View source for Night-vision device

{{Short description|Device that allows visualization of images in levels of light approaching total darkness}}
[[File:PEO ANAVS-6 NVG.jpg|thumb|A [[United States Navy|US Navy]] aviator uses a pair of helmet-mounted [[AN/AVS-6]] vision goggles. The effect on the [[Scotopic vision|natural night vision]] of the eye is evident]]
[[File:A U.S. Marine with the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU) Maritime Raid Force fires an M110 semiautomatic sniper system during a nighttime live-fire exercise June 21, 2013 (cropped).jpg|thumb|A standard [[telescopic sight]] augmented with a night-vision device in front on the [[M110 Semi-Automatic Sniper System|M110]]. Note that in addition to the image intensifier, the NVD gathers much more light by its much larger [[aperture]]]]
[[File:1PN51-2 Reticle (5 of 5).jpg|thumb|A [[1PN51-2]] night-vision [[reticle]] with markings for [[Stadiametric rangefinding|range estimation]]]]
[[File:Hostage Rescue Team of the FBI piloting an air boat at night with night vision goggles.webm|thumb|First-person view through night-vision goggles of the FBI Hostage Rescue Team using an airboat.]]

A '''night-vision device''' ('''NVD'''), also known as a '''night optical/observation device''' ('''NOD''') or '''night-vision goggle''' ('''NVG'''), is an [[Optoelectronics|optoelectronic device]] that allows visualization of images in low levels of light, improving the user's [[night vision]].

The device enhances [[Available light|ambient visible light]] and converts [[Infrared#Regions within the infrared|near-infrared]] light into [[visible light]] which can then be seen by humans; this is known as I<sup>2</sup> ([[Image intensifier|image intensification]]). By comparison, viewing of infrared [[thermal radiation]] is referred to as [[Thermography|thermal imaging]] and operates in a different section of the infrared spectrum.

A night vision device usually consists of an [[image intensifier]] tube, a protective housing, and an optional mounting system. Many NVDs also include a protective sacrificial lens, mounted over the front/[[Objective (optics)|objective lens]] to prevent damage by environmental hazards,<ref name="<sacrif">{{Cite web |last=P |first=Will |date=10 August 2021 |title=Night Vision Devices Releases Lightweight Sacrificial Windows |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2021/08/10/night-vision-devices-sacrificial-windows/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210810133420/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2021/08/10/night-vision-devices-sacrificial-windows/ |archive-date=10 August 2021 |website=[[The Firearm Blog]]}}</ref> while some incorporate [[Refracting telescope|telescopic lenses]]. An NVD image is typically [[monochrome]] green, as green was considered to be the easiest color to see for prolonged periods in the dark.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liszewski |first1=Andrew |date=30 April 2021 |title=The Army's New Night-Vision Goggles Look Like Technology Stolen From Aliens |url=https://gizmodo.com/the-armys-new-night-vision-goggles-look-like-technology-1846799718 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430192233/https://gizmodo.com/the-armys-new-night-vision-goggles-look-like-technology-1846799718 |archive-date=30 April 2021 |access-date=23 May 2021 |website=[[Gizmodo]]}}</ref> Night vision devices may be passive, relying solely on ambient light, or may be active, using an [[Infrared|IR]] (infrared) illuminator.

Night vision devices may be handheld or attach to [[Combat helmet|helmets]]. When used with firearms, an IR [[Laser sight (firearms)|laser sight]] is often mounted to the weapon. The laser sight produces an infrared beam that is visible only through an NVD and aids with aiming.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Utley|first=Sean|date=2020-06-11|title=Selecting An IR Laser And Illuminator|url=https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/selecting-an-ir-laser-and-illuminator/377149|access-date=2021-01-22|website=[[Firearms News]]|language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727232937/https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/selecting-an-ir-laser-and-illuminator/377149 |archive-date=2020-07-27}}</ref> Some night vision devices are made to be mounted to firearms. These can be used in conjunction with weapon sights or standalone; some [[Thermal weapon sight|thermal weapon sights]] have been designed to provide similar capabilities.<ref name="nv/therm clipon sights">{{cite web |last1=Lynch |first1=Kyle |title=Why You Should Consider Adding a Clip On Night Vision Device |url=https://www.tactical-life.com/gear/optics/clip-on-night-vision-device/ |website=Tactical Life |access-date=23 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918141056/https://www.tactical-life.com/gear/optics/clip-on-night-vision-device/ |archive-date=18 September 2021 |date=15 January 2019}}</ref>

These devices were first used for [[night combat]] in [[World War II]] and came into wide use during the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name="autogenerated4">{{cite web |author=Tyson |first=Jeff |date=27 April 2001 |title=How Night Vision Works |url=http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/other-gadgets/nightvision.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609003051/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high-tech-gadgets/nightvision.htm |archive-date=9 June 2022 |access-date=1 March 2011 |publisher=[[HowStuffWorks]]}}</ref> The technology has evolved since then, involving "generations"<ref>as defined by the US Army Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD)</ref> of night-vision equipment with performance increases and price reductions. Consequently, though they are commonly [[Night combat|used by military]] and [[police|law enforcement]] agencies, night vision devices are available to [[civilian]] users for applications including aviation, driving, and [[demining]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NVESD About Us |url=http://www.nvl.army.mil/about/index.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201172420/http://www.nvl.army.mil/about/index.php |archive-date=1 February 2010 |publisher=Night Vision & Electronic Sensors Directorate |location=Fort Belvoir, VA}}</ref>

==History==
{{anchor|Generation 0}}

In 1929 Hungarian physicist [[Kálmán Tihanyi]] invented an infrared-sensitive electronic television camera for [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft defense]] in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Naughton |first=Russell |date=10 August 2004 |title=Kalman Tihanyi (1897–1947) |url=https://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/tihanyi.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008205322/https://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/tihanyi.html |archive-date=8 October 2020 |access-date=15 March 2013 |publisher=[[Monash University]]}}</ref> Night vision technology prior to the end of World War II was later described as Generation 0.<ref name="autogenerated4" />

Night-vision devices were introduced in the [[German Army (1935–1945)|German Army]] as early as 1939 and were used in [[World War II]]. [[AEG (German company)|AEG]] started developing its first devices in 1935. In mid-1943, the German Army began testing infrared night-vision devices and telescopic rangefinders mounted on [[Panther tank]]s. Two arrangements were constructed. The [[FG 1250|Sperber FG 1250]] ("Sparrow Hawk"), with a range of up to {{convert|600|m|ft}}, had a {{convert|30|cm|in|adj=on}} infrared searchlight and an image converter operated by the tank commander.

From late 1944 to March 1945 the German military conducted successful tests of FG 1250 sets mounted on Panther Ausf. G tanks (and other variants). During the war, approximately 50 (or 63) Panthers were equipped with the FG 1250 and saw combat on both the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern]] and [[Western Front (World War II)|Western Fronts]]. The [[Zielgerät 1229|"Vampir" man-portable system]] for infantry was used with [[StG 44]] assault rifles.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.achtungpanzer.com/articles/ir.htm |title= German Infrared Night-Vision Devices – Infrarot-Scheinwerfer |website=www.achtungpanzer.com |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100125083632/http://www.achtungpanzer.com/articles/ir.htm |archive-date= 2010-01-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Parallel development occurred in the US. The M1 and M3 infrared night-sighting devices, also known as the "sniperscope" or "snooperscope", saw limited service with the US Army in World War II<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=July 1946 |title=Bull's-eyes in the Night |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7SADAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-PA13 |magazine=[[Popular Science]] |page=73}}</ref> and in the [[Korean War]], to assist [[sniper]]s.<ref name="autogenerated4" /> These were active devices, using an infrared light source to illuminate targets. Their image-intensifier tubes used an [[anode]] and an S-1 [[photocathode]], made primarily of [[silver]], [[cesium]], and [[oxygen]], and electrostatic inversion with electron acceleration produced gain.<ref name="autogenerated3">{{cite web |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/images/night_vision.gif |publisher= [[GlobalSecurity.org]] |title=Image Intensification Tube Technology and Evolution |access-date=2011-03-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620013302/https://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/images/night_vision.gif |archive-date=20 June 2022}}</ref>

An experimental Soviet device called the PAU-2 was field-tested in 1942.

