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{{short description|12th/13th century crusades around the Baltic Sea}}
{{for|the film|Northern Crusades (film)}}
[[File:Danmarks flag 1219 Lorentzen.jpg|thumb|Danish crusaders in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise (Tallinn)]] against Estonian pagans, 15 June 1219. Painted by [[Christian August Lorentzen|C. A. Lorentzen]] in 1809.]]
{{Crusade}}
The '''Northern Crusades'''<ref name=Christiansen>{{cite book|last=Christiansen|first=Erik|title=The Northern Crusades|year=1997|publisher=Penguin Books|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/northerncrusades00eric/page/287 287]|isbn=0-14-026653-4|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/northerncrusades00eric/page/287}}</ref> or '''Baltic Crusades'''<ref>{{cite book|last=Hunyadi|first=Zsolt|author2=József Laszlovszky |title=The Crusades and the Military Orders: Expanding the Frontiers of Medieval Latin Christianity|year=2001|publisher=Central European University Press|location=Budapest|page=606|isbn=963-9241-42-3}}</ref> were military campaigns undertaken by [[Catholic Church|Catholic Christian]] [[Military order (society)|military order]]s and kingdoms, as a response to continued and devastating raids by the [[paganism|pagan]] [[Balts|Baltic]], [[Baltic Finns|Finnic]], and [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] peoples around the southern and eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]].<ref>Lock, Peter. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. United Kingdom, Taylor & Francis, 2013, pp. 216-218</ref>

The most notable of these campaigns were the [[Livonian Crusade|Livonian]] and [[Prussian Crusade|Prussian]] Crusades. Some of these wars were explicitly regarded, during the Middle Ages, ''as'' crusades; for example, the military venture against the [[Estonians]]—and the "other pagans in those parts"—authorized by [[Pope Alexander III]]'s 1171 [[crusade bull]], ''[[Non parum animus noster]]''.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcn9EAAAQBAJ |title =Non Parum Animus Noster |isbn = 9798869282217 |last1 = Pope Alexander III|last2 = Curtin|first2 = D. P.|date = May 2008|publisher =Dalcassian Press }}</ref><ref>Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. p. 71</ref> However, others—such as the (possibly mythical) 12th-century [[First Swedish Crusade]] and several subsequent incursions, undertaken by Scandinavian Christians against the then-pagan [[Finnish people|Finns]]—were dubbed "crusades" only in the 19th century, by [[romantic nationalism|romantic nationalist]] historians.

==Background==
At the outset of the northern crusades, Christian monarchs across northern Europe commissioned forays into territories that comprise modern-day Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus and Russia. The indigenous populations of Pagans suffered forced baptisms and the ravages of military occupation. Spearheading, but by no means monopolizing these incursions, the ascendant [[Teutonic Order]] profited immensely from the crusades, as did German merchants who fanned out along trading routes traversing the Baltic frontier.<ref>Pluskowski, Aleksander, "Crusading into the medieval Baltic: Stanford Humanities Center Q&A with Aleks Pluskowski" [http://shc.stanford.edu/news/qa-research/crusading-medieval-baltic-stanford-humanities-center-qa-aleks-pluskowski ''Stanford Humanities Center'' Dec 12, 2016]{{Dead link|date=May 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The official starting point for the Northern Crusades was [[Pope Celestine III]]'s call in 1195,<ref>[[Christopher Tyerman]], ''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'', (University of Harvard Press, 2006), 488.</ref> but the Catholic kingdoms of [[Scandinavia]], [[Poland]], and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] had begun moving to subjugate their pagan neighbors even earlier (see [[Christianization of Pomerania]]).<ref name=ResearchGate>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235718803 |title=Poland and the papacy before the second crusade |first=Darius|last=von Güttner-Sporzyński }}</ref> The non-Christian people who were objects of the campaigns at various dates included:
* the [[Polabians|Polabian Wends]], [[Sorbs]], and [[Obotrites]] between the [[Elbe]] and [[Oder]] rivers (by the [[Saxons]], [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]], and [[Polish people|Poles]], beginning with the [[Wendish Crusade]] in 1147)
* the [[Finns proper]] in the 1150s in the [[First Swedish Crusade|First Crusade]] by the Swedes; by the [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]] in 1191 and 1202; [[Tavastia (historical province)|Tavastia]] in 1249 in the [[Second Swedish Crusade|Second Crusade]] by the Swedes; and [[Finnish Karelia|Karelia]] in 1293 in the [[Third Swedish Crusade|Third Crusade]] by the Swedes; [[Christianization]] in these areas had started earlier.
* [[Livonians]], [[Latgallians]], [[Selonians]], and [[Estonians]] (by the [[German people|Germans]] and [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danes]], 1193–1227).
* [[Semigallians]] and [[Curonians]] (1219–1290).
* [[Old Prussians]].
* [[Lithuanians (tribe)|Lithuanians]] and [[Samogitians]] (by the [[Germans]], unsuccessfully, 1236–1410).

