View source for North Cascades National Park

{{Short description|National Park in Washington, United States}}
{{featured article}}
{{use American English|date=August 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = North Cascades National Park
| photo = Cascade Pass and Pelton Basin.jpg
| photo_caption = Cascade Pass and Pelton Basin
| iucn_category = II
| map = Washington#USA
| relief = 1
| map_caption = Location in Washington##Location in the United States
| location = [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom]], [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], and [[Chelan County, Washington|Chelan]] counties, [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[United States]]
| nearest_city = [[Sedro-Woolley, Washington]]
| coordinates = {{coord|48|49|58|N|121|20|51|W|region:US-WA|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coords_ref = <ref name=gnis>{{cite gnis|id=1528421|name=North Cascades National Park|access-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref>
| established = {{start date|1968|10|2}}
| area_acre = 504,654
| area_ref = <ref name=area>{{NPS area|year=2011|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>
| visitation_num = 16,485
| visitation_year = 2024
| visitation_ref = <ref name="NPS-Visitors">{{cite web |title=Annual Park Ranking Report for Recreation Visits in: 2024 |url=https://irma.nps.gov/Stats/SSRSReports/National%20Reports/Annual%20Park%20Ranking%20Report%20(1979%20-%20Last%20Calendar%20Year)  |publisher=National Park Service |accessdate=July 6, 2025}}</ref>
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]] 
| website = [https://www.nps.gov/noca/index.htm North Cascades National Park]
}}

'''North Cascades National Park''' is a [[List of national parks of the United States|national park of the United States]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. At more than {{convert|500000|acres}}, it is the largest of the three [[National Park Service]] units that comprise the North Cascades National Park Complex. North Cascades National Park consists of a northern and southern section, bisected by the [[Skagit River]] that flows through the reservoirs of [[Ross Lake National Recreation Area]]. [[Lake Chelan National Recreation Area]] lies on the southern border of the south unit of the park. In addition to the two [[National Recreation Area|national recreation area]]s, other protected lands including several [[United States National Forest|national forests]] and [[National Wilderness Preservation System|wilderness areas]], as well as [[List of Canadian protected areas|Canadian provincial parks]] in [[British Columbia]], nearly surround the park. North Cascades National Park features the rugged mountain peaks of the [[North Cascades|North Cascades Range]], the most expansive glacial system in the [[contiguous United States]], the headwaters of numerous waterways, and vast forests with the highest degree of flora [[biodiversity]] of any American national park.

The region was first settled by [[Paleo-Indian]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s; by the time [[European American]] explorers arrived, it was inhabited by [[Upper Skagit Indian Tribe|Skagit tribes]]. By the early 19th century, the region was visited by fur trappers and several British and American companies vied for control over the [[North American fur trade|fur trade]]. After the [[Canada–United States border]] was set at the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] in 1846, explorers came to chart potential routes through the mountains for roads and railroads. Limited mining and logging occurred from the late 19th century to the early 20th century.  The first significant human impact in the region occurred in the 1920s when several dams were built in the Skagit River valley to generate hydroelectric power. [[Environmentalists]] then campaigned to preserve the remaining wilderness, culminating on October 2, 1968, with the designation of North Cascades National Park.

Heavy snows and a high risk of [[avalanche]]s due to the steep terrain, especially on the western slopes, severely limit visitation in the winter. Most access to the park is from [[Washington State Route 20|State Route 20]], which follows the Skagit River, though even this road is closed for months at a time in the winter. Most of the plant and animal species native to the park region are still found there, though [[climate change]] and pollutants from industrialized regions to the west pose risks to the environment. The park has one of the earliest and longest lasting research programs dedicated to studying climate change, primarily through examining the effects of [[glacial retreat]].

North Cascades National Park is almost entirely protected as [[wilderness]], and so the park has few structures, roads or other improvements. Visitors wishing to drive to a campground must do so in the adjacent national forests or national recreation areas. Camping inside the park requires hiking in by trail, horseback or boat, and camping is regulated by a permit system to ensure the wilderness is not over-exploited. Mountaineering is popular in the park and only unobtrusive [[clean climbing]] is allowed.

== Human history ==
=== Paleoindians and Native Americans ===
Human history in North Cascades National Park and the surrounding region begins 8&ndash;10,000&nbsp;years ago, after the end of the [[last glacial period]].<ref name=apostol>{{cite book|last=Apostol|first=Dean|author2=Marcia Sinclair|title=Restoring the Pacific Northwest: The Art and Science of Ecological Restoration in Cascadia|publisher=Island Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CsGyhzFBjyAC&q=archeology+of+north+cascades&pg=PA248|page=248|isbn=978-1610911030|year=2006|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> [[Paleo-Indians]] slowly advanced from [[Puget Sound]] into the interior mountain region as the glacial ice retreated. Archaeological evidence from other sites hundreds of miles away from the park indicate that Hozomeen [[chert]], a type of rock well-suited to the fabrication of implements, was mined from near [[Hozomeen Mountain]], just east of the park border, for the last 8,400&nbsp;years.<ref name=mierendorf1>{{cite web|last=Mierendorf|first=Robert|title=Cultural History|publisher=North Cascades Institute|url=https://ncascades.org/discover/north-cascades-ecosystem/cultural-history|access-date=June 27, 2018}}</ref>  Tools such as [[Microblade technology|microblade]]s made from Hozomeen chert are part of the archaeological record throughout the [[Skagit River]] Valley, west of the park and in regions to the east.<ref name=mcmanamon>{{cite book|last=McManamon|first=Francis P.|author2=Linda S. Cordell |author3=Kent G. Lightfoot |author4=George R. Milner |title=Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia|publisher=Greenwood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&q=chert|page=324|isbn=978-0313331848|year=2008|access-date=July 4, 2018}}</ref><ref name=mierendorf1/> Prehistoric micro blades 9,600&nbsp;years old have been discovered at [[Cascade Pass]], a mountain pass that connects the western lowlands to the interior regions of the park and the Stehekin River Valley. The microblades are part of an archaeological assemblage that includes five distinct cultural periods, indicating that people were traveling into the mountains nearly 10,000&nbsp;years ago.<ref name=archeo>{{cite web|last=Mierendorf|first=Robert|title=Archeology at Cascade Pass|work=North Cascades Resource Brief|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/historyculture/upload/Archeology-Cascade-Pass-Resource-Brief-2011-2.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714022748/http://www.nps.gov/noca/historyculture/upload/Archeology-Cascade-Pass-Resource-Brief-2011-2.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 14, 2012|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> As well as the archaeological excavation at Cascade Pass, there are another 260 prehistoric sites that have been identified in the park.<ref>{{cite web|title=History and Culture|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/historyculture/index.htm|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>
[[File:Microblades North Cascades.jpg|thumb|left|Microblades excavated from Cascades Pass; the two on the right were crafted from quartz.<ref name=archeo/>|alt=Five irregular but vaguely blade shaped pieces of crystalline rock. The left-most is blue, the next two are reddish, and the right two are white.]]
When white explorers first entered the area in the late 18th century, an estimated thousand [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[Upper Skagit Indian Tribe|Skagits]] lived in what is now North Cascades National Park as well as the surrounding area.<ref name=thompson1>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Erwin N.|title=The Indians|work=North Cascades History Basic Data|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hbd/chap1.htm|date=June 11, 2008|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Residing mainly to the west of the park near [[Puget Sound]], the Skagits lived in settlements, culling their needs from the waterways and traveling by canoe. Skagits formed a loose confederation of tribes that united if threatened by outside tribes such as the [[Haidas]], who lived to the north.<ref name=thompson1/> They erected large houses or lodges that could house multiple families, each with their own partitioned area and entrance. The lodges were {{convert|100|ft}} in length and {{convert|20|to|40|ft|abbr=on}} in width, and the roofs were [[Mono-pitched roof|shed-style]]s, with a single pitch; structures built by other Puget Sound tribes usually had [[gable]] roofs with more than one pitch.<ref name=thompson1/> The Skagits were generally lowlanders, who only ventured into the North Cascades during the summer months, and structures in the mountains were more modest, consisting mostly of temporary buildings erected with poles and covered with branches.<ref name=thompson1/> The Skagits erected [[totem pole]]s and participated in [[potlatch]] ceremonies, similar to the Haidas, but with less complexity and extravagance. By 1910, only about 56 Skagits remained in the region, but their numbers have since rebounded to several hundred.<ref name=thompson1/>

Inland and residing to the north and east of the Skagit tribe, the [[Nlaka'pamux]] (also known as the "Thompson Indians", named after explorer [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]]), [[Chelan tribe|Chelan]], [[Syilx|Okanogan]] and [[Wenatchi]] (Wenatchee) tribes lived partly or year-round in the eastern sections of the North Cascades.<ref name=thompson1/> The Skagits and Nlaka'pamux often had disputes, and raided one another's camps in search of slaves or to exact retribution. Like the coastal-based Skagits, inland tribes also constructed long lodges which were occupied by numerous families, though the style of construction was slightly different as the lodges did not have partitions separating one family from another, and were frame constructed and covered with reed mats rather than from cedar planking.<ref name=thompson1/> One Wenatchee tribal lodge was described by Thompson as being {{convert|240|ft|abbr=on}} long.<ref name=thompson1/> Inland tribes were more likely to travel on foot or horseback than by canoe since the inland regions were less densely forested. Inland tribes also had less bountiful fisheries and greater weather extremes due to being further away from the moderating influence of the Pacific Ocean. Inland tribes rarely erected totem poles or participated in potlatch ceremonies. By the beginning of the 20th century, inland tribes, like their coastal neighbors, had experienced population decline from their first contact with white explorers a hundred years earlier, mostly due to [[smallpox]] and other diseases.<ref name=thompson1/>
{{clear}}