In 1938 the [[Admiralty_(United_Kingdom)|British Admiralty]] assumed responsibility for British military infra-red research. They worked first with [[Philips]] until the [[German invasion of the Netherlands|fall of the Netherlands]], then with Philips' UK subsidiary Radio Transmission Equipment Ltd., and finally with [[EMI]], who in early 1941 provided compact, lightweight image converter tubes. By July 1942 the British had produced a binocular apparatus called 'Design E'. This was bulky, needing an external power pack generating 7,000 volts, but saw limited use with amphibious vehicles of [[79th_Armoured_Division_(United_Kingdom)|79th Armoured Division]] in the [[Operation_Plunder|1945 crossing of the Rhine.]] Between May and June 1943, [[43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division]] trialled man-portable night vision sets, and the British later experimented with mounting the devices to Mark III and Mark II(S) [[Sten]] submachine guns. However, by January 1945 the British had only made seven infra-red receiver sets. Although some were sent to India and Australia for trials before the end of 1945, by the [[Korean War]] and [[Malayan Emergency]] the British were using night vision equipment supplied by the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wellard |first1=Christian |title=British development of infra-red weapon sights, 1938–1953 |journal=Arms & Armour |date=18 October 2023 |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=199–217 |doi=10.1080/17416124.2023.2270302 |s2cid=264324073 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17416124.2023.2270302|access-date=19 October 2023|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Early examples include:
* FG 1250 Sperber
* ZG 1229 Vampir
* PAU-2
* PNV-57A tanker goggles
* SU-49/PAS-5<ref name="pas-5, pas-6" />
* T-120 Sniperscope, 1st model (World War II)
* M2 Sniperscope, 2nd model (World War II)
* M3 Sniperscope, 4th model (Korean War)
* [[AN/PAS-4]] (early Vietnam War)<ref name="pas-4">{{cite web |last1=Fortier |first1=David M. |title=How Does Night Vision Work? |url=https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/how-does-night-vision-work/380343 |website=[[Firearms News]] |access-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421173500/https://www.firearmsnews.com/editorial/how-does-night-vision-work/380343 |archive-date=21 April 2021 |date=24 July 2020}}</ref>

After World War II, [[Vladimir K. Zworykin]] developed the first practical commercial night-vision device at [[Radio Corporation of America]], intended for civilian use. Zworykin's idea came from a former radio-guided missile.<ref>Pennsylvania State University. [http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Zworykin__Vladimir.html Zworykin, Vladimir] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120831121657/http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Zworykin__Vladimir.html |date=2012-08-31 }}. Biographical sketch.</ref>  At that time, infrared was commonly called ''[[black light]]'', a term later restricted to [[ultraviolet]]. Zworykin's invention was not a success due to its large size and high cost.<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=March 1936 |title=Black-Light Telescope Sees in the Dark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fCYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA33 |magazine=[[Popular Science|Popular Science Monthly]] |page=33}}</ref>

=== United States ===

==== Generation 1 ====
[[Image:M16A1 PVS-2.JPEG|thumb|An [[M16 rifle|M16A1]] rifle fitted with the AN/PVS-2 Starlight scope]]

First-generation passive devices developed by the [[United States Army|US Army]] in the 1960s were introduced during the [[Vietnam War]]. They were an adaptation of earlier active technology and relied on [[Available light|ambient light]] instead of using an extra infrared light source. Using an S-20 [[photocathode]], their image intensifiers amplified light  around {{val|fmt=commas|1000}}-fold,<ref name="autogenerated6">{{cite web |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/nvg.htm |title= Night Vision Goggles (NVG) |website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]] |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522033037/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/nvg.htm |archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref> but they were quite bulky and required [[moonlight]] to function properly.

Examples:
* [[AN/PVS-1]] Starlight scope<ref name="pvs-1 and 2 showcase">{{cite web |author1=Utah Gun Collector's Association |title="Fight at Night!" U.S. Army Night Vision, 1945-1980 |url=https://ugca.org/07jan/night.htm |website=Utah Gun Collectors Association |access-date=10 June 2022 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011952/http://ugca.org/07jan/night.htm |archive-date=12 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="pvs-1">{{cite web |title=5855-00-087-2942 (AN/PVS-1) Data |url=https://www.parttarget.com/5855-00-087-2942_5855000872942_AN-PVS-1.html/ |website=Part Target |access-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151103061948/https://www.parttarget.com/5855-00-087-2942_5855000872942_AN-PVS-1.html/ |archive-date=3 November 2015}}</ref>
* [[AN/PVS-2]] Starlight scope<ref name="pvs-2 nsn">{{cite web |title=5855-00-087-2947 (AN/PVS-2) Data |url=https://www.parttarget.com/5855-00-087-2947_5855000872947_AN-PVS-2.html |website=Part Target |access-date=10 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624014516/http://www.parttarget.com/5855-00-087-2947_5855000872947_AN-PVS-2.html |archive-date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="pvs-1 and 2 showcase"/>
* AN/PAS-6 Varo Metascope<ref name="pas-5, pas-6">{{cite web |title=Vietnam Era Night Vision: SU49/PAS 5 NVG and PAS 6 Infrared Metascope |url=http://www.modernforces.com/fieldgear_SU49.htm |website=Modern Forces |access-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517034318/http://www.modernforces.com/fieldgear_SU49.htm |archive-date=17 May 2022}}</ref>

=== Generation 2 ===
[[Image:AN-PVS-5C-Cut image.jpg|thumb|A cut-open and depotted AN/PVS-5, showing the components of a night-vision device. This device was manufactured in 2nd generation (5A to 5C) and 3rd generation (5D)]]
1970s second-generation devices featured an improved image-intensifier tube using a [[micro-channel plate]] (MCP)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pulsar-nv.com/products_list.aspx |title=Night Vision Equipment by Pulsar FAQ<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=pulsar-nv.com |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823013553/http://pulsar-nv.com/products_list.aspx |archive-date=23 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with an S-25 [[photocathode]].<ref name="autogenerated3" /> This produced a much brighter image, especially around the edges of the lens. This led to increased clarity in low ambient-light environments, such as [[New moon|moonless nights]]. Light amplification was around {{val|fmt=commas|20000}}.<ref name="autogenerated6" /> [[Image resolution]] and [[Reliability engineering|reliability]] improved.

Examples:
* [[AN/PVS-3]] Miniaturized night vision sight
* [[AN/PVS-4]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=AN/PVS-4 Individual Weapon Night Sight |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-4.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824145618/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-4.htm |archive-date=24 August 2021 |access-date=16 March 2018 |website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]]}}</ref>
* [[AN/PVS-5]]<ref>{{Cite web  |title=AN/PVS-5 Night Vision Goggles |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-5.htm |access-date=16 March 2018 |website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824145609/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-5.htm |archive-date=24 August 2021}}</ref>
* SUPERGEN<ref name="opto review article">{{Cite journal |last=Chrzanowski |first=K |date=June 2013 |title=Review of night vision technology |url=https://www.inframet.com/Literature/Review_of_night_vision_technology.pdf |journal=Opto-Electronics Review |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=153–181 |doi=10.2478/s11772-013-0089-3 |bibcode=2013OERv...21..153C |s2cid=121662581 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527173424/https://www.inframet.com/Literature/Review_of_night_vision_technology.pdf |archive-date=27 May 2021}}</ref>

Later advances brought GEN II+ devices (equipped with better optics, SUPERGEN tubes, improved resolution and better [[Signal-to-noise ratio (imaging)|signal-to-noise ratios]]), though the label is not formally recognized by the NVESD.<ref name="opto review article"/>

=== Generation 3 ===
[[Image:AN PVS-7 Cyclops.JPG|thumb|An early development version of the [[AN/PVS-7]] goggle]]

Third-generation night-vision systems, developed in the late 1980s, maintained the MCP from Gen II, but used a [[gallium arsenide]] photocathode, with improved resolution. GA photocathodes are primarily manufactured by [[L3Harris Technologies]] and [[Elbit Systems of America]] and imaged light from 500-900&nbsp;[[Nanometre|nm]].<ref name="photonis 4g"/> In addition, the MCP was coated with an ion barrier film to increase tube life. However, the ion barrier allowed fewer [[Electron|electrons]] to pass through. The ion barrier increased the "halo" effect around bright spots or light sources. Light amplification (and power consumption) with these devices improved to around {{val|fmt=commas|30,000}}–{{val|fmt=commas|50,000}}.<ref name="autogenerated6" />

Examples:
* [[AN/PVS-7]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-7.htm |title=AN/PVS-7 Night Vision Goggle |website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]] |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522033043/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-7.htm |archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref>
* AN/NVS-7
* [[AN/PVS-10]]
* [[AN/PVS-14]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-7.htm |title=AN/PVS-14, MONOCULAR NIGHT VISION DEVICE (MNVD) |website=[[GlobalSecurity.org]] |access-date=16 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506221059/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/an-pvs-14.htm |archive-date=6 May 2022}}</ref>
* [[AN/PVS-17]]
* CNVS-4949<ref>{{Cite web |title=CANVS COLOR NIGHT VISION GOGGLES |url=http://www.canvs.com/cnvs4949.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151029044915/http://www.canvs.com/cnvs4949.htm |archive-date=29 October 2015 |access-date=16 March 2018 |website=CANVS}}</ref>
* PN-21K

