1=Perrin |title=Dining Out: A History of the Restaurant in New Zealand |date=2010 |publisher=Auckland University Press |location=Auckland |isbn=9781869404642}}</ref>

The Immigration Act 1986 completely abolished nationality preference for immigration, and immigration from [[East Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[South Asia]] has greatly increased since. Many of these immigrants have brought their  cuisines to New Zealand, and often opened ethnic restaurants and takeaway eateries, giving New Zealanders a chance to try more authentic editions of [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], [[Malay cuisine|Malay]], regional [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], and other [[Asian cuisine]]s. Over time these ethnic cuisines have been gradually accepted by Pākehā and Māori New Zealanders.<ref name="Rowland"/> Consequently, most New Zealand cities have a wide variety of ethnic restaurants, and foods such as [[kebabs]], [[couscous]], and [[sushi]] are served virtually everywhere. Many ethnic origin dishes have been willingly adopted by New Zealanders as their own, including sushi, [[antipasto]], [[butter chicken]], [[pad thai]], [[pasta]], such that they appear in home cooking, as well as in generic New Zealand restaurants.

Ingredients for many ethnic dishes have become much easier to find in major cities, mostly through speciality or ethnic food stores started by many of the post-1987 migrants to New Zealand, but in some cases also through mainstream New Zealand supermarket chains. Similar to Australia, in time the increasing availability of ingredients gave birth to a more authentic style of ethnic cooking, and some ethnic ingredients have been adopted for local cooking: ingredients such as [[extra virgin olive oil]] and [[sun-dried tomato]]es, and to a lesser extent [[fish sauce]] and [[Bánh tráng|rice paper wrappers]] were already seen as ordinary ingredients by 2000, whereas even by the late 1980s many people would still have regarded them as exotic.{{efn|Peta Mathias in 2005 claims ingredients such as [[fish sauce]] and [[Bánh tráng|rice paper]] are now a normal part of New Zealand household pantries.<ref>{{harvp|Mathias|2005|p=16}}</ref> Many New Zealanders still regard these as 'ethnic' ingredients, although as in Australia the foreign connotation is decreasing with the passage of time.<ref>See also {{harvp|Veart|2008|pp=295–314}}.</ref>}}

==Contemporary cuisine==
[[File:Hamburger in New Zealand.jpg|thumb|right|This [[hamburger]] at a Botany fast food chain contains slices of canned [[beetroot]].]]
[[File:Kingfish crudo, lotus chips, ponzu2.jpg|thumb|Kingfish crudo, lotus chips, ponzu served at the restaurant Field & Green in Wellington]]
As a result of various developments, the cuisine of New Zealand in the 21st century is in a state of flux: cosmopolitan [[Pacific Rim]] fare's reign is now the norm in much of metropolitan eating-out scenes,{{efn|There are even reports that in Auckland by 2007, the traditional fund-raising [[sausage sizzle]]s at many schools in the more affluent suburbs have been replaced with sushi, a supposedly lower fat and healthier alternative.}} and traditional hearty settlers' food, now dubbed 'Kwisine [[Kiwiana]]', {{citation needed|date=June 2021}} but reinterpreted through Pacific Rim cooking knowledge, is a popular cooking style for eating-out scenes even in the most remote rural regions. Most of the home cooking prepared at households in [[Auckland]] is now a mix of traditional Kiwiana dishes heavily modified by Mediterranean and Asian techniques and ingredients, and adapted versions of [[Mediterranean cuisine|Mediterranean]], Chinese, and Indian dishes. {{citation needed|date=June 2021}} In the more culturally traditional parts of the country, such as rural [[Canterbury (New Zealand)|Canterbury]] and the [[West Coast (New Zealand)|West Coast]], however, traditional Kiwiana fare is still the norm at many homes. {{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Certain vestiges of traditional Kiwiana dishes remain popular throughout the country, such as [[fish and chips]], [[Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|meat pies]], [[Mille-feuille|custard squares]], [[Pavlova (food)|pavlova]], and others.{{efn|The author David Burton has witnessed plenty of New Zealand comments that they are thankful New Zealand no longer eats much of traditional Kiwiana fare.<ref name="Burton"/>}} An active nostalgia movement supports the traditional Kiwiana cuisine, as spearheaded by the popularity of the television series ''Kiwi Kitchen'' presented by Richard Till, which is believed to be a public response to a common perception that the traditional Kiwiana dishes are disappearing from the New Zealand tables.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz_603656">{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/the-press/lifestyle/603656 |title=The way we ate |author=Matthews, Philip |date=29 August 2008 |work=[[The Press]] |access-date=30 October 2011}}</ref> Home baking is particularly believed to be the last bastion of New Zealand cuisine still unaffected by international trends. {{citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Concurrently, food habits are changing in Australia to lighter fares influenced by the Mediterranean, and subsequently Southeast Asian, styles of cooking. The proximity, common history, and strong modern political, economic, cultural, and family ties between the two countries means many New Zealand diners and chefs have always been well informed of the trends in the Australian dining scene.  Many chefs had worked in Australia and endeavour to learn from their trans-Tasman counterparts, and in time the changing Australian culinary scene has trickle-down effects on the New Zealand cuisine as well.{{efn|An example is Judith Tabron, owner of the Soul Bar and Bistro in Auckland. Tabron invites Australian chefs such as [[Bill Marchetti]], [[Philip Johnson]], [[Stephanie Alexander]], and [[Greg Malouf]] across the Tasman to New Zealand as guest chefs at Soul from time to time specifically to teach her staff about current Australian food trends, and some of their styles of cooking have become part of the standard menu at Soul which subsequently become part of the New Zealand eating scene via the publishing of these dishes' recipes in popular home cookbooks in New Zealand.<ref>{{harvp|Tabron|2005|pp=7–9}}</ref>}}