=== Anglo-European exploration ===
[[File:Goode Mountain.jpeg|thumb|Goode Mountain is the tallest mountain in the park.|alt=A reddish-brown mountain range. The tops are ragged and sharp and there is dirty old snow on some of the lower parts of the mountains.]]
The first white explorer to enter the North Cascades was most likely a Scotsman named [[Alexander Ross (fur trader)|Alexander Ross]], who was in the employ of the American-owned [[Pacific Fur Company]]. To the southeast of the modern park boundary, Ross and other members of the company constructed [[Fort Okanogan]] in 1811, as a base from which to operate during the early period of the Pacific Northwest fur trade.<ref name=luxenberg1>{{cite web|last=Luxenberg
|first=Gretchen A.|title=Marketing the Wilderness: Development of Commercial Enterprises|work=Historic Resource Study|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hrs/sec3.htm|date=February 7, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Fort Okanogan was the first American settlement in present-day Washington State, well north of the route followed by members of the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] of 1804&ndash;1806, and also north of [[Fort Vancouver]], on the [[Columbia River]].<ref name=thompson2>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Erwin N.|title=Fur Trading and Trapping|work=North Cascades History Basic Data|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hbd/chap2.htm|date=June 11, 2008|access-date=March 18, 2018}}</ref> Fort Okanogan was later owned by the [[North West Company]], and then the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], both of which were British-owned.<ref name=thompson2/>

Both Native American and white trappers conducted fur transactions at the trading post, which was staffed by representatives of the fur trading company. During one season, Ross traded 1,500 beaver pelts.<ref name=luxenberg1/> In 1814, Ross became the first known white explorer to explore the valleys and high passes of the North Cascades, but he was less interested in exploration than discovering a route that would easily connect the fur trading posts of interior Washington with Puget Sound to the west.<ref name=luxenberg1/><ref name=thompson2/> Ross was accompanied by three Indians, one of whom was a guide who led the party to a high pass in the North Cascades. Ross and the guide may have traveled as far west as the Skagit River, but failed to get to Puget Sound.<ref name=thompson2/> Fur trading slowed considerably as demand for furs decreased in the 1840s, but a few residents continued to augment their income by trapping for furs in the area until 1968, when the park was established, rendering the activity illegal.<ref name=luxenberg1/>

Aside from isolated trappers, the North Cascades saw no further explorations until the 1850s. In 1853, US Army Captain [[George B. McClellan]] led a party that explored the area for potential locations for the construction of a railroad through the region. McClellan determined the mountains were too numerous and precipitous, and that any railway would have to be constructed well to the south.<ref name=luxenberg2>{{cite web|last=Luxenberg
|first=Gretchen A.|title=Early Impressions: Euro-American Explorations and Surveys|work=Historic Resource Study|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hrs/sec1.htm|date=February 7, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>

American and British disputes in the region centered on the fur trade, and the [[Treaty of 1818]] allowed for joint administration of [[Oregon Country]], as it was referred to in the United States{{snd}}the [[British Empire]] referred to the region as the [[Columbia District]].<ref name=thompson3>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Erwin N.|title=International Boundary|work=North Cascades History Basic Data|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hbd/chap3.htm|date=June 11, 2008|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The treaty set the international border at the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]], but this was disputed west of the [[Rocky Mountains]], since the rival fur trading outfits had their own ideas about where the border should be. The [[Oregon boundary dispute]] between Britain and the United States eventually led to the [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846, and the 49th parallel forms both the current international border as well as the northern limit of the current park.<ref name=thompson3/> During the late 1850s, members of the US North West Boundary Commission explored the border region, attempting to identify which mountains, rivers and lakes belonged to which country.<ref name=thompson3/> One party of the commission was led by explorer Henry Custer, and they explored the northern district of the park, publishing their report in the 1860s. Custer's party crossed Whatcom Pass in 1858, and were the first whites to see [[Challenger Glacier (Washington)|Challenger Glacier]] and Hozomeen Mountain.<ref name=thompson3/> Impressed with the scenic grandeur of the region, Custer stated, "must be seen, it cannot be described".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiver |first1=Eugene|last2=Harris |first2=David|title=Geology of U.S. Parklands |year=1999|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0471332183|page=192|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S0zDQWiFuvkC&q=Henry+custer+must+be+seen,+it+cannot+be+described&pg=PA192|access-date=July 4, 2018}}</ref>

In 1882, US Army Lieutenant Henry Hubbard Pierce led a government-sponsored exploration that traversed the western boundary of the southern section of the current park, in search of transportation routes and natural resources. As with the party led by McClellan in the 1850s, Pierce failed to find a suitable route for a railway, and only marginally suitable routes for roads. However, the expedition discovered gold in a [[quartz]] vein on the slopes of [[Eldorado Peak]].<ref name=explorers>{{cite web|title=Settlers and Explorers|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/historyculture/settlers-and-explorers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 26, 2014}}</ref> Further expeditions by the military in 1883 and 1887 also determined that the mountains were virtually impenetrable.<ref name=luxenberg2/> Explorers continued to seek out routes for wagon roads and railways and by the end of the 19th century, much of the park had been explored, but it was not until 1972 that the [[Washington State Route 20|North Cascades Highway]] bisected the mountains.<ref name=luxenberg2/>

=== Mining, logging and dam construction ===
[[File:Ross Lake Dam, North Cascades National Park, Washington - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Ross Dam in the Ross Lake National Recreation Area|alt=A curved concrete dam, viewed from slightly above. On the left is a steep forested valley, and on the right is blue-green water. The reservoir is almost full.]]
Mineral prospectors entered the North Cascades region, and by the 1850s were doing [[placer mining]] along the banks of the Skagit River in search of gold. In the 1870s, placer mining also commenced along [[Ruby Creek (Washington)|Ruby Creek]], and hundreds of miners came to the region even though it was difficult to access. Most mining activity along Ruby Creek had ended by the 1880s, but was soon replaced by [[Underground mining (hard rock)|hard rock mining]] for silver and other minerals.<ref name=luxenberg1/> This second period of mining lasted from the 1890s to the 1940s, but was only marginally more lucrative.<ref name=thompson5>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Erwin N.|title=Mining|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hbd/chap5.htm|date=June 11, 2008|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Miners were hampered by short working seasons, difficult terrain, low quantities of ore and a lack of financial investment.<ref name=miners>{{cite web|title=Miners|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/historyculture/miners.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Miners built some of the first trails and roads into portions of the backcountry, some of which involved intricate engineering, including bridges over the numerous streams and dynamiting rock ledges above steep gorges during trail construction.<ref name=luxenberg1/><ref name=build>{{cite web|title=The Builders|work=History and Culture|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/historyculture/the-builders.htm|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> One mining company built a series of [[flume]]s, the longest of which was over {{convert|3|mi}}, to transport lumber and to supply water for use in their [[hydraulic mining]] operation.<ref name=luxenberg1/>

During the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, larger operations mined silver and lead in addition to gold, mostly with little or no profitability. The demand for metals was not constant, and so prices tended to fluctuate too greatly for mining to be viable.<ref name=luxenberg1/> Once the region became a national park, some privately owned mining inholdings remained. One such inholding, the Thunder Creek mine, was still privately owned as of 1997.<ref name=louter1>{{cite web|last=Louter|first=David|title=Land Use and Protection|work=Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington An Administrative History|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/adhi/chap1.htm|date=April 14, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>

Unlike in many other regions of the Pacific Northwest, logging had little impact on the future park.<ref name=thompson8>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Erwin N.|title=The Public Domain|work=North Cascades History Basic Data|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/hbd/chap8.htm|date=June 11, 2008|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The ruggedness of the terrain and the existence of more economically viable timber resources that were closer to transportation routes largely dissuaded the timber industry from logging in the area. In 1897 the [[Washington National Forest|Washington Forest Reserve]] was set aside, preserving the forestland that would later become the park. By 1905, the management of the reserve was transferred from the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]] to the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]]. The [[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]] was subsequently created to administer these forest reserves nationwide, which were redesignated as National Forests.<ref name=luxenberg1/> Though the Department of Agriculture allowed commercial enterprises to log the forest with a permit, most of the timber taken from the region was used only locally for the construction of cabins and similar small-scale enterprises. Logging expanded when the [[Skagit River Hydroelectric Project]] was commenced by the public utility [[Seattle City Light]] in the 1920s.<ref name=build/> Almost {{convert|12000|acre}} of timber would have been left underwater by the completion of the [[Ross Dam]]. A contract to extract the timber was awarded in 1945 and the project was completed in 1958.<ref name=luxenberg1/> None of the dams or areas that were extensively logged are within the current boundaries of the national park, but they are in the adjoining [[Ross Lake National Recreation Area]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Protecting The Natural Environment with Low Impact Energy Generation|url=http://www.seattle.gov/light/Skagit/|website=Skagit River Hydroelectric Project|publisher=City of Seattle|access-date=May 18, 2018}}</ref>

=== Establishing the National Park ===
[[File:NPS DirectorandStaff.jpg|thumb|Stephen Mather (seated at center) was the first Director of the National Park Service, and is the namesake for the vast wilderness area that now encompasses almost all of the park.|alt=A black-and-white photo of five men wearing business attire. Two are standing and three are seated.]]
The establishment of [[Yellowstone National Park]] in 1872, and [[Yosemite National Park]] in 1890, led [[Historic preservation|preservationists]] to argue for similar protections for other areas. Even before the North Cascade region was designated as a Forest Reserve in 1897, activists argued the region should be afforded the greater protection accorded from a National Park designation.<ref name=louter2>{{cite web|last=Louter|first=David|title=A Wilderness Park|work=Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington An Administrative History|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/adhi/part1.htm|date=April 14, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>  Washingtonians submitted a petition in 1892 to establish a national park to the north of [[Lake Chelan]], as many who had visited the region believed it to have scenery "greater than Switzerland's".<ref name=louter3>{{cite web|last=Louter|first=David|title=Contested Terrain: The Establishment of North Cascades National Park|work=Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington An Administrative History|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/adhi/chap1.htm|date=April 14, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Further efforts took place in 1906, and again between 1916 and 1921, when artist Julian Itter and the Mazamas Alpine Club lobbied for a bill to designate "Mount Baker National Park".<ref name="Times-1967">{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Walt |date=March 21, 1967 |title=North Cascade Park Bill Was Long In Coming |page=2 |work=The Seattle Times}}</ref> The proposals failed to gain approval from the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] and were shelved for decades.<ref name=louter3/><ref>{{cite news |last=Halliday |first=William R. |date=March 16, 1969 |title=The Forgotten Father Of North Cascades National Park |pages=14–15 |work=The Seattle Times Magazine}}</ref>

Not all locals supported the idea of a national park, as they felt that such a designation would damage the economics of the region. The Forest Service was also not in favor of park designation, as they would have to relinquish control over the land to the Park Service, which was not uncommon, since many parks being established were originally managed by the Forest Service. In an effort to appease their detractors, the Forest Service designated [[Primitive Area]]s which would provide increased protection to some of the most pristine regions they managed.<ref name=louter3/>