=== Auto-gating ===
Autogating (ATG) rapidly switches the power supply's voltage to the photocathode on and off. These switches are rapid enough that they are not detectable to the human eye and peak voltage supplied to the night vision device is maintained.<ref name="Photonics Montoro essay"/> This reduces the "[[duty cycle]]" (ie. the amount of time that the tube has power running through it) which increases the device's lifespan.<ref name="photonis auto-gating"/> Autogating also enhances the Bright-Source Protection (BSP), which reduces the voltage supplied to the photocathode in response to ambient light levels. Automatic Brightness Control (ABC) modulates the amount of voltage supplied to the microchannel plate (rather than the photocathode) in response to ambient light. Together, BSP and ABC (alongside autogating) serves to prevent temporary blindness for the user and prevent damage to the tube when the night vision device is exposed to sudden bright sources of light,<ref name="Photonics Montoro essay"/> like a [[muzzle flash]] or artificial lighting.<ref name="photonis auto-gating"/> These modulation systems also help maintain a steady illumination level in the user's view that improves the ability to keep "eyes on target" in spite of temporary light flashes. These functions are especially useful for pilots, soldiers in [[Urban warfare|urban environments]], and [[special operations forces]] who may be exposed to rapidly changing light levels.<ref name="photonis auto-gating"/><ref name="Chief naval training"/>

=== Generation 3+ (GEN III OMNI I–IX) ===
[[File:Image intensifier diagram.png|thumb|upright=2.3|alt="Diagram of an image intensifier."|Generation II, III and IV devices use a microchannel plate for amplification. Photons from a dimly lit source enter the objective lens (on the left) and strike the photocathode (gray plate). The photocathode (which is negatively biased) releases electrons, which are accelerated to the higher-voltage microchannel plate (red). Each electron causes multiple electrons to be released from the microchannel plate. The electrons are drawn to the higher-voltage phosphor screen (green). Electrons that strike the phosphor screen cause the phosphor to produce photons of light viewable through the eyepiece lenses.]]

OMNI, or OMNIBUS, refers to a series of contracts through which the US Army purchased GEN III night vision devices. This started with OMNI I, which procured AN/PVS-7A and AN/PVS-7B devices, then continued with OMNI II (1990), OMNI III (1992), OMNI IV (1996), OMNI V (1998), OMNI VI (2002), OMNI VII (2005),<ref name="def indus daily"/> OMNI VIII, and OMNI IX.<ref name="TFB nv gens"/>

However, OMNI is not a specification. The performance of a particular device generally depends upon the tube which is used. For example, a GEN III OMNI III MX-10160A/AVS-6 tube performs similarly to a GEN III OMNI VII MX-10160A/AVS-6 tube, even though the former was manufactured in ~1992 and the latter ~2005.<ref name="TFB nv gens"/><ref name="tnvc buyer"/>

One particular technology, PINNACLE is a proprietary [[Thin film|thin-film]] microchannel plate technology created by [[ITT Inc.|ITT]] that was included in the OMNI VII contract. The thin-film improves performance.<ref name="tnvc buyer"/>

GEN III OMNI V–IX devices developed in the 2000s and onward can differ from earlier devices in important ways:

* An automatic gated [[power supply]] system regulates the photocathode voltage, allowing the NVD to instantaneously adapt to changing light conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clemens |first=Candace |date=May 2007 |title=From starlight to street light |url=http://www.nvisionoptics.com/files/docs/articles/articleletmay2007.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228062011/http://www.nvisionoptics.com/files/docs/articles/articleletmay2007.pdf |archive-date=2008-02-28 |access-date=16 March 2018 |publisher=Law Enforcement Technology}}</ref>
* A removed or greatly thinned ion barrier that decreases the number of electrons that are rejected by GEN III MCP, hence resulting in less image noise.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nivitech.com/nightvision-gns.htm |title=www.nivitech.com / Nightvision Technology / Principles of Nightvision Devices<!-- Bot generated title --> |website=nivitech.com |access-date= 16 March 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180123125554/http://www.nivitech.com/nightvision-gns.htm |archive-date=23 January 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>  The disadvantage to a thin or removed ion barrier is the overall decrease in tube life from a theoretical {{val|fmt=commas|20,000|ul=h}} mean time to failure ([[Mean time between failures|MTTF]]) for standard Gen III type, to {{val|fmt=commas|15,000|u=h}} MTTF for thin film types. This loss is largely negated by the low number of image-intensifier tubes that reach {{val|fmt=commas|15,000|u=h}} of operation before requiring replacement.{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The consumer market sometimes classifies such systems as Generation 4, and the United States military describes these systems as Generation 3 autogated tubes (GEN III OMNI V-IX). Moreover, as autogating power supplies can be added to any previous generation of night-vision devices, autogating capability does not automatically put the devices in a particular OMNI classification. Any [[Post-nominal letters|postnominals]] appearing after a generation type (i.e., Gen II+, Gen III+) indicate improvement(s) over the original specification's requirements.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Night Vision Works in night vision Goggles, Scopes, Binoculars, Riflescopes |url=http://www.atncorp.com/HowNightVisionWorks#gen11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618131236/https://www.atncorp.com/hownightvisionworks |archive-date=18 June 2022 |access-date=16 March 2018 |website=ATN Corp}}</ref>

Examples:
* [[AN/PVS-14]]
* [[AN/PVS-22]]<ref name="autogenerated5">{{Cite web |title= AN/PVS-22 Universal Night Sight Attachement |url=http://www.nightvis.com/nv_sights/ANPVS22_Universal_Night_Sight.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060813110545/http://www.nightvis.com/nv_sights/ANPVS22_Universal_Night_Sight.html |archive-date=13 August 2006 |access-date=16 March 2018 |website=Nightvis}}</ref>
* [[NVS-22]]
* Binocular Night Vision Device (BNVD) ([[AN/PVS-15]], [[AN/PVS-21]], [[AN/PVS-23]], [[AN/PVS-31|AN/PVS-31A/D]])
* Ground Panoramic Night Vision Goggle ([[#Wide field of view|GPNVG-18]])

==Figure of merit==
[[Figure of merit]] (FoM) is a quantitative measure of a NVD's effectiveness and clarity. It is calculated using the number of [[Image resolution|line pairs]] per millimeter that a user can detect multiplied by the image intensifier's signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Night Vision Specifications: Understanding What They Mean |url=https://gloomgroup.com/blogs/night-vision-info/night-vision-specifications-understanding-what-they-mean |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=Gloom Group |language=en}}</ref><ref name="nitewalker gen"/><ref name="TFB nv gens"/><ref name="nato response paper">{{cite web |author=Bialos |first1=Jeffrey P. |last2=Koehl |first2=Stuart L. |date=September 2005 |title=The NATO Response Force |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA450219 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629001553/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA450219 |archive-date=June 29, 2011 |access-date=2011-03-01 |publisher=[[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]] Center for Technology and National Security Policy}}</ref>

In the late 1990s, innovations in photocathode technology significantly increased the SNR, with new tubes surpassing Gen 3 performance.

By 2001, the United States federal government concluded that a tube's generation was not a determinant performance factor, obsoleting the term as a basis of export regulations.

The US government has recognized the fact that the technology itself makes little difference, as long as an operator can see clearly at night. Consequently, the United States bases export regulations directly on the figure of merit.

[[International Traffic in Arms Regulations|ITAR]] regulations specify that US-made tubes with a FOM greater than 1400 are not exportable; however, the [[Defense Technology Security Administration]] (DTSA) can waive that policy on a case-by-case basis.

== Fusion night vision ==
[[File:I2-fused comparison.png|thumb|A comparison of I² only night vision (above) and I² plus thermal fusion (below)]]
Fusion night vision combines I² ([[Image intensifier|image intensification]]) with [[Thermography|thermal imaging]], which functions in the medium (MWIR 3–5&nbsp;[[micrometre|μm]]) and/or long (LWIR 8–14&nbsp;μm) wavelength range.<ref name="flir thermal wavelength"/> Initial models appeared in the 2000s.<ref name="def indus daily"/> Dedicated fusion devices and clip-on imagers that add a thermal overlay to standard I² night vision devices are available.<ref name="TFB Fusion"/> Fusion combines excellent navigation and fine details (I²), with easy heat signature detection (imaging).

Fusion modes include night vision with thermal overlay, night vision only, thermal only, and others such as outline (which outlines objects that have thermal signatures) or "decamouflage", which highlights all objects that are of near-human temperature. Fusion devices are heavier and more power hungry than I²-only devices.<ref name="fusion overview" />

One alternative is to use an I² device over one eye and a thermal device over the other eye, relying on the human visual system to provide a [[Binocular vision|binocular combined view]].<ref name="TFB Fusion" /><ref name="noisefighters pseudo-fusion bridge" />

=== Examples ===
* [[AN/PSQ-20]] ENVG (Enhanced Night Vision Goggles)
* [[AN/PSQ-36]] FGE (Fusion Goggle Enhanced, previously FGS for Fusion Goggle System)
* [[AN/PSQ-42]] ENVG-B (Enhanced Night Vision Goggles-Binocular)
* AN/PSQ-44 ENVG-B (Enhanced Night Vision Goggles-Binocular)
* AN/PAS-29 COTI/E-COTI: (Enhanced) Clip-On Thermal Imager

== Out of band ==
Out of Band (OOB) refers to night vision technologies that operate outside the 500-900&nbsp;nm NIR (near infrared) frequency range. This is possible with dedicated image intensifier tubes or with clip-on devices.