In general, there are minimal differences between the food preference of New Zealand and Australia. The food trends in New Zealand tend to trail its trans-Tasman counterparts by a few years to a decade, such as Mediterranean cookery, which did not become mainstream in New Zealand until the dawn of the 1990s, while its influence was already felt in Australia by the 1980s. While Australia has by the early 21st century developed a well-established niche specialist produce distributing channel, a similar system is still in its infancy across the Tasman.  However, in recent times [[Auckland]] and [[Wellington]] have food fashions moving essentially in sync with that of [[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]].{{efn|A positive Australian comment on modern urban New Zealand cooking, specifically Auckland, is from [[Bruce Elder (journalist)|Bruce Elder]] of the [[Sydney Morning Herald]], "...here was a time when discriminating eaters [from Australia] were told to take a packed lunch when visiting New Zealand. Now it is consistently good and also, at the upper end, very cheap. With an exchange rate of around $NZ1.20 equalling A$1 meals at the best restaurants in Auckland work out at around A$25 for mains and that, literally, is half what you would pay for the same in Sydney's upmarket restaurants."<ref>Bruce Elder, ''Eating in New Zealand (Part 2)'' http://blogs.smh.com.au/trampaboutnz/archives//007306.html</ref> A number of Sydney and Melbourne fine-dining restaurants have Auckland connections, such as Wildfire restaurant in Sydney, owned by the former owner of Cin Cin in Auckland. [[Molecular cuisine]] has also landed in Auckland as in Sydney by 2006, but is still unheard of in much of the country.}}