By the mid-1930s, forester [[Bob Marshall (wilderness activist)|Bob Marshall]] argued that the region should be set aside as wilderness. Rival interests continued to argue over whether the lands should remain under the management of the Forest Service or the National Park Service, but by the 1960s the environmentalist argument advocating for a national park prevailed.<ref name=louter3/> President [[John F. Kennedy]] directed the Departments of Agriculture and the Interior to fund a joint study into a possible national park in the North Cascades region, which was completed in January 1966 and submitted to Congress.<ref name="Times-1967"/> The size of the national park was subject to debate locally and in Congress, as well as its effect on the local logging industry.<ref>{{cite news |last=Woodward |first=Walt |date=February 11, 1966 |title=Pros and Cons on U.S. Parks Heard |page=45 |work=The Seattle Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=April 21, 1968 |title=North Cascades Compromise Hinted |page=45 |work=The Seattle Times}}</ref> The North Cascades National Park Act designated the region as a [[List of national parks of the United States|national park]] on October 2, 1968, and the National Park Service commenced direct management on January 1, 1969.<ref name=louter4>{{cite web|last=Louter|first=David|title=Administration|work=Contested Terrain: North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington An Administrative History|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/noca/adhi/chap2.htm|date=April 14, 1999|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The North Cascades National Park Act also designated Ross Lake and [[Lake Chelan National Recreation Area]]s. [[Redwood National and State Parks|Redwood National Park]] in California was also signed into existence on the same day as the North Cascades.<ref name=louter3/> By 1988, much of Bob Marshall's original plan to set aside the future park as wilderness was achieved when almost all of North Cascades National Park was designated as the [[Stephen Mather Wilderness]].<ref name=wilderness>{{cite web|title=Washington Park Wilderness Act of 1988|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/management/washington-park-wilderness.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>

== Park management ==
[[File:Mount Triumph 25911.JPG|thumb|[[Mount Triumph]]|alt=An irregular bare rock mountain peak, with a pronounced shoulder on the left of the picture. In the foreground are two lower prominences, with some trees on them. A snow field is just visible at the foot of the larger mountain.]]
[[File:North_Cascades_National_Park_sign.jpg|left|thumb|West entrance sign on SR 20]]
North Cascades National Park is managed by the National Park Service, and the park headquarters is in [[Sedro-Woolley, Washington]]. The park consists of a northern and a southern district or unit. These are separated by Ross Lake National Recreation Area. The southeast boundary of the southern district abuts Lake Chelan National Recreation Area; the park and two recreation areas are managed as the North Cascades National Park Complex.<ref name="map">{{cite map|publisher=National Park Service|title=North Cascades National Park Complex|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/upload/NOCAmap1.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427220042/http://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/upload/NOCAmap1.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 27, 2013|format=pdf|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Most of the park complex was designated as the Stephen Mather Wilderness, preventing further human-induced alterations to 93&nbsp;percent of the park.<ref name="wilderness" /><ref name="management">{{cite web|title=North Cascades National Park 2012 Business Plan|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/parkmgmt/upload/NOCA_4-30_spreads.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140421082045/http://www.nps.gov/noca/parkmgmt/upload/NOCA_4-30_spreads.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 21, 2014|publisher=National Park Service|date=Spring 2012|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The mandate of the National Park Service is to "preserve and protect natural and cultural resources". In keeping with this mandate, hunting is illegal in the park, as is mining, logging, oil and gas extraction, and removal of natural or cultural resources.<ref name="mission">{{cite web|title=History|publisher=National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior|url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/quick-nps-history.htm|access-date=May 21, 2018}}</ref>

In 2024, North Cascades National Park recorded 16,485 visitors, while adjoining Ross Lake National Recreation Area reported 971,173 visitors and Lake Chelan National Recreation Area had 30,815 visitors.<ref name="NPS-Visitors"/> Peak visitation is between June and September.<ref name="management" /> Ross Lake NRA is easily accessible on [[Washington State Route 20|State Route 20]] (also called the North Cascades Highway), the only road which traverses the park complex; the highway lies entirely within the Ross Lake NRA. Only two primitive roadways enter the actual national park. The North Cascades National Park Complex had an operating base budget of $7,700,000 for fiscal year 2010, augmented by another $3,700,000 of non-base funding (which can fluctuate significantly on an annual basis), and additional funding from revenue generated from concessionaire contracts and user fees. Much of the budget is for staffing, with 83&nbsp;percent covering the cost of 81 permanent employees, not all of whom are employed year-round, and the nearly 250 seasonal and term employees who work primarily in the summer months.<ref name="management" /> In 2017, the fiscal year budget was approximately 7.5&nbsp;million dollars, and budgets have been stagnant overall for all National Park Service sites for many years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Budget Justifications and Performance Information Fiscal Year 2019|url=https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/fy2019_nps_budget_justification.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior|access-date=April 11, 2018|page=84}}</ref>

=== Access ===
[[File:Eldorado Peak 8700s.JPG|thumb|right|The south unit of the park is dominated by Eldorado Peak (left center skyline). Cascade Pass, one of the most popular hiking destinations in the park, is the lowest point on the skyline between Boston Peak (just right of center, with large glacier) and broad Johannesburg Mountain (right). Hidden Lake Peaks, another popular hike, are in the middle distance below and right of Boston Peak.|alt=A range of snow-capped mountains. In the foreground is a stretch of forest. In between is an area of lower ground.]]
Although there are some gravel roads open to the public that enter the park, such as the Cascade River Road beginning at [[Marblemount, Washington|Marblemount]], and the Thornton Lakes Road near [[Newhalem, Washington|Newhalem]], most automobile traffic travels on State Route 20, which passes through the Ross Lake National Recreation Area. The visitor center at Newhalem on the North Cascades Highway is open in the summer.<ref name="visitorcenter">{{cite web|title=Visitor Centers and Ranger Stations|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/visitorcenters.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Some of the best views of Mount Shuksan are from the Heather Meadows Visitor Center in Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest well outside of the park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Heather Meadows Visitor Center|url=https://www.fs.usda.gov/r06/mbs/offices|publisher=U.S. Forest Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> All backcountry access requires a permit, and most are obtained at the Wilderness Information Center near Marblemount.<ref name="visitorcenter"/> Full accessibility for all is not available in the park, but the adjacent National Recreation Areas have a few trails, and all visitor centers, campgrounds and restrooms are fully accessible.<ref>{{cite web|title=Accessibility|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/accessibility.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 4, 2018}}</ref>

The nearest large town on the west side of the park is Sedro-Woolley, and [[Winthrop, Washington|Winthrop]] lies to the east. [[Chelan, Washington|Chelan]] is located at the southeastern end of Lake Chelan where access to the park from [[Stehekin, Washington|Stehekin]] serves eastern Washington communities. The closest international airport is [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport]] (Sea-Tac), which is {{convert|120|mi|abbr=on}} from North Cascades Visitor Center and {{convert|190|mi|abbr=on}} from Chelan. In Chelan, the ''Lady of the Lake'' is a passenger-only ferry that transports visitors to Stehekin, and the trailheads hikers can use to access the southern end of the park.<ref name=transportation>{{cite web|title=Public Transportation|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/publictransportation.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 4, 2018}}</ref>
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== Geography ==
[[File:Map of North Cascades National Park.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of the North Cascades National Park Complex]]
North Cascades National Park is located in portions of [[Whatcom County, Washington|Whatcom]], [[Skagit County, Washington|Skagit]], and [[Chelan County, Washington|Chelan]] counties in the U.S. state of Washington. Bisected by Ross Lake National Recreation Area (NRA), the park consists of two districts; the northern and southern. The northern boundary of the north district is also the international border between the United States and Canada; the latter manages adjoining [[Chilliwack Lake Provincial Park|Chilliwack Lake]] and [[Skagit Valley Provincial Park]]. The entire eastern and southern boundary of the north district is bordered by Ross Lake NRA. The western side of the north district is bordered by [[Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest]], within which lies the [[Mount Baker Wilderness|Mount Baker]] and [[Noisy-Diobsud Wilderness]]es, both of which border the park.<ref name=trailguide>{{cite web|title=Trail Guide|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/trailguide.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mount Baker Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=371|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Noisy-Diobsud Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=410|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest also borders a portion of the southern district of the park, to the southwest. Along the southwest border is [[Wenatchee National Forest]], within which lies the [[Glacier Peak Wilderness]].<ref name=trailguide/><ref>{{cite web|title=Glacier Peak Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=207|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The southern boundary of the park is shared with Lake Chelan NRA, and a small section of the eastern boundary is shared with the [[Okanogan–Wenatchee National Forest]].<ref name=trailguide/> The [[Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness]] lies in the Okanogan–Wenatchee National Forest along the southeastern park boundary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness|url=http://www.wilderness.net/NWPS/wildView?WID=306|publisher=University of Montana|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref>

North Cascades National Park has nearly {{convert|9000|ft}} of vertical relief, with the park's highest point atop [[Goode Mountain]], and the western valleys situated at only around {{convert|400|ft|abbr=on}} above mean [[sea level]], the park has a highly varied ecosystem, including eight [[life zone]]s.<ref name=nature>{{cite web|title=Nature and Science|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/index.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref name=natural>{{cite web|title=Natural Features & Ecosystems|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/naturalfeaturesandecosystems.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Erosion from water and glacial ice have created some of the steepest mountain ranges in the contiguous US, rising between {{convert|4000|and|6000|ft|abbr=on}} above their bases.<ref name=relief>{{cite web|title=North Cascades Geology|url=https://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/noca/nocageol1.html|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|access-date=March 29, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801004910/http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/noca/nocageol1.html|archive-date=August 1, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> The park is home to over 300 glaciers as well as 300 lakes, and contains the [[River source|headwaters]] for some streams that flow into the Skagit River, as well as the [[Stehekin River|Stehekin]] and [[Nooksack River]]s.<ref name=natural/><ref name=glaciers>{{cite web|title=Glaciers / Glacial Features|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glaciers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> The ruggedness of the terrain was an obstacle to human encroachment and consequently, the park is almost entirely wilderness.