=== Advantages ===

* OOB devices might see more on a starlit night because OOB devices intensify any ambient, UV, or SWIR light.
* OOB devices image 1064&nbsp;nm light, which can help [[Joint terminal attack controller|JTACs]] and other [[Forward air control|FACs]] when marking targets with a [[laser designator]], which typically use 1064&nbsp;nm light, which is barely visible to Gen III.<ref name="photonis 4g" /><ref name="spie see-spot" />
* OOB light is not visible to most commercial devices. Night vision has proliferated among countries such as Russia and China, and into the hands of armed groups such as the [[Taliban]] [[Red Unit]].<ref name="nvg proliferation" /> Friendly forces using night vision equipment such as IR illuminators, [[IR strobe]]s, or [[Laser sight (firearms)#Use with Night Vision Devices|IR lasers]], can be spotted. OOB tech are much more difficult to spot with Gen III (depending on wavelength and intensity).<ref name="TFB OOB info" /><ref name="blackice flfc 2016" />
* OOB devices that operate in the 1550&nbsp;nm range can perceive typical laser rangefinders.<ref name="L3H spear" />

=== Examples ===

* Ground personnel, helmet-mounted imagers):

**Photonis 4G INTENS image intensifier tubes (350-1100&nbsp;nm)<ref name="blackice flfc 2016" /><ref name="photonis 4g" />
**Optics 1 [[AN/PAS-34|AN/PAS-34 E-COSI]] (Enhanced Clip-On SWIR Imager) (900-1700&nbsp;nm)<ref name="e-cosi wavelength" />
**Optics 1 COSMO (Clip-On SWIR Monocular)<ref name="Optics 1 COSMO" />
**Photonis' 4G HyMa (Hybrid Multi-Alkali) image intensifier tubes (bandwidth of 350-1100&nbsp;nm, from [[Ultraviolet|near UV]] to IR)
**Safran Optics 1's AN/PAS-34 E-COSI (Enhanced Clip-On [[Short-wavelength infrared|SWIR]] Imager)provides an overlay (in the 900-1700&nbsp;nm range).<ref name="e-cosi wavelength" />

* Ground personnel, weapon-mounted lasers):

**B.E. Meyers & Co. MAWL-CLAD (Modular Aiming Weapon Laser--Covert Laser Aiming Device) (1064&nbsp;nm laser)<ref name="TFB MAWL-CLAD" /><ref name="BE Meyers MAWL-CLAD announce" /><ref name="Scopex MAWL-CLAD listing" />
**LA-17/PEQ D-PILS (Dual-band Pointer and Illuminator Laser System)  (1400-1600&nbsp;nm)<ref name="la-17/peq report" /><ref name="LA-17/PEQ NSN" />
**[[Rheinmetall]] LM-VAMPIR (Laser Module--VAriable Multi Purpose InfraRed)<ref name="LM-VAMPIR" />
**[[AN/PSQ-23]] STORM, STORM-PI, STORM-SLX, STORM II; and L3Harris SPEAR (1570&nbsp;nm)<ref name="la-17/peq report" /><ref name="L3H spear" />
**Optics 1 ICUGR (Integrated Compact Ultralight Gun-mounted Rangefinder) (1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="Optics 1 ICUGR" />
**Rheinmetall FCS-RPAL (Fire Control System--Rheinmetall Precision Aiming Laser) (1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="FCS-RPAL" />
**Rheinmetall FCS-TRB (Fire Control System--TacRay Ballistic) (1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="FCS-TACRAY" />
**Wilcox RAPTAR S (Rapid Targeting and Ranging Module) (1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="wilcox raptar s" />
**Wilcox MRF Xe (Micro Range Finder--Enhanced) (1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="wilcox mrf xe" />
**B.E. Meyers & Co. IZLID Ultra 1064 and 1550 (Infrared Zoom Laser Illuminator Designator) (1064&nbsp;nm, 1550&nbsp;nm)<ref name="izlid swir oob" />
**Optics 1 CTAM (Coded Target Acquisition Marker) (1064&nbsp;nm)<ref name="Optics 1 CTAM" />

== Wide field of view ==
[[Image:Night vision goggles experimental.jpg|thumb|A US airman tests [[AN/AVS-10]] panoramic night-vision goggles in March 2006.]]
[[File:Marines work with next-gen technologies, autonomous vehicles Image 8 of 18.jpg|thumb|Member of the [[U.S. Marine Corps]] testing out the GPNVG-18.]]
Night vision devices typically have a limited [[field of view]] (FoV); the commonly used [[AN/PVS-14]] has a FoV of 40,<ref name="m914a" /> less than the 95° monocular horizontal FoV and humans' 190° binocular horizontal FoV.<ref name="human fov"/> This forces users to turn their heads to compensate. This is particularly evident when flying, driving, or [[Close-quarters combat|CQB]], which involves split second decisions. These limitations led many [[Special forces|SF/SOF operators]] to prefer white light rather than night vision when conducting CQB.<ref name="TNVC gpnvg white paper"/> As a result, much time and effort has gone into research to develop a wider FoV solution.<ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" />

=== Panoramic night vision goggles ===
Panoramic night vision goggles (PNVG) increase FoV by increasing the number of sensor tubes. This solution adds size, weight, power requirements, and complexity.<ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" /> An example is GPNVG-18 (Ground Panoramic Night Vision Goggle).<ref name="gizmodo bin laden story" /> These goggles, and the aviation AN/AVS-10 PNVG from which they were derived, offer a 97° FoV.<ref name="TNVC gpnvg white paper" />

Examples:

* GPNVG-18
* [[AN/AVS-10]]

=== Foveated night vision ===
Foveated night vision (F-NVG) uses specialized [[Wide-angle lens|WFoV optics]] to increase the field of view through an intensifier tube. The [[Fovea centralis|fovea]] refers to the part of the [[retina]] which is responsible for central vision. These devices have users look "straight through" the tubes so light passing through the center of the tube falls on the foveal retina, as is the case with traditional binocular NVGs. The increased FoV comes at the price of image quality and edge [[Distortion (optics)|distortions]].<ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" /><ref name="kent pvs-15 wfov" /><ref name="kent asked to wfov" /><ref name="SSD wfov" />
Examples:
*WFoV F-NVG retrofit [[AN/PVS-15]] goggles
*WFoV BNVD (combined F-NVG and DIT-NVG variant of [[AN/PVS-31|AN/PVS-31A]])
[[File:WFoV BNVD.png|thumb|Diagram of the WFoV BNVD, based on AN/PVS-31A]]

=== Diverging image tube ===
Diverging image tube (DIT) night vision increases FoV by angle the tubes slightly outward. This increases peripheral FoV but causes distortion and reduced image quality. With DIT, users are no longer looking through the center of the tubes (which provides the clearest images) and light passing through the center of the tubes no longer falls on the fovea.

Examples:

* [[AN/PVS-25]] (2000s).<ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" />
* WFoV BNVD: variant of the AN/PVS-31A which incorporates both F-NVG and DIT-NVG. The foveal WFoV optics increase the FoV of each tube from 40° to 55°, while the angulation of the tubes positions them so there is a 40° overlap of binocular vision in the center and a total 70° FoV. It offers a FoM of 2706, better than the FoM in either the GPNVG-18 and the standard AN/PVS-31A.<ref name="USASOC evol capabilities" /><ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" />
* Noise Fighters Panobridge: binocular bridge mount which combines two [[AN/PVS-14]] monoculars and allows them to be angled. outward or positioned parallel<ref name="noisefighters panobridge" /><ref name="tnvc wfov white paper" />

==Digital==
Some night vision devices, including several of the ENVG ([[AN/PSQ-20]]) models, are "digital". Introduced in the late 2000s, these allow transmission of the image, at the cost of increased size, weight, power usage.<ref name="def indus daily"/>

[[Film_speed#Digital_camera_ISO_speed_and_exposure_index|High-sensitivity]] [[digital camera]] technology enables NVGs that combine a camera and a display instead of an [[image intensifier]]. These devices can offer Gen-1-equivalent quality at a lower cost.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reviews |first1=Best Binocular |title=How Digital Night Vision Works |url=https://www.bestbinocularsreviews.com/blog/how-digital-night-vision-works-10/ |website=Best Binocular Reviews |date=30 October 2012}}</ref> At the higher end, SiOnyx has produced digital color NVGs. The "Opsin" of 2022 has a form factor and helmet weight similar to an [[AN/PVS-14]], but requires a separate battery pack. It offers a shorter battery life and lower sensitivity.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Night Vision: Digital vs Analog, which is best? |url=https://gloomgroup.com/blogs/night-vision-info/night-vision-digital-vs-analog |access-date=2024-03-07 |website=Gloom Group |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Night Vision: Digital vs Analog, which is best? |url=https://gloomgroup.com/blogs/night-vision-info/night-vision-digital-vs-analog |website=Gloom Group |language=en}}</ref> It can however tolerate bright light and process a wider range of wavelengths.<ref>{{cite web |author1=T.REX ARMS |title=SiOnyx Opsin: Digital Night Vision HAS ARRIVED |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCyTQ15qblw |publisher=YouTube |language=en |date=Feb 5, 2023}}</ref>

== Other technologies ==
Ceramic Optical Ruggedized Engine (CORE)<ref name="about-armasight">{{cite web |url= http://www.outdoorsbay.com/product/armasight-spark-multi-purpose-night-vision-monocular-core-technology-nsmspark01ccic1 |title=Armasight Spark |website=Outdoors Bay |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120508041533/http://www.outdoorsbay.com/product/armasight-spark-multi-purpose-night-vision-monocular-core-technology-nsmspark01ccic1 |archive-date=8 May 2012}}</ref> produces higher-performance Gen 1 tubes by replacing the glass plate with a ceramic plate. This plate is produced from specially formulated ceramic and metal alloys.  Edge distortion is improved, photo sensitivity is increased, and the resolution can be as high as 60&nbsp;{{abbr|lp|line pairs}}/mm.  CORE is still designated Gen 1 as it does not use a microchannel plate.