Armed conflict between the [[Baltic Finns|Finnic peoples]], [[Balts]], and [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] who lived by the Baltic shores, and their [[Saxons|Saxon]] and [[Danes (Germanic tribe)|Danish]] neighbors to the north and south, had been common for several centuries before the crusade. The previous battles had largely been caused by attempts to destroy castles and sea trade routes to gain an economic advantage in the region, and the crusade basically continued this pattern of conflict, albeit now inspired and prescribed by the [[Pope]] and undertaken by Papal knights and armed monks.

{{Timeline Northern Crusades}}

==Wendish Crusade==
{{main|Wendish Crusade}}
The campaigns started with the 1147 [[Wendish Crusade]] against the [[Polabian Slavs]] (or "[[Wends]]") of what is now northern and eastern [[Germany]]. The crusade occurred parallel to the [[Second Crusade]] to the [[Holy Land]], and continued irregularly until the 16th century.

==Swedish Crusades==
{{main|First Swedish Crusade|Second Swedish Crusade|Third Swedish Crusade|Swedish–Novgorodian Wars}}
The Swedish crusades were campaigns by Sweden against [[Finns proper|Finns]], [[Tavastians]], and [[Karelians]] during the period from 1150 to 1293. The wars with the Eastern Orthodox [[Novgorod Republic]] also had a religious aspect.

== Danish Crusades ==
{{see also|Wetheman}}
[[The Danes]] are known to have made at least three crusades to Finland. The first mention of these crusades is from 1187, when crusader [[Esbern Snare]] mentioned—in his Christmas-feast speech—a major victory over the Finns.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jensen|first=Kurt Villads|title=Ristiretket|publisher=Turun Historiallinen Yhdistys|year=2019|isbn=9789527045091|pages=126–127}}</ref> The next known crusades were made in 1191 and in 1202; the latter was led by the Bishop of Lund, [[Anders Sunesen]], with his brother.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Muinaisuutemme jäljet|first1=Georg |last1=Haggren |first2=Petri |last2=Halinen |first3=Mika |last3=Lavento |first4=Sami |last4=Raninen |first5=Anna |last5=Wessman|publisher=Gaudeamus|year=2015|pages=380}}</ref>

Journalist [[Matts Dumell]] explains that there was a rivalry between the churches in Denmark and Sweden. This led them to compete, which amongst other things took the form of conquests, gaining of adherents to Christianity and propaganda wins against the other. The possibility that Finland was part of Sweden in the mid-1100's to early 1200's is virtually impossible due to this and Sweden saw civil strife from within in this period as well, which took the form of several battles, assassinations between several strongmen from [[House of Sverker]] and [[House of Erik]]. Only in 1216, would the Pope change his preference that the Finnish areas should not be part of the Danish king, but now be under the Swedish king's 'protection'. However, only in 1165 did the Roman Catholic Church start to "expect" bigger territorial gains and adherents from the Danes in missionary work Finland and Estonia, this despite Finland had seen some conversion to Christianity before 1165 already. There is scholarly debate over how successful the Danes were in the end and if they gained any permanent foothold or territory in Finland before the Swedes begun their efforts. Dumell debates if places like an fort in Saxby near [[Porvoo]] could be an product of this Danish presence, possibly built during their crusade in 1191.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dumell|first=Matts|year=2024|title= I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350|publisher= Förlaget Scriptum|isbn=978-952-7523-27-8|pages=67–81}}</ref>