=== Geology ===
North Cascades National Park was named after the [[North Cascades]] mountains, which are a subsection of the [[Cascade Range]] that extends from northern California into British Columbia. The North Cascades are the northernmost section of the range and unlike their southern counterparts that consist of [[Tertiary (period)|Tertiary]] to [[Holocene]] volcanic rocks, the North Cascades are composed primarily of [[Mesozoic]] crystalline and [[metamorphic rock]]s.<ref name=wsdnr>{{cite web|title=North Cascades|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-and-services/geology/explore-popular-geology/geologic-provinces-washington/north-cascades|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Though most rocks in the park are from the more recent Mesozoic, the oldest rocks are 400&nbsp;million years old, dating from the [[Devonian]].<ref name=nc>{{cite web|title=Geology of North Cascades|publisher=North Coast and Cascades Science Learning Network|url=http://www.nwparkscience.org/node/874|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622193345/http://www.nwparkscience.org/node/874|url-status=usurped|archive-date=June 22, 2018|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref> A complex assemblage of various rock formations have repeatedly been eroded, reburied, subjected to fracturing and heat, creating a geological puzzle that is one of the most complicated and least understood geological records in North America. These forces are ongoing and the region continues to see uplift and faulting.<ref name=nc/>

Evidence from the fossils and magnetism found in the rocks indicates that the [[terrane]]s composing the North Cascades drifted thousands of miles north until they impacted the [[North American Plate]] 90&nbsp;million years ago.<ref name=nc/> The collision between the rocks caused fracturing and folding as well as uplift and the terranes were further fractured into north or south trending faults.<ref name=nc/> The uplifted rocks mostly eroded away; 40&nbsp;million years ago the heavier [[basalt]]ic rocks of the ocean floor started to push the lighter [[granite|granitic]] rocks that are the core of the mountains upward, a process that continues.<ref name=nc/><ref name=geologic>{{cite web|title=Geologic Formations|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/geologicformations.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Subjected to intense heat, rocks deep underground near the collision zone became recrystallized into granitic rocks, which comprise the backbone of the highest peaks.<ref name=nc/> Continued uplift and erosion and finally the action of glacial ice on the landscape during the [[Holocene]] exposed the rocks visible today.<ref name=nc/><ref name=wsdnr2>{{cite web|title=Glaciation and Erosion|work=North Cascades|publisher=Washington State Department of Natural Resources|url=https://www.dnr.wa.gov/programs-and-services/geology/explore-popular-geology/geologic-provinces-washington/north-cascades#glaciation-and-erosion.1|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref>

Much harder and more durable than the younger volcanic rocks of the southern Cascades, the North Cascades are consequently more rugged, with steep terrain being the norm due to heavy erosion from water and ice.<ref name=tabor>{{cite book|last=Tabor|first=Rowland|author2=Ralph Haugerud|title=Geology of the North Cascades: A Mountain Mosaic|publisher=Mountaineers Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56UH5XauGSsC&q=Geology%20of%20the%20North%20Cascades%3A%20A%20Mountain%20Mosaic&pg=PA7|pages=7–8|isbn=978-0898866230|date=May 14, 1999|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Continued rising in conjunction with erosion from water and ice has created deep valleys and significant vertical relief that is comparable to much taller mountain ranges.<ref name=tabor/>

=== Mountains ===
{{main|North Cascades}}
[[File:Mount Degenhardt 26001.JPG|thumb|View from the south of Mount Terror (left skyline), Inspiration Peak (center) and McMillan Spires (right center), major summits in the southern portion of the Picket Range|alt=A range of sharp mountain peaks. The lower reaches have snow on them. In the foreground, a wooded slope descends from left to right.]]
The tallest mountain in North Cascades National Park is [[Goode Mountain]] at {{convert|9220|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=student>{{cite web|title=North Cascades Student Guide|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/forkids/upload/Student%20Brochure%20Final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512062046/http://www.nps.gov/noca/forkids/upload/Student%20Brochure%20Final.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 12, 2009|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> It lies in a remote backcountry region of the southern section of the park.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|page=89}}</ref> Nearby are several other peaks that exceed {{convert|9000|ft|abbr=on}}, including [[Buckner Mountain]] ({{convert|9114|ft|abbr=on}})<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|page=86}}</ref> and [[Mount Logan (Washington)|Mount Logan]] ({{convert|9087|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Smoot|first1=Jeff|title=Climbing Washington's Mountains|date=January 1, 2002|publisher=FalconGuides|isbn=978-0762710867|pages=93–97}}</ref> At about {{convert|9000|ft|abbr=on}}, about {{convert|5|mi}} northeast of Goode Mountain, is [[Black Peak (Washington)|Black Peak]] ({{convert|8970|ft|abbr=on}}). Other prominent peaks in the southern section of the park include [[Boston Peak]] ({{convert|8894|ft|abbr=on}}),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Beckey|first1=Fred|title=Cascade Alpine Guide: Climbing and High Routes: Stevens Pass to Rainy Pass|date=January 15, 2003|publisher=The Mountaineers Books|isbn=978-0898868388|page=331|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ukAUElJXPIC&pg=PA331}}</ref> [[Eldorado Peak]] ({{convert|8868|ft|abbr=on}})<ref>{{cite gnis|1519242|Eldorado Peak}}</ref> and [[Forbidden Peak]] ({{convert|8815|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite gnis|1519683|Forbidden Peak}}</ref>

The northern region of the park contains the [[Picket Range]], a subrange of the [[Skagit Range]], which is in turn a subrange of the North Cascades.<ref name=beckey>{{cite book|last1=Beckey|first1=Fred|title=Cascade Alpine Guide; Rainy Pass to Fraser River|date=June 1, 2008|publisher=The Mountaineers Books|isbn=978-1594854309|pages=96–100|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5S0EVRXtK6YC&pg=PA96}}</ref> The Picket Range has numerous spires with ominous names such as [[Mount Fury]], [[Mount Challenger (Washington)|Mount Challenger]], [[Poltergeist Pinnacle]], [[Mount Terror (Washington)|Mount Terror]], [[Ghost Peak]] and [[Phantom Peak]], all of which exceed {{convert|8000|ft|abbr=on}}. The Picket Range is only {{convert|6|mi|abbr=on}} long yet contains 21 peaks over {{convert|7500|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name=beckey/> North of the Picket Range and near the border with Canada lie [[Mount Redoubt (Washington)|Mount Redoubt]] ({{convert|8969|ft|abbr=on}}), [[Mount Spickard]] ({{convert|8979|ft|abbr=on}}) and the spires of the [[Mox Peaks]] ({{convert|8630|ft|abbr=on}}).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldman|first1=Peggy|title=Washington's Highest Mountains: Basic Alpine and Glacier Routes|date=March 30, 2004|publisher=Wilderness Press|isbn=978-0899972909|pages=43–49}}</ref> Isolated and dominating the northwestern reaches of the park lies the oft photographed [[Mount Shuksan]] ({{convert|9131|ft|abbr=on}}), which towers more than {{convert|8400|ft|abbr=on}} above [[Baker Lake (Washington)|Baker Lake]] only {{convert|6|mi|abbr=on}} to the south.<ref name=rivers>{{cite web|title=Rivers and streams|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/rivers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref>

=== Water features ===

More than 500 lakes and ponds are located within North Cascades National Park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Lakes and ponds|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/lakesandponds.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 5, 2018}}</ref> Many of these are devoid of fish, not uncommon in steep terrain where fish may not be able to access high altitude waterways. Around 240 of these lakes exist in the higher elevations and stocking of some of these lakes with fish has been ongoing since the late 19th century.<ref>{{cite web|title=Natural Resource Issues|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/natural-resource-issues.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018|date=January 19, 2018}}</ref> Fishing in these lakes, which, without fish stocking, do not have native fish, is part of the area's economy and tourism.<ref name="hreport11368">{{cite web|last=House Committee on Natural Resources|title=House Report 113-68|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CRPT-113hrpt68/pdf/CRPT-113hrpt68.pdf|publisher=Government Printing Office|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref> In 2008 an Environmental Impact Statement was produced that examined whether these lakes should continue to be stocked, and if so, what the impact would be on native species such as salamanders and other aquatic life.<ref name="eis">{{cite web|title=Mountain Lakes Fishery Management Plan / Environmental Impact Statement (2008)|url=https://parkplanning.nps.gov/projectHome.cfm?projectID=10007|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> The North Cascades National Park Service Complex Fish Stocking Act, signed in 2014, directs the NPS to allow stocking of non-reproducing fish in no more than 42 lakes, making it the only national park to continue to stock non-native fish in park lakes.<ref name="1158sum">{{cite web|title=H.R. 1158 - Summary|url=http://beta.congress.gov/bill/113th-congress/house-bill/1158|publisher=United States Congress|access-date=June 13, 2013}}</ref><ref name="nptraveler">{{cite news|last=Repanshek|first=Kurt|date=June 3, 2009|title=House Approves Measure to Direct North Cascades National Park to Stock Barren Lakes. What Do You Think?|newspaper=National Parks Traveler|url=http://www.nationalparkstraveler.com/2009/06/house-approves-measure-direct-north-cascades-national-park-stock-barren-lakes-what-do-you-th|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref> The prior decision not to continue to stock the lakes with fish was part of a larger debate about what "natural" means in reference to national parks.<ref name="seattletimes2009">{{cite news|last=Le|first=Phuong|date=April 13, 2009|title=Fish stocking ban looms at Wash. national park|newspaper=Seattle Times|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2009029873_apfishstockingcascades.html|access-date=July 18, 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Thunder Creek.jpg|thumb|left|Thunder Creek is known for its milky appearance from suspended rock particles called glacial flour.|alt=A medium-sized river flows through a wooded landscape. The water is slightly milky in appearance.]]
Hundreds of creeks and streams and several rivers originate within the park. The streams at higher elevation are often directly supplied by [[meltwater]] from glaciers, and they carry finely ground rock particles commonly referred to as [[glacial flour]].<ref name="river">{{cite web|title=Rivers and Streams|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/rivers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Turning the water a turquoise hue at times, this finely ground powder remains suspended in lakes the creeks flow into, also causing some of them to appear turquoise. [[Thunder Creek (Washington)|Thunder Creek]] is particularly well known for this attribute, as it is supplied melt water from dozens of glaciers and transports the suspended particles into [[Diablo Lake]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Thunder Creek and Park Creek Trails|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/thunder-creek-trail.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref>