A night-vision [[contact lens]] prototype places a thin strip of [[graphene]] between layers of glass that reacts to photons to brighten dark images.  Prototypes absorb only 2.3% of light, which is considered not yet enough for practical use by its developers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoffman |first=Mike |date=28 March 2014 |title=Collaboration between DefenseTech and LEON |url=http://defensetech.org/2014/03/28/scientists-develop-night-vision-contact-lens/ |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328231456/http://defensetech.org/2014/03/28/scientists-develop-night-vision-contact-lens/ |archive-date=28 March 2014 |website=Defense Tech}}</ref>

The Sensor and Electron Devices Directorate (SEDD) of the [[United States Army Research Laboratory|US Army Research Laboratory]] developed quantum-well infrared detector (QWID). This technology's [[Epitaxy|epitaxial]] layers use a [[gallium arsenide]] (GaAs) or [[Aluminium gallium arsenide|aluminum gallium arsenide]] system (AlGaAs) which are particularly sensitive to mid-length infrared waves. The Corrugated QWID (CQWID) broadens detection capacity by using a resonance superstructure to orient more of the electric field parallel so that it can be absorbed, although cryogenic cooling between 77&nbsp;K and 85&nbsp;K is required. QWID technology may be appropriate for continuous surveillance viewing due to its claimed low cost and uniformity in materials but it has yet to enter commercial production.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Ratches |first1=James |last2=Chait |first2=Richard |last3=Lyons |first3=John W. |date=February 2013 |title=Some Recent Sensor-Related Army Critical Technology Events |url=http://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/DefenseTechnologyPapers/DTP-100.pdf?ver=2017-06-22-143033-827 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506221059/https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/DefenseTechnologyPapers/DTP-100.pdf?ver=2017-06-22-143033-827 |archive-date=6 May 2022 |website=[[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]] |publisher=Center for Technology and National Security Policy}}</ref>

Materials from the [[II-VI semiconductor compound|II–VI compounds]], such as [[Mercury Cadmium Telluride|HgCdTe]], are used for high-performance infrared light-sensing cameras. An alternative within the [[Template:III-V compounds|III–V family of compounds]] is [[Indium Arsenide Antimonide|InAsSb]], which is common in opto-electronics such as DVDs and mobile phones. A graded layer with increased atomic spacing and an intermediate layer of GaAs substrate can trap any potential defects.<ref>{{cite web |title= Researchers Develop New Material for Army Night-Time Operations |url= https://www.azom.com/news.aspx?newsID=48667 |website=AZO materials |date = 12 January 2018|access-date=5 July 2018}}</ref>

[[Metasurface]]-based upconversion technology provides a night-vision film that weighs less than a gram and can be placed across ordinary glasses. Photons pass through a resonant non-local [[lithium niobate]] metasurface with a pump beam. The metasurface boosts the photons' energy, pushing them into the visible spectrum without converting them to electrons. Cooling is not required and visible and infrared light appear in a single image. Its frequency range is 1550-nm infrared to visible 550-nm light. Because, traditionally, night-vision systems capture side-by-side views from each spectrum, they can't produce identical images unlike films applied to ordinary glasses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Bronwyn |date=2024-06-04 |title=Night-vision lenses so thin and light that we can all see in the dark |url=https://newatlas.com/technology/night-vision-thin-light-lens/ |access-date=2024-06-10 |website=New Atlas |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Soviet Union/Russia==
{{missing information|section|year of introduction and amplification factor for each model, so that a rough comparison with US generations can be made|date=October 2021}}
[[File:AKMŁ NTW 4 92 2.jpg|thumb|Active night-vision scope NSP-2 mounted on an [[AKM]]L]]
[[File:AKS-74U (2).jpg|thumb|NSPU (1PN34) 3.5× night-vision scope mounted on an [[AK-74#Variants|AKS-74U]]]]
[[File:RPG-7D3 - 51AirborneRegiment44 (cropped).jpg|thumb|1PN93-2 night-vision scope mounted on a RPG-7D3]]
The [[Soviet Union]], and after 1991 the [[Russian Federation]], have developed their own night-vision devices. Models used after 1960 by the Russian/Soviet Army are designated ''1PNxx'' ({{langx|ru|1ПН}}xx), where ''1PN'' is the [[GRAU index]] of night-vision devices. The PN stands for ''pritsel nochnoy'' ({{langx|ru|прицел ночной}}), meaning "night sight", and the ''xx'' is the model number. Different models introduced around the same time use the same type of batteries and mounting mechanism. Multi-weapon models have replaceable elevation scales, with one scale for the [[Trajectory of a projectile|ballistic arc]] of each. Supported weapons include the [[Kalashnikov rifle|AK]] family, [[sniper rifle]]s, [[light machine gun]]s and hand-held [[grenade launcher]]s.

* 1PN34 refractor-based night sight for a range of [[small arms]] and grenade launchers (photo)
* 1PN50 refractor-based night observation binoculars.<ref>{{cite book |title= БИНОКЛЬ НОЧНОЙ 1ПН50 ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЕ ОПИСАНИЕ И ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ |trans-title= NIGHT BINOCULARS 1PN50 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS |no-pp= yes |pages= 55 pages |language= ru}}</ref>
* [[1PN51]] reflector-based night sight for a range of small arms and grenade launchers.<ref>{{cite book |title= ИЗДЕЛИЕ 1ПН51 ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЕ ОПИСАНИЕ И ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ | trans-title= PRODUCT 1PN51 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS |date= January 1992 |no-pp=yes |pages= 48 pages |language= ru}}</ref>
* [[1PN51-2]] reflector-based night sight for the [[RPG-29]].<ref>{{cite book |title= ИЗДЕЛИЕ 1ПН51-2 ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЕ ОПИСАНИЕ И ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ | trans-title= PRODUCT 1PN51-2 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS |date= September 1991 |no-pp= yes |pages= 52 pages |language= ru}}</ref>
* [[1PN58]] refractor-based night sight for a range of small arms and grenade launchers.<ref>{{cite book |title= ИЗДЕЛИЕ 1ПН58 ТЕХНИЧЕСКОЕ ОПИСАНИЕ И ИНСТРУКЦИЯ ПО ЭКСПЛУАТАЦИИ | trans-title= PRODUCT 1PN58 TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS | date= February 1991 |no-pp= yes |pages= 53 pages |language= ru}}</ref>
* 1PN93-2 reflector-based night sight for the [[RPG-7]]D3, see photo.
* 1PN110, a more recent (~Gen 3) night sight for the RPG-29.<ref name=1pn110_113>{{cite web |url= http://gunsru.ru/rg_pricel_1PN110_eng.html |title=1PN110 and 1PN113 Night Vision Sights |work=gunsru.ru |access-date= 2014-11-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150426011506/http://gunsru.ru/rg_pricel_1PN110_eng.html |archive-date=2015-04-26 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
* 1PN113, a night sight similar to the 1PN110, for the [[SV-98]] sniper rifle.<ref name=1pn110_113/>

The Russian army fielded a series of so-called {{ill|counter-sniper night sights|ru|Антиснайпер (прицел)}} ({{langx |ru| Антиснайпер | translit = Antisnayper}}). The counter-sniper night sight is an active system that uses laser pulses from a [[laser diode]] to detect reflections from the focal elements of enemy optical systems and estimate their distance:<ref>{{cite web | url= http://gunsru.ru/rg_pricel_Anti-Sniper_eng.html |title= Anti-Sniper Special Purpose Night Vision Sights |work= gunsru.ru |access-date= 2015-03-15}}</ref>
* 1PN106 counter-sniper night sight for the [[Snayperskaya Vintovka Dragunova|SVD]] sniper rifle and its SVDS variant.
* 1PN119 counter-sniper night sight for the [[PK machine gun#PKMN|PKMN]] and [[PK machine gun#PKP Pecheneg|Pecheneg]] light machine guns.
* 1PN120 counter-sniper night sight for the [[SVDK]] sniper rifle.
* 1PN121 counter-sniper night sight for the [[KSVK 12.7|ASVK]] large caliber sniper rifle.
* 1PN123 counter-sniper night sight for the SV-98 sniper rifle.