One major recent development in the food scene is the emergence of a genuine [[coffee culture|café culture]] and disappearance of the traditional institution of [[Tearoom (U.K. and U.S.)|tearooms]] at large. Before the 1990s, tearooms proliferated throughout the country offering [[cream tea]], [[cakes]], [[cucumber sandwiches]], and pastries such as [[Mille-feuille|custard squares]], with filtered coffee or tea as drinks. New Zealanders have copied the Mediterranean practise of drinking [[espresso]]-based coffees, but also invented [[instant coffee]], which is now widely consumed around the world.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Bridget |date=2012-12-16 |title=Instant coffee invented down south |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/life-style/food-wine/8085893/Instant-coffee-invented-down-south |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] }}</ref> In time, cafes became popular and many tearoom owners converted their businesses to cafes. Cream tea has gone out of fashion in the contemporary New Zealand dining scene, and scones are baked at homes rather than served in eateries. {{citation needed|date=June 2021}}
[[File:Instant Coffee Grains Inside Jar.jpeg|thumb|Instant coffee, invented in [[Invercargill]] in 1890. The powdered drink is perhaps New Zealand's greatest contribution to international gastronomy.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Southland Innovation: The Instant Coffee Story |url=https://coinsouth.nz/blog/2021/strang-instant-coffee-innovation-story |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=COIN South |date=22 February 2021 }}</ref>]]
[[Vegetarianism]] had been regarded as an alternative lifestyle for many years, but became more mainstream during the 1980s.<ref name="White-Potts2008">{{cite journal |last1=White |first1=Mandala |last2=Potts |first2=Annie |title=New Zealand Vegetarians: At Odds with Their Nation |journal=Society & Animals |date=2008 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=336–353 |doi=10.1163/156853008X357667 |url=https://www.animalsandsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/potts.pdf}}</ref> However, despite exhortations by the [[New Zealand Ministry of Health|Ministry of Health]] and their allies for people to eat less meat, and more cereals, fruits, and vegetables, a highly meat-based diet remains a part of New Zealand culture, albeit with a decrease in red meat consumption, and intake of fish and chicken has been on the rise due to their relative affordability compared to red meat.<ref name="White-Potts2008"/> Annual meat consumption was {{Convert|75.2|kg|abbr=on}} per capita in 2019, comprising {{Convert|41.1|kg|abbr=on}} of chicken and other poultry, {{Convert|18.9|kg|abbr=on}} of pork, ham and bacon, {{Convert|11.6|kg|abbr=on}} of beef and veal, and {{Convert|3.6|kg|abbr=on}} of lamb and mutton.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Agricultural output – Meat consumption – OECD Data|url=http://data.oecd.org/agroutput/meat-consumption.htm|access-date=2021-03-07|website=theOECD}}</ref>

==New Zealand cuisine in other countries==
Globally, New Zealand cuisine has little effect, although Australia does feel influences from New Zealand cuisine.<ref>{{harvp|Tabron|2005|p=128}}</ref> The country's well known culinary export, the [[Pavlova (food)|pavlova]], has been the object of a decades-long battle with Australia over where it was invented.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

[[Fusion cuisine]] and foreign cuisine styles interact with modern New Zealand cuisine, with chefs from New Zealand actively learning overseas trends,{{efn|Mark McDonough of Zarbo Cafe and Deli claims how he actively sources overseas food and accompanying culinary ideas for inspiration.<ref>{{harvp|McDonough|2002|p=6}}</ref>}} and chefs like Peter Gordon, bakers such as Dean Brettschneider, and foodies such as Lauraine Jacobs influencing fusion cuisines derived from New Zealand cuisine. ''[[Cuisine (magazine)|Cuisine]]'' magazine, first published in 1986, has earned global fame and is held in high prestige among the worldwide foodie communities.{{efn|For example, the ''Cuisine'' magazine was selected as the best food magazine in the world at the 2007 Le Cordon Bleu World Food Media Awards run by Tasting Australia and sponsored by Le Cordon Bleu, beating other food magazines published in other parts of the English-speaking world.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cuisine.co.nz/index.cfm?pageID=54996&r=1 |title=Cuisine.co.nz – food – cuisine best food magazine in the world |access-date=2008-04-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211100212/http://www.cuisine.co.nz/index.cfm?pageID=54996&r=1 |archive-date=2008-12-11 |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