The Skagit River divides the park into the north and south districts; it lies within the Ross Lake NRA and outside of the national park boundaries, but some of the creeks and streams that supply it originate within the national park; the [[Baker River (Washington)|Baker River]] is the largest of these tributaries.<ref name="river"/> The Skagit River is the largest river that flows into Puget Sound to the west, and the dams located in Ross Lake National Recreation Area and impounding other lakes adjacent to the park supply nearly 90&nbsp;percent of the electricity used in Seattle.<ref>{{cite web|title=How Our Electricity is Generated|url=http://www.seattle.gov/light/FuelMix/|publisher=Seattle City Light|access-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> Other important rivers that originate in the park include the [[Vedder River|Chilliwack]], Nooksack and the Stehekin rivers.<ref name="river"/>
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=== Glaciers ===
[[File:Eldorado Peak view east.jpeg|thumb|View of three glaciers from Eldorado Peak: Inspiration, Forbidden, and Quien Sabe|alt=A view looking down on a range of dark mountains. The valley to the left contains a light-colored glacier. There is a small lake at the bottom of the picture.]]
With approximately 312 glaciers, North Cascades National Park has the most glaciers of any US park outside Alaska, and a third of all the glaciers in the lower 48 states.<ref name=riedel1>{{cite web|last=Riedel|first=Jon|author2=Mike Larrabee|author3=Sharon Brady|author4=Niki Bowerman|author5=Rob Burrows |author6=Steve Dorsch|author7=Joanie Lawrence|author8=Jeannie Wenger|title=Glacier Monitoring Program|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance1.htm|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> Counting a few glaciers in the adjoining National Recreation Areas, the North Cascades National Park Complex glaciers covered an expanse totaling {{convert|27000|acre|sqkm}} as of 2009.<ref name=riedel2>{{cite web|last=Riedel|first=Jon|author2=Michael Larrabee|title=North Cascades National Park Complex Glacier Mass Balance Monitoring Annual Report, Water Year 2009|work=Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NCCN/NRTR&ndash;2011/483|publisher=National Park Service|url=http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/upload/134_NCCN_NOCA_GlacierAnnualReport2009_20110825.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112225347/http://www.nps.gov/noca/naturescience/upload/134_NCCN_NOCA_GlacierAnnualReport2009_20110825.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 12, 2012|date=August 2011|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> [[Boston Glacier]], on the north slope of Boston Peak, is the largest glacier in the park, measured in 1971 to have an area of {{convert|1730|acre|sqkm}}.<ref name=student/> Other glaciers that were measured in 1971 to be larger than {{Convert|2|km2}} include [[East Nooksack Glacier|East Nooksack]] and [[Sulphide Glacier]]s on [[Mount Shuksan]], [[McAllister Glacier|McAllister]] and [[Inspiration Glacier]]s on Eldorado Peak, [[Redoubt Glacier]] on [[Mount Redoubt (Washington)|Mount Redoubt]], [[Neve Glacier]] on [[Snowfield Peak]], and [[Challenger Glacier (Washington)|Challenger Glacier]] on Mount Challenger.<ref name=post>{{cite web|last=Post|first=Austin|author2=Don Richardson|author3=Wendell V. Tangborn|author4=F. L. Rosselot|title=Inventory of Glaciers in the North Cascades, Washington|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0705a/report.pdf|access-date=June 22, 2018}}</ref>

[[File:Lowercurtis.jpg|thumb|left|Lower Curtis Glacier in 2003 compared to 1985 extent demarcated by red line demonstrates the retreat of this glacier.|alt=A dark mountain range showing the end of a glacier. There is a timestamp in orange: "08.07.2003". A red line well below the end of the glacier is marked "1985".]]
The dense concentration and relative ease of access to the North Cascade glaciers brought about some of the earliest series of scientific studies regarding glaciology in the United States. Beginning in 1955, the [[University of Washington]] sponsored [[Richard C. Hubley]] to undertake annual aerial photography expeditions designed to capture images of the glaciers and to show any alterations that might be occurring.<ref name=post2>{{cite book|last1=Post|first1=Austin|author2=Edward R. LaChapelle|title=Glacier Ice|date=March 1, 2000|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0802083753|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BofiWpPh328C&q=Richard+C.+Hubley&pg=PR12|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> In 1960, [[Austin Post (photographer)|Austin Post]] expanded the aerial coverage to include other regions and he also used ground-based imagery to augment the research. In 1971, based on the photographs and other data collected since 1955, Post and others wrote a report that documented the number and scale of glaciers in the North Cascades.<ref name=post/> At the time of Austin Post's inventory, their study concluded that some North Cascades glaciers had experienced a period of minor growth or equilibrium in the mid-20th century, after undergoing decades of retreat. The study concluded that annual glacial melt due to seasonal variations has a significant influence on river levels, accounting for about 30&nbsp;percent of the late summer water flow, which directly impacted the supported ecosystems such as salmon fisheries.<ref name=post/>

The National Park Service, United States Geological Survey (USGS) and [[glaciologist]]s such as [[Mauri S. Pelto]], who has led the North Cascades Glacier Climate Project since 1984, have continued research on North Cascade glaciers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pelto|first=Mauri|title=Vanishing Glaciers|journal=Washington Trails|pages=1–4|date=September 2007|url=http://www.wta.org/magazine/1240.pdf|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Since 1993, the National Park Service has conducted rigorous studies on four park glaciers: [[Noisy Creek Glacier|Noisy Creek]], [[Silver Glacier|Silver]], [[North Klawatti Glacier|North Klawatti]] and [[Sandalee Glacier]]s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glaciers Selected for Monitoring|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance2.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The National Park Service research indicated that these four glaciers experienced rapid decrease in volumes between 1993 and 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Recent Trends in Glacial Volume|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance6.htm|access-date=March 28, 2018}}</ref> In 1998, a National Park Service and [[Portland State University]] aerial photographic inventory showed a 13&nbsp;percent loss in park-wide glacial volume since Austin Post's inventory in 1971.<ref name=trends>{{cite web|title=Long Term Trends|publisher=National Park Service|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance7.htm|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> The NPS stated that in the last 150&nbsp;years since the end of the [[Little Ice Age]], a period of several centuries in which the earth experienced a cooling phase, glacial ice volumes in the North Cascades have been reduced by 40&nbsp;percent.<ref name=trends/> This loss of glacial ice has contributed to decreased melt in the summer. In a paper published in 2016, it was reported that since 1959 the Skagit River watershed has seen a 25&nbsp;percent reduction in the summertime streamflow.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glacier Monitoring Program|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/glacial-mass-balance1.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 27, 2018|date=January 19, 2018}}</ref>

=== Map ===
Geographical features in the area can be found in this clickable map:{{clear}}{{NCascades ImageMap}}{{clear}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Thornton Lakes 25932.JPG|thumb|The Thornton Lakes fill glacier-carved basins near [[Mount Triumph]]|alt=Looking down into a valley below a high mountain on the right and a slightly smaller one on the right. In between are two lakes, one noticeably higher than the other. The lower reaches of the mountain and the area of the lakes have plant growth.]]
{{main|Ecology of the North Cascades}}
Eight distinctive life zones support thousands of different plant and animal species in the North Cascades National Park [[ecosystem]]. With an elevation gain of nearly {{convert|9000|ft|abbr=on}}, the park has one of the largest ranges of biodiversity found in any US national park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nature|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/index.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Natural Features & Ecosystems|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/naturalfeaturesandecosystems.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref>

===Flora===
The flora in North Cascades National Park is influenced by the great vertical relief, the amount of moisture an area receives, the slope and soil types as well as the [[fire ecology]]. This wide array of [[ecological niches]] has allowed a great biodiversity to evolve. Few other North American national parks have recorded as many [[vascular plant]] species as have been documented in North Cascades National Park. With 1,630 species documented, experts estimate adding [[non-vascular plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]] could more than double the number of known plant species.<ref name="plants">{{cite web|title=Plants|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/plants.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref> 
[[File:Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 25916.JPG|thumb|left|Common bearberry (''[[Arctostaphylos uva-ursi]]'') is a plant species normally found much further north but is found at higher elevations in the park.|alt=Reddish berries growing among thick, green, paddle-shaped leaves.]]
The park contains an estimated {{convert|236000|acre|km2}} of [[old-growth forest]]s.<ref name="1993OldGrowthEstimates">{{cite journal|last1=Bolsinger|first1=Charles L.|last2=Waddell|first2=Karen L.|year=1993|title=Area of old-growth forests in California, Oregon, and Washington|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_rb197.pdf|publisher=[[United States Forest Service]], Pacific Northwest Research Station|journal=Resource Bulletin|issue=197|id=PNW-RB-197}}</ref> As little of the park was previously logged, significant stands of old growth forest can be found in the valleys and lower slopes up to the timberline at {{convert|7000|ft|abbr=on}}. From the lowest valley floors to about {{convert|2000|ft|abbr=on}}, virgin stands of [[Tsuga heterophylla|western hemlock]], [[Thuja plicata|red cedar]] and [[Douglas fir]] are common. These species are heavily dependent on deep soils, and red cedars 1,000 years old and over {{convert|200|ft|abbr=on}} tall can be found on Big Beaver Creek.<ref name="lifezone">{{cite web|title=Life Zones|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/life-zones.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 23, 2018|date=August 11, 2017}}</ref><ref name="montane">{{cite web|title=Montane Forest|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/bio-diversity3.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 23, 2018|date=August 11, 2017}}</ref> These lowest elevation forests can be accessed by trails, such as the Happy Creek Forest Walk off State Route 20, the Shadows of the Sentinels at Baker Lake, Thunder Creek Trail at Diablo Lake and the Horseshoe Bend Trail from [[Washington State Route 542|State Route 542]].<ref name="lifezone"/> In openings in the forest canopy, [[Alnus rubra|red alder]] and [[Acer macrophyllum|bigleaf maple]] can be found but throughout this dense forest, ferns, shrubs and mosses abound.<ref name="montane"/>