==Legal restrictions==
* [[Belgium]]: firearms legislation forbids night-vision devices that can be mounted on a firearm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wapenwet.be/wapenwet |title=Wapenwet – Gecoördineerde versie &#124; Wapenunie Online |publisher=Wapenwet.be |access-date=2024-09-03}}</ref>
* [[Czech Republic]]: not regulated.<ref name= "zbrojnice-novela-2021">{{cite web
 | last = Gawron
 | first = Tomáš
 | title = Přehledně: Jaké změny přináší novela zákona o zbraních [What changes are coming with the Firearms Act Amendment]
 | work = zbrojnice.com
 | date = 22 December 2020
 | url = https://zbrojnice.com/2020/12/22/prehledne-jake-zmeny-prinasi-novela-zakona-o-zbranich/
 | access-date = 22 December 2020
 | language = cs}},
</ref> Previously only available for hunting.{{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
* [[Germany]]: law forbids such devices if their purpose is to be mounted on firearms<ref>Section 19 5a of the German Bundesjagdgesetz (BJagdG) states: "It is forbidden to use artificial light sources, mirrors, devices to illuminate or light targets, or [[night vision]] devices with image converters or electronic amplification intended for guns." These aids are not banned for observation purposes but for catching or killing game.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Lust auf Nachtjagd geht nicht ohne Nachtsichtgeräte Thermalgeräte |url=https://jaeger-werden.de/jagdforum/lust-auf-nachtjagd-geht-nicht-ohne-nachtsichtgeraete-und-thermalgeraete-teil-1 |access-date=21 September 2018 |language=de-DE |date=12 July 2017}}</ref> except for hunting [[wild boar]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=dpa/lnw |date=2021-01-30 |title=Wildschwein-Jagd mit Nachtsichtgeräten in NRW erlaubt |url=https://www.proplanta.de/agrar-nachrichten/wald-forst/wildschwein-jagd-mit-nachtsichtgeraeten-in-nrw-erlaubt_article1612007916.html |access-date=2022-09-21 |website=proplanta.de |language=de}}</ref>
* [[Iceland]]: night-vision devices for hunting is prohibited, although owning the devices is permitted.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lynred.com/blog/thermal-vision-technology-major-benefit-hunting-market
| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211123145830/https://www.lynred.com/blog/thermal-vision-technology-major-benefit-hunting-market
|archive-date= 23 November 2021
 |title=THERMAL VISION TECHNOLOGY A MAJOR BENEFIT TO THE HUNTING MARKET
 |website= LYNRED
 |access-date= 23 November 2021
 }}</ref>
* [[India]]: civilian possession and trading of night-vision scopes is prohibited without permission from Union home ministry.<ref>{{cite web | title=Available online in India: Military-grade equipment banned for commercial sale |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/available-online-in-india-military-grade-equipment-banned-for-commercial-sale/story-JLkMwMB6VSx4mmlqYVpSmL.html | website= Hindustan Times | date= 14 December 2016 }}</ref>
* [[Netherlands]]: possession is not regulated, but night-vision devices mounted on firearms require a permit. Using mounted night-vision equipment for hunting requires a permit in the [[Veluwe]] for hunting wild boar.
* [[New Zealand]]: rescue helicopter services use US-made Gen3 goggles for use only according to US export regulations.<ref name="CAANZ">"Seeing in the Dark", ''Vector'', magazine of the [[Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand]], January/February 2008, pages 10–11.</ref> Use of NVD for shooting non-indigenous game animals, such as rabbits, hares, deer, pigs, [[tahr]], [[chamois]], goats, wallabies, is permitted.
* [[United States]]: a 2010–2011 summary of state hunting regulations for the use of night-vision equipment in hunting<ref name="HiTechRedNeck2010">{{cite web |title=A 50 State guide – is night vision legal to use for hunting in my State? |url=http://www.hightechredneckincorporated.com/articles.asp?ID=261 |website=High Tech Red Neck |date=2010}}</ref> listed 13 states in which the equipment is prohibited, 17 states with various restrictions (e.g. only for certain non-game species, and/or in a certain date range), and 20 states without restrictions. It did not summarize the regulations for thermal-imaging equipment.
** [[California]]: possessing a device "designed for or adaptable to use on a firearm which, through the use of a projected infrared light source and electronic telescope, enables the operator thereof to visually determine and locate the presence of objects during the night-time" is a [[misdemeanor]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate?WAISdocID=24717320313+1+0+0&WAISaction=retrieve |title=WAIS Document Retrieval |website=www.leginfo.ca.gov |access-date=16 March 2018}}</ref>  This essentially covers scopes using Gen0 technology, but not subsequent generations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/95-96/bill/asm/ab_1051-1100/ab_1059_cfa_950417_155505_asm_comm.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120711085102/http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/95-96/bill/asm/ab_1051-1100/ab_1059_cfa_950417_155505_asm_comm.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 July 2012 |title=AB 1059 |website=ca.gov |access-date=16 March 2018 }}</ref>
** [[Minnesota]], as of 2014, "A person may not possess night vision or thermal imaging equipment while taking wild animals or while having in possession [an uncased and loaded weapon] that could be used to take wild animals."<ref name="MN-Law">{{cite web |title=MN Statutes Section 97B.086 |url=https://www.revisor.mn.gov/statutes/?id=97B.086 |website=MN Revisor of Statutes |publisher=State of MN |access-date=31 March 2016}}</ref> Law-enforcement and military use is exempt.<ref name="Orrick2016">{{cite news |last1=Orrick |first1=Dave |title=Would night vision make coyote hunting safer? Divisions arise |url=http://www.twincities.com/2016/03/29/would-night-vision-make-coyote-hunting-safer-divisions-arise/ |agency=Pioneer Press |date=2016-03-29}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Electronics}}
{{col div}}
* {{annotated link|Daly detector}}
* {{annotated link|Image intensifier}}
* {{annotated link|Infrared photography}}
*{{anl|Joint Electronics Type Designation System}}
*[[List of military electronics of the United States]]
* {{annotated link|Low light level television}}
* {{annotated link|Photomultiplier}}
* {{annotated link|Thermal imaging camera}}
* {{annotated link|Laser sight (firearms)}}
* [[FGM-148_Javelin#Command_launch_unit| Javelin man portable missile thermal sight]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="flir thermal wavelength">{{cite web |title=Thermal Camera Specs You Should Know Before Buying |url=https://www.flir.com/discover/professional-tools/thermal-camera-specs-you-should-know-before-buying/ |website=[[Teledyne FLIR]] |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407192121/https://www.flir.com/discover/professional-tools/thermal-camera-specs-you-should-know-before-buying/ |archive-date=7 April 2022 |date=18 December 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="photonis 4g">{{cite web |title=Differences between Gen3 and 4G image intensification technology |url=https://www.photonis.com/system/files/2020-10/Difference_Gen3_4G_english_version.pdf |website=Photonis Night Vision |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505124344/https://www.photonis.com/system/files/2020-10/Difference_Gen3_4G_english_version.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2021 |date=October 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="Photonics Montoro essay">{{cite web |last1=Montoro |first1=Harry P. |title=Image Intensification: The Technology of Night Vision |url=https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Image_Intensification_The_Technology_of_Night/a25144 |website=Photonics |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210704122622/https://www.photonics.com/Articles/Image_Intensification_The_Technology_of_Night/a25144 |archive-date=4 July 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="Chief naval training">{{cite web |title=P-431 (Rev. 09-21) FLIGHT TRAINING INSTRUCTION NIGHT VISION GOGGLE PHASE TH-57C 2021 |url=https://www.cnatra.navy.mil/local/docs/pat-pubs/P-431.pdf |website=[[Naval Air Training Command|Chief of Naval Air Training]] |publisher=[[United States Department of the Navy|Department of the Navy]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |pages=2–5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519041358/https://www.cnatra.navy.mil/local/docs/pat-pubs/P-431.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2022 |date=14 September 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="photonis auto-gating">{{cite web |title=Photonis Night Vision Auto-Gating |url=https://www.photonis.com/system/files/2019-03/Auto-Gating.pdf |website=Photonis |access-date=15 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106211417/https://www.photonis.com/system/files/2019-03/Auto-Gating.pdf |archive-date=6 January 2022 |date=March 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="tnvc buyer">{{cite web |last1=Lasky |first1=Chip |title=PVS-14 Buyer's Guide |url=https://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/PVS14_Buyer_Guide_032713.pdf |website=TNVC |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719202732/http://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/PVS14_Buyer_Guide_032713.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2017 |date=2011}}</ref>