==Alcoholic beverages==
{{Main|Alcohol in New Zealand|Beer in New Zealand|New Zealand wine}}
[[File:New Zealand wines - a selection.jpg|thumb|A selection of New Zealand wines]]
New Zealand has a successful wine industry, with about 76 million litres being exported in the year to June 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzwine.com/assets/NZW_Stats_Annual_2007_Final_for_web.pdf|title=New Zealand Winegrowers Statistical Annual|year=2007|page=44|access-date=2008-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081018034123/http://www.nzwine.com/assets/NZW_Stats_Annual_2007_Final_for_web.pdf|archive-date=2008-10-18|url-status=dead}}</ref> The first vines are thought to have been introduced by missionary [[Samuel Marsden]], and planted in 1817 by Charles Gordon, superintendent of agriculture for the missionaries, according to Dr Richard Smart who was viticultural editor of both editions of ''The Oxford Companion to Wine''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/dr-sherlock-smart-unravels-a-grape-mystery|title=Dr Sherlock Smart unravels a grape mystery - Articles - JancisRobinson.com|website=www.jancisrobinson.com}}</ref> Official British resident [[James Busby]] is credited with producing wine at [[Kerikeri]] in 1833, and [[Charles Darwin]] noted the winery in his diary when he visited Kerikeri in 1835.

Small vineyards were also planted by French settlers in [[Akaroa]] in the 1840s. However, wine was drunk in relatively small quantities well into the twentieth century, with the average [[per capita]] consumption only about 2.6 litres in 1966. The high price of imported wines probably prevented New Zealanders from developing a taste for wine, although it did help sales of local vintages.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/W/WinesOfNewZealand/en|title=W – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand – Te Ara|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] }}</ref> The quality of these wines slowly improved, with New Zealand wines winning three gold and 13 silver medals at the [[International Wine Fair]] in 1963.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/1966/W/WinesOfNewZealand/NamesAndTypesOfNewZealandWines/en|title=W – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand – Te Ara|website=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] }}</ref> Aided by the deregulation of the economy in the 1980s and 1990s, domestic wine consumption increased and New Zealand wine won increasing accolades internationally.

There are 10 major wine-producing areas in New Zealand, with [[Marlborough Region|Marlborough]] famed for its [[sauvignon blanc]], [[Gisborne, New Zealand|Gisborne]] for its [[chardonnay]], and [[Central Otago]] and [[Martinborough]] known for [[pinot noir]] and [[pinot gris]]. [[Hawkes Bay]] is known for its bold [[Cabernet Sauvignon|cabernets]], and [[Auckland]]'s [[Waiheke Island]] is home to one of the top 20 cabernet blends in the world. Marlborough and Hawkes Bay are New Zealand's two premium wine-growing regions.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

[[Beer]] is the most popular alcoholic drink in New Zealand, accounting for 63% of available alcohol for sale.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10713655">{{cite web |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10713655 |title=Beer hops off buyers' lists |author=Carroll, Joanne |date=20 March 2011 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=19 September 2011}}</ref> New Zealand is ranked 27th in [[List of countries by beer consumption per capita|beer consumption per capita]], at around 64.7 litres per person per annum. The vast majority of beer produced in New Zealand is a type of [[lager]], either pale or amber in colour, and between 4%–5% alcohol by volume.
There are also over 100 smaller craft breweries and brewpubs producing a vast range of beer styles.<ref>[http://www.beer-pages.com/stories/new-zealand-beers.php ''Impressions of New Zealand''] Tom Cannavan, March 2006, www.beer-pages.com. Retrieved 31 August 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.ratebeer.com/beer/breweries/brewers-directory-0-148.htm New Zealand breweries directory] RateBeer. Retrieved 20 May 2015.</ref> The two largest breweries in New Zealand, [[Lion Nathan]] and [[DB Breweries]], control almost 90% of sales by volume between them.<ref>[http://www.parliament.nz/NR/rdonlyres/735EA740-EAA2-42AA-AC20-1E40BB6119B0/119323/49SCJE_EVI_00DBHOH_BILL8682_1_A19542_BrewersAssoci.pdf Brewer's Association letter to Justice & Electoral Committee], 20 May 2009</ref>  New Zealand is also a leading [[hops]]-producing nation with some of the most sought-after hops in the world.