Between {{convert|2000|and|5500|ft|abbr=on}} the forest is dominated by the [[Abies amabilis|pacific silver fir]] tree near State Route 20 at Rainy Pass. Also at this elevation, the western hemlock is replaced by the [[Tsuga mertensiana|mountain hemlock]] as a dominant species. At elevations between {{convert|4000|and|7000|ft|abbr=on}} in the [[subalpine]] zone, the forest gives way to meadows dominated by grasses and flowering plants and shrubs. Above {{convert|7000|ft|abbr=on}} lies the [[Alpine climate|alpine]] zone where few plant species survive aside from some sparse grasses, the occasional shrub and lichens.<ref name="montane"/><ref name="lifezone"/> A warming climate has led to an altitude adjustment for many flora species, with the timberline reaching {{convert|415|ft|abbr=on}} further up the mountain slopes since the 1960s.<ref name="brief">{{cite web|title=Climate Change Resource Brief|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/climate-change-resource-brief.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018|date=January 30, 2018}}</ref>

The biodiversity of the area is threatened by climate change and invasive [[Introduced species|exotic plant]] species.<ref name="plants"/> These plants have spread across the park through the inadvertent redistribution from human activities, attaching themselves to cars and hikers. Invasive plants include the [[Centaurea diffusa|diffuse knapweed]] and [[Phalaris arundinacea|reed canary grass]].<ref name=invasive>{{cite web|title=Non-native plants|work=North Cascades National Park|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 6, 2012|url=https://home.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/non-native-plants.htm}}</ref> True grass species number nearly 150 in the park; half of those are considered exotic and nonnative to the ecosystem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Grasses|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/grasses.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 23, 2018|date=February 28, 2015}}</ref>

[[Pinus albicaulis|Whitebark pine]] is native to the park and grows at elevations over {{convert|5000|ft|abbr=on}} in the drier eastern region of the park.<ref name=whitebark>{{cite web|title=Whitebark Pine Resource Brief|url=https://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/nccn/assets/docs/briefs/whitebarkpine_brief_20101129.pdf|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 28, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219063730/https://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/nccn/assets/docs/briefs/whitebarkpine_brief_20101129.pdf|archive-date=February 19, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> Whitebark pine is a stabilizing species for other species of high altitude flora and provides a food source for birds such as the [[Clark's nutcracker]] and mammals including [[Tamiasciurus hudsonicus|red]] and [[Douglas squirrel]]s.<ref name=whitebark/> Scientists believe that increasing temperatures will have a negative impact on the habitat necessary to support whitebark pine, and therefore impact a wide array of other species. [[Cronartium ribicola|White pine blister rust]] and [[mountain pine beetle]]s have devastated whitebark pine populations in many regions;<ref name="pine">{{cite web|title=Climate Science and Research|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/climate_science.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> as of 2018, "28&nbsp;percent of whitebark pine trees are dead, 30&nbsp;percent are infected with blister rust, and 1&nbsp;percent have died from mountain pine beetles."<ref name="brief"/>

=== Fauna ===
[[File:Dendragapus fuliginosus 25865.JPG|thumb|Sooty grouse seen on the Thornton Lakes trail|alt=A neutral gray bird on the ground viewed through foliage.]]
This park has a diversity of animal species including 75 mammal species. A total of 18 species of [[carnivores]] including [[coyote]], [[bobcat]], [[Canada lynx|lynx]], [[North American cougar|cougar]], [[American mink|mink]], [[North American river otter|river otter]] and [[American black bear|black bear]] have been reported within this park.<ref name=mammalscheck>{{cite web|title=Species Checklist for North Cascades National Park (NOCA)|url=https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Reports/SpeciesList/Species%20Checklist/NOCA/1/false|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 29, 2018}}</ref> Several species of [[deer]] such as the [[elk]] and [[moose]], several more species of [[Bovidae|bovids]] including the [[mountain goat]] and [[bighorn sheep]], and more than two dozen species of [[rodent]]s like the [[beaver]], [[hoary marmot]] and [[American pika|pika]] are also present.<ref name=mammalscheck/><ref name="mammals">{{cite web|title=Mammals|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/mammals.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref> Ten species of bats have been documented.<ref name=mammalscheck/> The [[Northwestern wolf|grey wolf]] is listed as an [[endangered species]], while the [[grizzly bear]] is listed as [[threatened species|threatened]].<ref name="endangered">{{cite web|title=Threatened, Endangered and Candidate Species Within the North Cascades Ecosystem|url=http://www.npshistory.com/publications/noca/threatened-endangered-species/treas4.htm#12|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 15, 2018}}</ref> North Cascade National Park has management plans in place to return grizzly bears to the park but not wolves, as the latter is seen as likely to reestablish themselves naturally over time.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wolf Status and Future|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/wolf-status-and-future.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref>

The park is a prime habitat for grizzly bear, but the species was extirpated from the region by 1860.<ref name=grizz>{{cite web|title=Grizzly Bears|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/grizzly-bears.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Wolverines and Climate Change|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/blogs/wolverines-and-climate-change.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 11, 2018}}</ref> Only two grizzly bear sightings occurred in the decade before 2015, and these were outside the park boundary in Canada.<ref name=grizz/> In 1991, a decision was reached by the Interagency Grizzly Bear Committee, a US Government land management agency committee, to make efforts to restore self-sustaining populations of grizzlies in the North Cascades region, which included the national park and surrounding national forests. In 1997, the North Cascades region was added to the National Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan; by 2017, the [[environmental impact statement]] for grizzly bear restoration was still in the public comment stage. Various action plans had been proposed to reestablish a self-sustaining population of 200 grizzlies in the region.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions: North Cascades Ecosystem Grizzly Bear Restoration Plan|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/getinvolved/frequently-asked-questions-north-cascades-ecosystem-grizzly-bear-restoration-plan.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408154920/https://www.nps.gov/noca/getinvolved/frequently-asked-questions-north-cascades-ecosystem-grizzly-bear-restoration-plan.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 8, 2018|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 15, 2018|date=December 5, 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Mountain Goat North Cascades National Park.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Mountain goats have hooves that are well adapted to steep snow-covered slopes and cliffs|alt=An all-white goat looks at the camera. It has pale yellow irises and stands on snowy ground.]]
[[Wolverine]]s are one of the rarest and most elusive mammals in North America.<ref name=wolverinestudy>{{cite web|title=Wolverines|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/upload/Wolverine-Resource-Brief-2012.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622031942/http://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/upload/Wolverine-Resource-Brief-2012.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 22, 2015|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 15, 2018}}</ref> They are seldom sighted in the park, both due to the limited numbers of the species and the habitats they prefer, which are snowy high-altitude regions far removed from human encroachment. Approximately nine wolverines were captured in the national forest east of the park and fitted with transmitters that were tracked by [[Argos system|Argos satellite]] telemetry. Four of the wolverines frequented the southern sections of North Cascades National Park, and of those, two spent the majority of their time there; researchers were unable to determine if these study animals had reproduced in the park.<ref name=wolverinestudy/> A warming climate may impact any wolverine recovery efforts implemented due to the loss of snow cover this species needs to reproduce. Research indicates that wolverines den in deep snow at least {{convert|5|ft|abbr=on}} deep that lasts well into May, and as climate warms, these regions are becoming less common, especially in the lower 48 states.<ref name="brief"/>

More than 200 species of birds that pass through or use the park as a breeding ground have been recorded.<ref name=birds>{{cite web|title=Birds|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/birds.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref> These bird species include both [[golden eagle|golden]] and [[bald eagle]] as well as [[northern spotted owl]], [[harlequin duck]], [[Clark's nutcracker]], [[trumpeter swan]] and seasonal appearances of [[western tanager]], [[Cassin's vireo]], [[pine grosbeak]], woodpeckers such as the [[pileated woodpecker]] and primarily ground-dwelling birds such as the [[sooty grouse]].<ref name=birds/><ref name="birdcheck">{{cite web|title=Species Checklist for North Cascades National Park (NOCA)|url=https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Reports/SpeciesList/Species%20Checklist/NOCA/2/false|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref> The [[peregrine falcon]] is the only species found in the park that is federally designated as an endangered species, while the [[marbled murrelet]] and northern spotted owl are listed as threatened.<ref name="endangered"/>

There are at least 28 species of fish documented, including all five species of Pacific salmon: [[pink salmon|pink]], [[chinook salmon|chinook]] (king), [[sockeye salmon|sockeye]], [[coho salmon|coho]] and [[chum salmon|chum]].<ref name="fish">{{cite web|title=Fish|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/fish.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref> Various trout species including [[rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[lake trout|lake]] and [[brook trout]] can be found as can the [[largemouth bass]] and [[longnose dace]].<ref name="fishcheck">{{cite web|title=Species Checklist for North Cascades National Park (NOCA)|url=https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Reports/SpeciesList/Species%20Checklist/NOCA/3/false|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref>

Seven species of reptiles and about a dozen species of amphibians have been documented. Reptiles such as the [[northern alligator lizard]] and the [[common garter snake]] and amphibians such as the [[western toad]], [[Pacific giant salamander]] and [[rough-skinned newt]] reside in the park.<ref name=Holmes>{{cite web|first1=Ashley K.|last1=Rawhouser|first2=Ronald E.|last2=Holmes|first3=Reed S.|last3=Glesne|year=2009|url=http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/nccn/reports/inventory/NCCN_NOCA_Stream_Amphibian_Inventory_2005_20090215.pdf|title=A Survey of Stream Amphibian Species Composition and Distribution in the North Cascades National Park Service Complex, Washington State|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016094713/http://science.nature.nps.gov/im/units/nccn/reports/inventory/NCCN_NOCA_Stream_Amphibian_Inventory_2005_20090215.pdf|archive-date=October 16, 2011}}</ref><ref name="reptiles">{{cite web|title=Species Checklist for North Cascades National Park (NOCA)|url=https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Reports/SpeciesList/Species%20Checklist/NOCA/4/false|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref><ref name="amphibians">{{cite web|title=Amphibians|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/amphibians.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref>

More than 500 species of insects have been recorded, including at least two dozen species of butterflies.<ref name=animals>{{cite web|title=Animals|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/animals.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=North Cascades National Park Service Complex: Butterflies in the Park|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/upload/NOCA_Butterflies_NPSpecies_Report_20170109_comp.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323030754/https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/upload/NOCA_Butterflies_NPSpecies_Report_20170109_comp.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 23, 2018|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018|date=January 9, 2017}}</ref> Around 250 species of aquatic invertebrates can be found in the parks waterways.<ref>{{cite web|title=Species Checklist for North Cascades National Park (NOCA)|url=https://irma.nps.gov/NPSpecies/Reports/SpeciesList/Species%20Checklist/NOCA/7,9,6,8/false|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 22, 2018}}</ref><ref name=animals/>