<ref name="def indus daily">{{cite web |author1=Defense Industry Daily staff |title=Through a Glass, Darkly: Night Vision Gives US Troops Edge |url=https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/through-a-glass-darkly-night-vision-gives-us-troops-edge-06047/ |website=Defense Industry Daily |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519041846/https://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/through-a-glass-darkly-night-vision-gives-us-troops-edge-06047/ |archive-date=19 May 2022 |date=6 May 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="TFB nv gens">{{cite web |last1=C |first1=Nicholas |title=Friday Night Lights: Understanding Night Vision Specs And Generations |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2020/04/24/friday-night-lights-understanding-night-vision-specs-and-generations/ |website=[[The Firearm Blog]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122230406/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2020/04/24/friday-night-lights-understanding-night-vision-specs-and-generations/ |archive-date=22 January 2021 |date=24 April 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="nitewalker gen">{{cite web |title=Night Vision Specifications (2021 UPDATE) |url=https://www.nite-walker.com/post/2019/11/21/specs-for-dummies-101 |website=Nite-walker |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815213716/https://www.nite-walker.com/post/2019/11/21/specs-for-dummies-101 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |date=26 November 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="e-cosi wavelength">{{cite web |last1=Valpolini |first1=Paolo |title=Safran completes its night vision portfolio |url=https://www.edrmagazine.eu/safran-completes-its-night-vision-portfolio |website=European Defense Review |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527062509/https://www.edrmagazine.eu/safran-completes-its-night-vision-portfolio |archive-date=27 May 2021 |date=13 July 2020}}</ref>

<ref name="nvg proliferation">{{cite web |last1=Tishman |first1=Jon |last2=Schoen |first2=Dan |title=WE DON'T OWN THE NIGHT ANYMORE |url=https://mwi.usma.edu/we-dont-own-the-night-anymore/ |website=Modern War Institute at [[West Point]] |access-date=4 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122101518/https://mwi.usma.edu/we-dont-own-the-night-anymore/ |archive-date=22 January 2021 |date=22 January 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="spie see-spot">{{cite book |last1=Donval |first1=Ariela |last2=Fisher |first2=Tali |last3=Lipman |first3=Ofir |last4=Oron |first4=Moshe |editor-first1=Bjørn F. |editor-first2=Gabor F. |editor-first3=Paul R. |editor-last1=Andresen |editor-last2=Fulop |editor-last3=Norton |chapter=Laser designator protection filter for see-spot thermal imaging systems |title=Infrared Technology and Applications XXXVIII |series=Proceedings of SPIE |date=1 May 2012 |volume=8353 |pages=835324–835324–8 |doi=10.1117/12.916966 |bibcode=2012SPIE.8353E..24D |s2cid=122190698 |chapter-url=https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/8353/1/Laser-designator-protection-filter-for-see-spot-thermal-imaging-systems/10.1117/12.916966.short?SSO=1 |access-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="TFB OOB info">{{cite web |last1=C |first1=Nicholas |title=Friday Night Lights: Night Vision OOB (Out Of Band) – Fact Or Fiction? |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2021/06/11/oob-out-of-band/ |website=[[The Firearm Blog]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519042803/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2021/06/11/oob-out-of-band/ |archive-date=19 May 2022 |date=11 June 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="blackice flfc 2016">{{cite conference |url=http://aunv.blackice.com.au/userfiles/david-FLFC16-Paper-Submission-Template_-_Out_Of_Band_Accepted_v7.pdf |title=OUT-OF-BAND COUNTERMEASURE CAPABILITIES OF 4G SPECIFICATION IMAGE TUBES |last1=Kitson |first1=David |author-link1= |last2= |first2= |author-link2= |date=5 September 2016 |publisher= |book-title= |pages= |location= |conference=Future Land Forces 2016 |conference-url=https://www.landforces.com.au/future-land-force/FLFC16-Interactive-Sessions-Program.pdf |id= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220613061400/http://aunv.blackice.com.au/userfiles/david-FLFC16-Paper-Submission-Template_-_Out_Of_Band_Accepted_v7.pdf |archive-date=13 June 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="TFB Fusion">{{cite web |last1=C |first1=Nicholas |title=FRIDAY NIGHT LIGHTS: DIY Thermal Fusion – By Our Powers Combined |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2019/05/17/friday-night-lights-thermal-fusion-by-our-powers-combined/ |website=[[The Firearm Blog]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519042834/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2019/05/17/friday-night-lights-thermal-fusion-by-our-powers-combined/ |archive-date=19 May 2022 |date=17 May 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="noisefighters pseudo-fusion bridge">{{cite web |title=Adapter for mounting NOX18 to Panobridge |url=https://noisefighters.com/collections/nightvision/products/adapter-for-nox18-thermal-monocular |website=Noise Fighters |access-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718045554/https://noisefighters.com/collections/nightvision/products/adapter-for-nox18-thermal-monocular |archive-date=18 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="fusion overview">{{cite web |last1=Gao |first1=Charlie |title=This is How the Army Fights Wars "In the Dark" |url=https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/how-army-fights-wars-dark-49717 |website=[[The National Interest]] |access-date=3 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330125744/https://nationalinterest.org/blog/buzz/how-army-fights-wars-dark-49717 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |date=29 March 2019}}</ref>

<ref name="TFB MAWL-CLAD">{{cite web |last1=C |first1=Nicholas |title=SWIR MAWL-CLAD – Now Even More Invisible IR Laser |url=https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2017/10/12/swir-mawl-clad-now-even-invisible-ir-laser/ |website=[[The Firearm Blog]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519225457/https://www.thefirearmblog.com/blog/2017/10/12/swir-mawl-clad-now-even-invisible-ir-laser/ |archive-date=19 May 2022 |date=12 October 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="izlid swir oob">{{cite web |title=BE MEYERS & CO RELEASES IZLID ULTRA IN 1064 NM AND 1550 NM SWIR VARIANTS |url=https://bemeyers.com/blog/news/be-meyers-and-co-releases-izlid-ultra-in-1064-nm-and-1550-nm-swir-variants |website=B.E. Meyers & Co. |access-date=16 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716052243/https://bemeyers.com/blog/news/be-meyers-and-co-releases-izlid-ultra-in-1064-nm-and-1550-nm-swir-variants |archive-date=16 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="BE Meyers MAWL-CLAD announce">{{cite web |title=B.E. MEYERS & CO. RELEASES THE MAWL-CLAD A NEW WAVELENGTH FOR THE MAWL SERIES |url=https://bemeyers.com/blog/news/b.e.-meyers-and-co.-releases-the-mawl-clad |website=B.E. Meyers & Co.|access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519225522/https://bemeyers.com/blog/news/b.e.-meyers-and-co.-releases-the-mawl-clad |archive-date=19 May 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="Scopex MAWL-CLAD listing">{{cite web |title=MAWL-CLAD Laser Pointer |url=https://www.scopex.fr/en/products/mawl-clad-ir-laser-pointer/ |website=Scopex |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519225549/https://www.scopex.fr/en/products/mawl-clad-ir-laser-pointer/ |archive-date=19 May 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="la-17/peq report">{{cite web |last1=Schuster |first1=Kurt |last2=Kelly |first2=Edward |title=Assessment for the Safe Use of Lasers: Pabarade Range, Lithuania |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD1078409.pdf |website=[[Defense Technical Information Center]] |publisher=[[Air Force Research Laboratory]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210710202221/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/AD1078409.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2021 |page=14 |date=18 September 2018}}</ref>

<ref name="LA-17/PEQ  NSN">{{cite web |title=5855-01-643-0982 (14300-3200, LA-17/PEQ) Data |url=https://www.parttarget.com/5855-01-643-0982_5855016430982_14300-3200.html/ |website=Part Target |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519225659/https://www.parttarget.com/5855-01-643-0982_5855016430982_14300-3200.html/ |archive-date=19 May 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="L3H spear">{{cite web |title=SMALL PRECISION ENHANCED AIMING RANGEFINDER (SPEAR) |url=https://www.l3harris.com/all-capabilities/small-precision-enhanced-aiming-rangefinder-spear |website=[[L3Harris Technologies]] |access-date=2 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225011830/https://www.l3harris.com/all-capabilities/small-precision-enhanced-aiming-rangefinder-spear |archive-date=25 February 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="Optics 1 COSMO">{{cite web |title=COSMO Clip-On SWIR Monocular |url=https://www.optics1.com/products/cosmo-clip-on-swir-monocular |website=Safran Optics 1 |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522033034/https://www.optics1.com/products/cosmo-clip-on-swir-monocular |archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="Optics 1 CTAM">{{cite web |title=CTAM Coded Target Acquisition Marker |url=https://www.optics1.com/products/ctam-coded-target-acquisition-marker |website=Safran Optics 1 |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027022443/https://www.optics1.com/products/ctam-coded-target-acquisition-marker |archive-date=27 October 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="Optics 1 ICUGR">{{cite web |title=ICUGR Integrated Compact Ultralight Gun-Mounted Rangefinder |url=https://www.optics1.com/products/icugr-integrated-compact-ultralight-gun-mounted-rangefinder |website=Safran Optics 1 |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313041313/https://www.optics1.com/products/icugr-integrated-compact-ultralight-gun-mounted-rangefinder |archive-date=13 March 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="FCS-RPAL">{{cite web |title=FCS-RPAL TACTICAL LASER RANGE FINDER WITH BALLISTIC COMPUTER |url=https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_FCS-RPAL.pdf |website=[[Rheinmetall]] |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717040610/https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_FCS-RPAL.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="FCS-TACRAY">{{cite web |title=FCS-TACRAY BALLISTIC TACTICAL LASER RANGE FINDER WITH BALLISTIC COMPUTER |url=https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_FCS-TacRay_Ballistic.pdf |website=[[Rheinmetall]] |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717040621/https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_FCS-TacRay_Ballistic.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="LM-VAMPIR">{{cite web |title=LM-VAMPIR VARIABLE MULTI PURPOSE INFRARED |url=https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_LM-VAMPIR.pdf |website=[[Rheinmetall]] |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714181244/https://www.rheinmetall.com/media/editor_media/rheinmetallag/events/land_forces_2021/llm/RSE_LM-VAMPIR.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2021}}</ref>