==Patterns of eating==
Most New Zealanders eat their main meal—known as 'dinner' or sometimes '[[Tea (meal)|tea]]'—in the evening. The move from midday to evening dinners began in the early 20th century, although the tradition of a midday dinner on Sunday remained well into the 1960s. In 1962, a nationwide food survey reported 75% of households normally ate their main meal in the evening, but over 50% of households ate their Sunday main meal at midday. The survey was repeated in 1982, by which time 83% of households ate their main meal in the evening, and only 21% of households ate their Sunday main meal at midday.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|last=Pollock|first=Kerryn|date=5 September 2013|title=Eating – Meals|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/eating/page-1|access-date=2021-03-25|encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] }}</ref>

In the summer, [[barbecue]]s have become popular since the late 20th century, generally as a social event.<ref name="Clayworth">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Clayworth |first1=Peter |title=Picnics and barbecues |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/picnics-and-barbecues |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 January 2023 |date=5 September 2013}}</ref> Guests will usually be invited to bring [[beer]] or wine, and on occasion meat, which the host will cook. Sometimes guests contribute a salad to the gathering instead. Traditionally, the men cook the meat. Many gardens are designed with special areas for barbecuing.<ref name="Clayworth"/> Similar Māori gatherings will often feature a [[hāngī]], a pit in which meats or fish are cooked with vegetables. A deep hole is dug in the ground, lined with red-hot stones and covered with vegetation. The food is then placed on top and covered with damp cloth or leaves. Water is added before the hole is quickly covered with earth and left to steam for several hours.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Inside a hāngī |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/artwork/40267/inside-a-hangi |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 January 2023 }}</ref> Traditionally, men dig and prepare the hole, and women prepare the food to go in it. All members of an extended family ([[whānau]]) help out for such a feast.

Many New Zealand gatherings feature a custom known as 'bring a plate' ([[potluck]]) in which each guest will bring a plate of food to share.<ref>{{cite news |title=Annabel Langbein's Mission to Make Potluck Dinner Cool |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/viva/fashion/annabel-langbeins-mission-to-make-potluck-dinner-cool/AZZJJQ4IHAOFUVZ5QPGBQIJB3Q/ |access-date=26 January 2023 |work=[[New Zealand Herald]] |date=12 April 2016 }}</ref> This allows people to host large groups without incurring serious expense. Similar customs include guests bringing salads or meat to a barbecue. Most New Zealand parties are '[[BYOB|BYO]]' (bring your own alcohol), but in this case the drinks are not usually shared.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

[[File:Sunset Fish and Chip Shop, Rotorua NZ.jpg|thumb|A [[fish and chip shop]] in Rotorua. Fish and chips is a popular take-away food in New Zealand.]]
New Zealand's dining-out culture developed strongly in the 1960s,<ref name="Dining out">{{cite web |title=Dining out |url=https://nzhistory.govt.nz/culture/no-pavlova-please/dining-out |website=nzhistory.govt.nz |publisher=[[Ministry for Culture and Heritage]] |access-date=23 January 2023 }}</ref><ref name="Rowland"/> thanks partially to the liberalisation of liquor licensing laws (in 1961) and popularisation of [[coffeehouse|cafés]] and other similar casual dining establishments. It is common for people to visit cafés regularly for lunch or morning or afternoon snacks.  On the other hand, eating at a restaurant is still regarded as a special occasion or treat for most of the population.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

[[Fish and chips]], the staple [[take-away]] meal in New Zealand, has been popular for decades.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=McLean |first1=Alastair |title=Fish and chips |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/photograph/6370/fish-and-chips |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=23 January 2023 |date=12 June 2006}}</ref> Since the 1970s, a larger [[fast food]] culture has developed, similar to that in the United States.<ref name="Dining out"/> Many American fast-food chains have a presence in New Zealand, and local variants (such as [[Burger Fuel]] and [[Hell Pizza]]) have arisen. The [[Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|meat pie]] is possibly the nearest thing New Zealand has to [[street food]], sold in [[Dairy (store)|dairies]], bakeries, supermarkets, petrol stations, and school canteens. Pies are usually made with beef mince or steak, lamb, chicken, veggies, or pork; sweet pies are less common. A fast-food chain based on pies, [[Georgie Pie]], was founded in 1977; however, it ran into financial trouble and went out of business in 1998, with [[McDonald's New Zealand]] buying its assets. (The chain was revived in a limited form between 2013 and 2020, with pies being sold through McDonald's restaurants.)<ref>{{cite news|last1=Crombie|first1=Nathan|date=4 December 2013|title=It's back! Georgie Pie returns to town|work=[[Wairarapa Times-Age]]|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/its-back-georgie-pie-returns-to-town/D2MGMMLVSLBC6RTRDOXNJFFZQU/|access-date=4 December 2013}}</ref>