=== Fire ===
[[File:Copper Mountain Lookout WA NPS.jpg|thumb|Copper Mountain Fire Lookout|alt=A white-painted wooden building. It has many windows which have wooden covers above them. In the background are mountains.]]
In North Cascades National Park, fire was used by Native Americans in the region near present-day Ross Lake to clear out brush, to ease foot travel, and possibly to flush animals out of the foliage.<ref name=apostol/> Evidence found in the patterns of tree growth as well as from tree ring analysis indicates human-caused fires were created for many hundreds of years. Similar evidence is found in the Stehekin Valley, where both smaller low intensity fires and larger fires are suggested by the growth patterns and burn scars in tree ring evidence. The low-intensity fires that were likely human induced were only found in the easternmost regions of the park. In the subalpine regions such as the Thunder Creek area, the studies concluded fire occurs at frequencies ranging from 30&nbsp;years to 400&nbsp;years.<ref name="fireplan">{{cite web|title=North Cascades National Park Service Complex Fire Management Plan|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/management/upload/fmp-wfdss-final-lockedsigned-5-25-10-dt.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170217071821/https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/management/upload/fmp-wfdss-final-lockedsigned-5-25-10-dt.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 17, 2017|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 3, 2018|date=April 2010}}</ref>{{rp|8}}

Across the entire North Cascades National Park Service Complex, between 1973 and 2003, there were 113 human-caused fires that burned {{convert|106|acre|abbr=on}}, and 264 lightning-caused fires that burned {{convert|11672|acre|abbr=on}}.<ref name="fireplan"/>{{rp|13}} During this period, the largest fire consumed {{convert|4118|acre|abbr=on}}, mostly in Ross Lake National Recreation Area. North Cascades National Park Complex has three different zones with varying ratings for fire potential and severity.<ref name="fire">{{cite web|title=Fire Ecology in the North Cascades|url=http://www.npshistory.com/publications/noca/research-catalog/fire.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 3, 2018}}</ref> The park is managed as the Skagit Fire Management Unit (FMU) and has a low frequency of large natural fires that occur on average only every 50 to 400&nbsp;years.<ref name="fireplan"/>{{rp|36}}

North Cascades National Park has a condition type that shows "...natural (historical) range of variability of vegetation characteristics; fuel composition; fire frequency, severity and pattern; and other associated disturbances."<ref name="fireplan"/>{{rp|22}} This condition type, in keeping with the wilderness designation applied to most of the park, equates to a natural "let it burn" policy overall, so long as people and historical property are not threatened and the fire was lightning-caused. As part of the management plan, the few historic structures in the FMU are prioritized for fire protection including backcountry shelters like [[Beaver Pass Shelter]], and [[Fire lookout tower|fire lookouts]] such as [[Sourdough Mountain Lookout|Sourdough]], [[Desolation Peak (Washington)|Desolation]] and [[Copper Mountain Fire Lookout|Copper lookout]], all of which are on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref name="fireplan"/>{{rp|42}}

==Climate==

The Cascade Range is tall enough to cause a significant [[rain shadow]] on the eastern slopes. Annually, the western portions of the park receive {{convert|76|in|cm}} more precipitation than the eastern sections. The higher precipitation in the west also correlates to increased snowfall with {{convert|400|in|abbr=on}} more measured in the west than the east annually.<ref name="weather">{{cite web|title=Weather|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/weather.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref> On the western slopes, snowfall depths range from {{convert|50|to|75|in|cm|abbr=on}} in lower altitudes annually, increasing to {{convert|400|to|600|in|cm|abbr=on}} at elevations between {{convert|4000|to|5500|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. Snow depths peak in early March and range from {{convert|10|to|25|ft|abbr=on}} depending on altitude.<ref>{{cite web|title=Climate of Washington|url=https://wrcc.dri.edu/narratives/WASHINGTON.htm|publisher=Western Region Climate Center NOAA|access-date=April 12, 2018}}</ref>

Snow covers the ground more than six months out of the year, even at lower elevations, and State Route 20, the only highway through the park, is generally closed from late November until late April. Numerous avalanche chutes, as many as traverse any state or federal highway, and including some over {{Convert|2000|feet|m|abbr=on}} long, cross the highway and make snow removal during that period infeasible.<ref name="SR 20 FAQ">{{cite web|title=SR 20 – North Cascades Highway – Frequently Asked Questions|date=March 2013|publisher=Washington State Department of Transportation|access-date=March 28, 2013|url=http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Traffic/Passes/NorthCascades/FAQ.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408040311/http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Traffic/Passes/NorthCascades/FAQ.htm|archive-date=April 8, 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Heavy snow and frequent avalanches are common, especially on the western slopes, from autumn to spring. The high elevation trails are generally open by mid-summer and the majority of tourism is between mid-June and late September.<ref name="weather" /> The east side of the park is generally warmer and drier, especially in the summer with highs reaching {{convert|90|°F|°C}}. Since the 1950s, there has been a five-degree Fahrenheit (2.77{{nbsp}}°C) mean winter minimum temperature increase at elevations above {{convert|4000|ft|abbr=on}}. This has led to a reduced winter snowpack as the mean winter freezing level is now {{convert|650|ft|abbr=on}} higher.<ref name="brief" />

Overall the relative proximity of the Pacific Ocean moderates temperatures in the park, and it is warmer than other regions at a similar latitude farther inland.

{{Weather box	
| width = auto	
| single line = Y	
| location = North Cascades Visitor Center, North Cascades National Park. Elev: 535 ft (163 m)	
| Jan high F  =   	40.9
| Feb high F  =   	44.8
| Mar high F  =   	51.0
| Apr high F  =   	57.8
| May high F  =   	65.3
| Jun high F  =   	69.9
| Jul high F  =   	76.7
| Aug high F  =   	77.3
| Sep high F  =   	70.4
| Oct high F  =   	57.2
| Nov high F  =   	45.9
| Dec high F  =   	39.6
| year high F =   	58.1
| Jan mean F  =   	36.2
| Feb mean F  =   	38.2
| Mar mean F  =   	42.8
| Apr mean F  =   	48.1
| May mean F  =   	54.6
| Jun mean F  =   	59.6
| Jul mean F  =   	64.6
| Aug mean F  =  	65.0
| Sep mean F  =   	59.2
| Oct mean F  =   	49.4
| Nov mean F  =   	40.8
| Dec mean F  =   	35.3
| year mean F =   	49.5
| Jan low F  =   	31.5
| Feb low F  =   	31.5
| Mar low F  =   	34.6
| Apr low F  =   	38.5
| May low F  =   	44.0
| Jun low F  =   	49.2
| Jul low F  =   	52.5
| Aug low F  =   	52.8
| Sep low F  =   	47.9
| Oct low F  =   	41.5
| Nov low F  =   	35.7
| Dec low F  =   	31.0
| year low F =   	40.9
| precipitation colour = green	
| Jan precipitation inch  =   	9.75
| Feb precipitation inch  =   	6.15
| Mar precipitation inch  =   	5.60
| Apr precipitation inch  =   	4.00
| May precipitation inch  =   	2.78
| Jun precipitation inch  =   	2.59
| Jul precipitation inch  =   	1.41
| Aug precipitation inch  =   	1.37
| Sep precipitation inch  =   	2.79
| Oct precipitation inch  =   	7.66
| Nov precipitation inch  =   	10.49
| Dec precipitation inch  =   	8.24
| year precipitation inch =   	62.83
| humidity colour = green	
| Jan humidity    =	81.9
| Feb humidity    =	74.8
| Mar humidity    =	68.1
| Apr humidity    =	57.7
| May humidity    =	55.5
| Jun humidity    =	55.4
| Jul humidity    =	50.1
| Aug humidity    =	48.9
| Sep humidity    =	51.4
| Oct humidity    =	59.8
| Nov humidity    =	82.5
| Dec humidity    =	84.9
| year humidity   =	64.2
| Jan dew point F = 31.2
| Feb dew point F = 30.9
| Mar dew point F = 33.0
| Apr dew point F = 33.9
| May dew point F = 39.0
| Jun dew point F = 43.6
| Jul dew point F = 45.6
| Aug dew point F = 45.3
| Sep dew point F = 41.3
| Oct dew point F = 36.0
| Nov dew point F = 35.9
| Dec dew point F = 31.2
| year dew point F = 37.3
|Jan sun = 62.0
|Feb sun = 84.8
|Mar sun = 155.0
|Apr sun = 180.0
|May sun = 217.0
|Jun sun = 240.0
|Jul sun = 279.0
|Aug sun = 248.0
|Sep sun = 180.0
|Oct sun = 155.0
|Nov sun = 60.0
|Dec sun = 62.0
|Jand sun = 2
|Febd sun = 3
|Mard sun = 5
|Aprd sun = 6
|Mayd sun = 7
|Jund sun = 8
|Juld sun = 9
|Augd sun = 8
|Sepd sun = 6
|Octd sun = 5
|Novd sun = 2
|Decd sun = 2
|Jan light = 8.8
|Feb light = 10.2
|Mar light = 11.9
|Apr light = 13.7
|May light = 15.3
|Jun light = 16.1
|Jul light = 15.7
|Aug light = 14.3
|Sep light = 12.6
|Oct light = 10.8
|Nov light = 9.2
|Dec light = 8.3
|Jan percentsun = 23
|Feb percentsun = 29
|Mar percentsun = 42
|Apr percentsun = 44
|May percentsun = 46
|Jun percentsun = 50
|Jul percentsun = 57
|Aug percentsun = 56
|Sep percentsun = 48
|Oct percentsun = 46
|Nov percentsun = 22
|Dec percentsun = 24
|Jan uv = 1
|Feb uv = 2
|Mar uv = 3
|Apr uv = 5
|May uv = 6
|Jun uv = 7
|Jul uv = 7
|Aug uv = 7
|Sep uv = 5
|Oct uv = 3
|Nov uv = 1
|Dec uv = 1
|source 1 = PRISM Climate Group<ref name=prism>{{cite web|url=http://prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/|title=PRISM Climate Group, Oregon State University|website=www.prism.oregonstate.edu|access-date=July 15, 2019}}</ref>
|source 2 = Weather Atlas (sun data)<ref name="Weather Atlas">{{cite web |url=https://www.weather-us.com/en/washington-usa/north-cascades-national-park-climate |title=North Cascades National Park, Washington - Monthly weather forecast and Climate data |publisher=Weather Atlas |access-date=May 30, 2023 }}</ref>
}}