<ref name="wilcox mrf xe">{{cite web |title=MRF Xe MICRO RANGE FINDER - ENHANCED - LOW POWER |url=https://wilcoxind.com/backend/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Wilcox-TDS323-MRF-Xe-LP.pdf |website=Wilcox Industries |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717045011/https://wilcoxind.com/backend/wp-content/uploads/2021/08/Wilcox-TDS323-MRF-Xe-LP.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="wilcox raptar s">{{cite web |title=RAPTAR S RAPID TARGETING & RANGING MODULE - HIGH POWER |url=https://wilcoxind.com/backend/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Wilcox-TDS232-RAPTAR-S.pdf |website=Wilcox Industries |access-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717045508/https://wilcoxind.com/backend/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/Wilcox-TDS232-RAPTAR-S.pdf |archive-date=17 July 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="m914a">{{cite web |title=L3HARRIS M914A (PVS-14) UNFILMED WHITE PHOSPHOR 2376+ FOM |url=https://tnvc.com/shop/l3h-m914a-pvs14-2376fom/ |website=TNVC |date=February 2022 |access-date=11 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522061621/https://tnvc.com/shop/l3h-m914a-pvs14-2376fom/ |archive-date=22 May 2022}}</ref>

<ref name="human fov">{{cite book|last1=Howard|first1=Ian P.|last2=Rogers|first2=Brian J.|title=Binocular vision and stereopsis|date=1995|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-508476-4|page=32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8vqITdETe0C&pg=PA32|access-date=3 June 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="USASOC evol capabilities">{{cite web |title=Evolution of USASOC Future Force Capabilities |url=https://ndiastorage.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/ndia/2017/armament/AshleyKeynote.pdf |website=[[National Defense Industrial Association|NDIA]] |publisher=[[United States Army Special Operations Command|USASOC]] |access-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315000110/https://ndiastorage.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/ndia/2017/armament/AshleyKeynote.pdf |archive-date=15 March 2022 |date=2017}}</ref>

<ref name="TNVC gpnvg white paper">{{cite web |last1=Lasky |first1=Chip |title=GPNVG-18 L-3 Ground Panoramic Night Vision Goggle |url=http://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/GPNVG_Article.pdf |website=TNVC |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308044653/http://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/GPNVG_Article.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2021 |date=December 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="kent pvs-15 wfov">{{cite web |title=Navy SBIR/STTR Success Wide Field-of-View Foveal-Night Vision Goggle Retrofit |url=https://www.navysbir.com/success/Kent_Optronics_1.pdf |website=Navy [[Small Business Innovation Research]] |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213183922/https://www.navysbir.com/success/Kent_Optronics_1.pdf |archive-date=13 February 2022 |date=2016}}</ref>

<ref name="kent asked to wfov">{{cite web |last1=Keller |first1=John |title=Navy asks Kent Optronics to develop wide-field-of-view binocular night-vision goggles |url=https://www.militaryaerospace.com/power/article/16715058/navy-asks-kent-optronics-to-develop-widefieldofview-binocular-nightvision-goggles |website=Military Aerospace Electronics |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621052043/https://www.militaryaerospace.com/power/article/16715058/navy-asks-kent-optronics-to-develop-widefieldofview-binocular-nightvision-goggles |archive-date=21 June 2022 |location=Crane, Indiana |date=9 May 2016}}</ref>

<ref name="SSD wfov">{{cite web |title=N-Vision Optics Announces New Wide Field of View PVS-15 Night Vision Binocular |url=https://soldiersystems.net/2017/01/06/n-vision-optics-announces-new-wide-field-of-view-pvs-15-night-vision-binocular/ |website=[[Soldier Systems Daily]] |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202165608/https://soldiersystems.net/2017/01/06/n-vision-optics-announces-new-wide-field-of-view-pvs-15-night-vision-binocular/ |archive-date=2 February 2020 |date=6 January 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="gizmodo bin laden story">{{cite web |last1=Tarantola |first1=Andrew |title=The Four-Eyed Night Vision Goggles That Helped Take Down Bin Laden |url=https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2014/11/the-four-eyed-night-vision-goggles-that-helped-take-down-bin-laden/ |website=[[Gizmodo]] |access-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402170758/https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2014/11/the-four-eyed-night-vision-goggles-that-helped-take-down-bin-laden/ |archive-date=2 April 2022 |date=6 November 2014}}</ref>

<ref name="tnvc wfov white paper">{{cite web |last1=Kim |first1=Augee |title=TNVC, INC. WFOV (WIDE FIELD OF VIEW) NIGHT VISION GOGGLE OVERVIEW |url=https://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/TNVC_WFOV_NVG_WHITE_PAPER_REV4_DU_20210717.pdf |website=TNVC |access-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610095643/https://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/TNVC_WFOV_NVG_WHITE_PAPER_REV4_DU_20210717.pdf |archive-date=10 June 2022 |date=17 July 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="noisefighters panobridge">{{cite web |title=PANOBRIDGE MK2 |url=https://noisefighters.com/collections/nightvision/products/panobridge |website=Noise Fighters |access-date=18 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331121113/https://noisefighters.com/collections/nightvision/products/panobridge |archive-date=31 March 2022}}</ref>

}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/PVS14_Buyer_Guide_032713.pdf TNVC guide to night vision generations and specifications] {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170719202732/http://tnvc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/PVS14_Buyer_Guide_032713.pdf Archived]}} on 19 July 2021
* [https://www.nite-walker.com/post/2019/11/21/specs-for-dummies-101 Nitewalker guide to night vision equipment] {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20210815213716/https://www.nite-walker.com/post/2019/11/21/specs-for-dummies-101 Archived]}} on 15 August 2021
* [http://www.iict.bas.bg/ipdss/DBorissova/2015-NVD-book-en.pdf Night Vision Devices Modeling and Optimal Design] {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20220506221058/https://www.iict.bas.bg/ipdss/DBorissova/2015-NVD-book-en.pdf Archived]}}  on 6 May 2022
* {{cite web|url= https://www.pointoptics.com/night-hunting-laws/ |title= Night Hunting Laws by State |date= 7 April 2020 |publisher=Pointoptics.com|access-date= 2020-04-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506221043/https://www.pointoptics.com/night-hunting-laws/ |archive-date=6 May 2022}}
* {{cite web|url= http://science.howstuffworks.com/nightvision.htm |first= Jeff |last= Tyson |title= How Night Vision Works |date= 27 April 2001 |publisher= [[HowStuffWorks]]|access-date= 2015-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609003051/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gadgets/high-tech-gadgets/nightvision.htm |archive-date=9 June 2022}}
* {{citation |title= Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate |publisher= [[United States Army Communications-Electronics Command|CECOM]]}}
* {{cite journal |title= The Human Factors of Night Vision Goggles: Perceptual, Cognitive, and Physical Factors |journal=[[Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics]] |publisher= [[Sage Journals]] |date= September 2011 |doi= 10.1177/1557234X11410392 |pages= 238–279 |first1= Avi |last1= Parush |first2= Michelle S. |last2= Gauthier |first3= Lise |last3= Arseneau |first4= Denis |last4= Tang}}

=== US patents ===
* {{US patent|D248860|US D248860 - Night vision Pocketscope}}
* {{US patent|4707595|US 4707595 - Invisible light beam projector and night vision system}}
* {{US patent|4991183|US 4991183 - Target illuminators and systems employing same}}
* {{US patent|6075644|US 6075644 - Panoramic night vision goggles}}
* {{US patent|6158879|US 6158879 - Infrared reflector and illumination system}}
* {{US patent|6911652|US 6911652 - Low Light Imaging Device}}

{{Eyewear}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Night Vision Device}}
[[Category:Armoured fighting vehicle vision and sighting equipment]]
[[Category:Military electronics]]
[[Category:Military sensor technology]]
[[Category:Night vision devices| ]]
[[Category:German inventions of the Nazi period]]
[[Category:Military electronics of the United States]]