In malls, [[food court]]s have become popular, with several in [[Auckland]] alone. Immigration has led to an increase in choice and quality, with many food halls offering [[Asian cuisine]]s including [[Thai cuisine|Thai]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], [[Malaysian cuisine|Malaysian]], [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] and [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], as well as distinctly New Zealand fare such as roast dinners.

==New Zealand foods==
{{See also|List of Australian and New Zealand dishes{{!}}New Zealand dishes}}
{{Expand section|date=March 2021}}

===Developed in New Zealand===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Afghan biscuits]]
* [[Anzac biscuits]]
* [[Boil up]]
* [[Colonial goose]]
* [[Cheese roll]]
* [[Chocolate fish]]
* [[Hāngī]]
* [[Hokey pokey (ice cream)|Hokey pokey ice cream]]
* [[Kānga pirau]]
* [[Kiwi onion dip]]
* [[Lolly cake]]
* [[Marmite (New Zealand)|Marmite (New Zealand variety)]]
* [[List of fried dough foods#Fried dough foods|Parāoa parai]]
* [[Pineapple lumps]]
* [[Rēwena bread]]
* [[Toroī]]
{{Div col end}}

===Imported foods, now significant in New Zealand===
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Fish and chips]]
* [[Lamington]]s
* Pikelets, derived from the [[Pancake#Scotland|Scotch pancake]]
* [[Roast lamb]] and [[mutton]]
* [[Sausage roll]]s
* [[Sausage sizzle]]
* [[Meat pie (Australia and New Zealand)|Savoury pies]], commonly filled with meat, fish or bacon and egg
* [[Scone]]s
* [[Shortbread]]
* [[Vegemite]]
{{Div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Food|New Zealand}}
* [[List of Australian and New Zealand dishes]]
* [[:Category:Restaurants in New Zealand]]
* [[Alcohol in New Zealand]]
* [[List of Oceanian cuisines]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|24em}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book |last=Mathias |first=Peta |year=2005 |title=A Cook's Tour of New Zealand |publisher=Penguin Viking |isbn=9780670045600 }}
*{{cite book |last=McDonough |first=Mark |year=2002 |title=Zarbo: Recipes From a New Zealand Deli |publisher=Random House New Zealand |isbn=9781869415341 }}
*{{cite book |last=Taber |first=André |year=2007 |title=A Buyer's Guide to New Zealand Olive Oil |publisher=New Holland Publishers |isbn=9781869661076 }}
*{{cite book |last=Tabron |first=Judith |year=2005 |title=Soul: Recipes from Judith Tabron and Friends at Soul Bar and Bistro |publisher=Random House New Zealand |isbn=9781869417543 }}
*{{cite book |last=Veart |first=David |year=2008 |title=First, Catch Your Weka: the Story of New Zealand Cooking |publisher=Auckland University Press |isbn=9781869404109 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cuisine of New Zealand}}
{{Cookbook|Cuisine of New Zealand}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150927031744/http://media.newzealand.com/index.cfm/purenz_page/D65BA3E2-803F-405A-B022-D9CAF1D47FF6.html Webpage on traditional Māori food]
* [http://www.dineout.co.nz/ New Zealand restaurant review and dining guide]
* [http://www.menumania.co.nz/ New Zealand restaurant menus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014032111/http://www.menumania.co.nz/ |date=14 October 2008 }}

{{Oceanian topic|| cuisine}}
{{cuisine}}
{{New Zealand topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:New Zealand cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Kiwiana]]
[[Category:Māori cuisine| ]]
[[Category:Western cuisine]]