=== Air and water quality ===
[[File:Paul Bunyans Stump 25870.JPG|thumb|Air quality in North Cascades National Park is generally considered good and aside from some reduced clarity due to haze, even distant peaks are easily seen most days.|alt=A distant mountain range above a diagonal slope of forest.]]
While North Cascades National Park is in a remote region for the most part, the prevailing westerly winds bring various pollutants into the park from the industrialized region around Puget Sound and the [[Fraser Valley|Fraser River Valley]] of British Columbia. These pollutants deposit onto plants and glaciers and are then carried by rainfall or ice melt and dispersed into rivers and lakes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Air Quality|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/airquality.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref> The industrialized regions around Puget Sound and the Fraser River Valley have had a more noticeable negative impact on water and air quality than at [[Mount Rainier National Park]] well to the south due to the prevailing winds. Lakes at higher elevations show a higher level of acidity due to this phenomenon; the current and long-term impact on the ecosystem of the park has not yet been fully assessed.<ref name="sulfur">{{cite web|title=Air Pollution Impacts|url=https://www.nature.nps.gov/air/permits/aris/noca/impacts.cfm?tab=0#TabbedPanels1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016044953/http://nature.nps.gov/air/Permits/ARIS/noca/impacts.cfm?tab=0#TabbedPanels1|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 16, 2011|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 27, 2018}}</ref>

[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] and toxins from pesticides have been detected in the park, as has [[ozone]]; these have not been demonstrated to be at sufficient concentrations to greatly impact the ecosystem. Sulfur, [[nitrogen dioxide]] and ozone from factories and automobile emissions as well as increased dust and fine particulates from sources such as farming and construction are dispersed into the atmosphere, reducing long-range visibility.<ref>{{cite web|title=More on Air Quality|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/airquality2.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 28, 2018}}</ref> Visibilities of up to {{convert|150|mi|abbr=on}} have been reduced to less than {{convert|50|mi|abbr=on}} on the worst days due to the increased haze.<ref name="sulfur" />

Climate change will impact the temperatures of high altitude lakes and streams, which in turn will have an effect on the fish that can thrive in these waters. Retreating glaciers reduce the amount of glacial ice melt available in warmer months that kept streams and lakes cold, even in late summer.<ref name="riedel1" />

== Attractions ==

[[File:Mount Shuksan tarn.jpg|thumb|right|Mount Shuksan|alt=A large and sharp mountain, partly covered in snow, is reflected in a tarn in the foreground.]]

North Cascades National Park is approximately {{convert|100|mi|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Seattle]].<ref name="2012plan">{{cite web|title=North Cascades National Park 2012 Business Plan|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/management/upload/noca_4-30_spreads.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161016122930/https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/management/upload/NOCA_4-30_spreads.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 16, 2016|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 23, 2018}}</ref> Nearly all of the national park is protected as the [[Stephen Mather Wilderness]] and it is "one of the premier wilderness parks" in the lower-48 states".<ref name="crest">{{cite web|title=Pacific Crest Trail|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/pacific-crest-trail.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref> Unlike some national parks, there is no entrance fee at North Cascades,<ref>{{cite web|title=Fees & Passes|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/fees.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 22, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Entrance Fees by Park|url=https://www.nps.gov/aboutus/entrance-fee-prices.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 19, 2018}}</ref> and hiking trailheads accessed by vehicle do not require a parking pass; trailheads on some national forest properties adjacent to the park may require a pass.<ref>{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/faqs.htm#6|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=May 22, 2018}}</ref> Mount Shuksan, in the northwest corner of the park, is often photographed, and at {{convert|9131|ft|abbr=on}} is the second highest peak in the park.<ref>{{cite web|title=Picture Lake Path|url=http://www.fs.usda.gov/r06/mbs/recreation|publisher=U.S. Forest Service|access-date=April 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rivers and Streams|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/learn/nature/rivers.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gottberg Anderson |first=John |date=May 19, 2016 |title=National Park lands of the Northwest: Where to celebrate the centennial of the country's Park Service |url=https://www.bendbulletin.com/lifestyle/4332896-151/national-park-lands-of-the-northwest |work=[[Bend Bulletin]] |access-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref>

=== Camping, hiking and bicycling ===
[[File:Cascade pass.jpg|thumb|Hiking at Sahale Arm near Cascade Pass|alt=A hiker with walking poles, an orange backpack, and a sun hat, on a trail in a grassed area. In the background are tall dark mountains partly covered in snow.]]
Hikers and [[backpacking (wilderness)|backpackers]] often visit [[Cascade Pass]] in the southwestern section of the southern unit of the park, which was used as a travel route by Native Americans. The pass can be reached by a {{convert|3.7|mi|adj=on}} hiking trail accessed from a parking lot at the end of a gravel road that starts at Marblemount.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cascade Pass / Sahale Arm Trail|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/cascade-pass-trail.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=April 12, 2018}}</ref> There are nearly {{convert|400|mi|abbr=on}} of hiking trails in the park.<ref name="hiking">{{cite web|title=Hiking|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/hiking.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Hikers can also access two [[National Scenic Trails]] including {{convert|18|mi|abbr=on}} of the [[Pacific Crest Trail]] in the southern unit of the park and {{convert|63|mi|abbr=on}} of the [[Pacific Northwest Trail]] that passes through the northern unit.<ref name=crest/><ref name=pnw>{{cite web|title=Pacific Northwest Trail|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/pacific-northwest-trail.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref><ref name=trailguide/> The north and south [[Picket Range]]s, [[Mount Triumph]], Eldorado Peak and [[Boston Peak]] regions are popular backcountry camping zones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cross-country Zones|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/cross-country-zones.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref>

Unlike most US national parks, there are no places within North Cascades National Park where one can drive to a campground. There are many vehicular access camp grounds in Ross Lake National Recreation Area and in surrounding national forests.<ref>{{cite web|title=Camping|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/camping.htm#CP_JUMP_628805|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> All overnight camping is considered backcountry camping and camping areas are protected to prevent overcrowding.<ref name="bcamp">{{cite web|title=Wilderness Trip Planner|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/wilderness-trip-planner.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Backcountry camping spots can be reserved in early spring only; walk-up permits can be obtained at the Wilderness Information Center near Marblemount.<ref name="visitorcenter"/><ref name="permits" /> Since the vast majority of the park is designated wilderness, the goal is to ensure all hikers and backcountry travelers enjoy the opportunities for solitude.<ref name="permits">{{cite web|title=Backcountry Permits|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/permits.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Group sizes are limited to parties of less than a dozen on what are known as trail and camping corridors, and in more remote areas off trails, groups larger than six are not permitted.<ref name="bcamp"/>

Bicycles are allowed in the park but only on the same roads that vehicles are allowed on. No mountain bike access is allowed on hiking trails. Hiker/biker camping is available at Newhalem Campground, Colonial Creek, and near Stehekin.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bicycling|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/bicycling.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref>

=== Mountaineering ===
[[File:Boston Peak 4091.JPG|thumb|Pyramidal Forbidden Peak (left) is one of the ''[[Fifty Classic Climbs of North America]]''. Quien Sabe Glacier shrouds the west face of Boston Peak (right) below extensive cliffs.|alt=Angular light-gray rocks in the foreground. Behind, a range of darker gray mountains with snow. The one at the right has a substantial glacier at its foot.]]
High quality climbing routes on the numerous cliffs, ice and other challenges make the park a favorite destination for many mountaineering enthusiasts.<ref name="climb">{{cite web|title=Climbing|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/climbing.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> While some peaks and cliffs can be accessed fairly easily, the most remote ones entail a multi-day excursion, challenging for even experienced mountaineers. The park has banned the installation of any new fixed anchors such as [[piton]]s, and only removable anchors such as [[Nut (climbing)|chocks]] and [[Spring-loaded camming device|cams]] are permitted. This [[clean climbing]] has been implemented to help protect the resource, since fixed point anchors deface the rock and are considered intrusive.<ref name="climb"/>

With much of the rock climbing and mountaineering done above the tree line, the effort to protect alpine ecosystems is of paramount importance. [[Leave No Trace]] policies are strictly enforced and encouraged, such as camping only on bare rock, using only a camp stove, storing food safely where animals cannot get to it, and carrying out or properly burying human waste as necessary.<ref>{{cite web|title=Planning a Climb|url=https://www.nps.gov/noca/planyourvisit/planning-a-climb.htm|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=March 30, 2018}}</ref> Mountaineering in the North Cascades was first popularized by [[Fred Beckey]]; at age 15 he was the first to reach the summit of [[Sinister Peak]] in 1938, in 1939 he was the first atop [[Mount Despair (Washington)|Mount Despair]], and the following year he was the first to climb [[Forbidden Peak]]. Beckey was the first to summit at least two dozen peaks in the North Cascades, and his exhaustive three-volume [[Cascade Alpine Guide]] books, first published in the early 1970s, have been called the "Beckey Bible".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=Harrison|title=Fred Beckey, mountaineer who scaled untrodden peaks, dies at 94|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/fred-beckey-dirtbag-mountaineer-who-scaled-untrodden-peaks-dies-at-94/2017/10/31/468afb20-be43-11e7-8444-a0d4f04b89eb_story.html|access-date=April 5, 2018|newspaper=Washington Post|date=October 31, 2017}}{{subscription required}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of national parks of the United States]]
* [[National Register of Historic Places listings in North Cascades National Park]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{sister project links|auto=1}}
* {{Official website}} of the [https://www.nps.gov/index.htm National Park Service]
* Education: [http://www.ncascades.org North Cascades Institute]
* Glacier Research: [https://web.archive.org/web/20130530150004/http://www.nichols.edu/departments/glacier/  North Cascade Glacier Climate Project reports]

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{{National parks of the United States}}
{{Protected areas of Washington (state)}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:North Cascades National Park| ]]
[[Category:1968 establishments in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:National parks in Washington (state)]]
[[Category:North Cascades of Washington (state)|.]]
[[Category:Parks in Chelan County, Washington]]
[[Category:Parks in Skagit County, Washington]]
[[Category:Parks in Whatcom County, Washington]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1968]]
[[Category:Articles with WikiMiniAtlas displaying incorrectly; WMA not showing area]]