Dumell lists several possible crusades by Denmark to Finland:
*King [[Canute VI of Denmark|Knut Waldemarsson]] 1191 led an 'victorious' crusade to Finland. Dumell says this expedition is well attested, mentioned in multiply ancient sources. Waldemarsson would in 1194 and 1196-1197 perform crusades against Estonia as well.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dumell|first=Matts|year=2024|title= I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350|publisher= Förlaget Scriptum|isbn=978-952-7523-27-8|pages=67–81}}</ref>
*In 1202, an Bishop Anders and his brothers Ebbe and Lars Sunesen is said to have conducted an crusade into Finland. The attestation is very sparse and veracity unsure. Dumell debates if this is mixed up with another expedition in 1206 to Ösel instead or real event.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dumell|first=Matts|year=2024|title= I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350|publisher= Förlaget Scriptum|isbn=978-952-7523-27-8|pages=67–81}}</ref>
*Possibly one Danish crusade against Finland in 1209. However, this is very poorly attested and hard to confirm.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dumell|first=Matts|year=2024|title= I skuggan av Sverige: Erövning och kolonisering i Finland 1050-1350|publisher= Förlaget Scriptum|isbn=978-952-7523-27-8|pages=67–81}}</ref>

==Livonian Crusade==
{{main|Livonian Crusade}}
By the 12th century, the peoples inhabiting the lands now known as Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania formed a pagan wedge between increasingly powerful rival Christian states – the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]] to their east and the [[Catholic Church]] to their west. The difference in creeds was one of the reasons they were able to resist being forcibly converted to a different religion. During a period of more than 150 years leading up to the arrival of [[Germans|German]] crusaders in the region, Estonia was attacked thirteen times by Russian principalities, and by Denmark and Sweden as well. Estonians for their part made raids upon Denmark and Sweden. There were peaceful attempts by some Catholics to convert the Estonians, starting with missions dispatched by [[Adalbert of Hamburg|Adalbert]], Archbishop of [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen]], in 1045–1072. However, these peaceful efforts seem to have had limited success.

===Campaign against the Livonians (1198–1212)===
Moving in the wake of German merchants who were now following the old trading routes of the [[Vikings]], a canon named [[Saint Meinhard|Meinhard]] landed at the mouth of the [[Daugava River|Daugava river]] in present-day Latvia in 1180 and was made bishop in 1186. Pope [[Celestine III]] proclaimed a crusade against the Baltic pagans in 1195, which was reiterated by Pope [[Innocent III]], and a crusading expedition led by Meinhard's successor, Bishop [[Berthold of Hanover]], landed in Livonia (part of present-day Latvia, surrounding the [[Gulf of Riga]]) in 1198. Although the crusaders won their first battle, Bishop Berthold was mortally wounded and the crusaders were repelled.

In 1199, [[Albert of Buxhoeveden]] was appointed by the Archbishop [[Hartwig of Uthlede|Hartwig II]] of Bremen to Christianise the Baltic countries. By the time Albert died 30 years later, the conquest and formal Christianisation of present-day Estonia and northern Latvia was complete. Albert began his task by touring the Empire, preaching a Crusade against the Baltic countries, and was assisted in this by a [[papal bull]] which declared that fighting against the Baltic heathens was of the same rank as participating in a crusade to the [[Holy Land]]. Although he landed in the mouth of the Daugava in 1200 with only 23 ships and 500 soldiers, the bishop's efforts ensured that a constant flow of recruits followed. The first crusaders usually arrived to fight during the spring and returned to their homes in the autumn. To ensure a permanent military presence, the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] were founded in 1202. The founding by Bishop Albert of the market at [[Riga]] in 1201 attracted citizens from the Empire and economic prosperity ensued. At Albert's request, Pope Innocent III dedicated the Baltic countries to the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] to popularize recruitment to his army and the name "Mary's Land" has survived up to modern times. This is noticeable in one of the names given to Livonia at the time, [[Terra Mariana]] (Land of Mary).

[[File:Sigulda, 2015 (33).jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of the castle in [[Sigulda]]]]

In 1206, the crusaders subdued the Livonian stronghold in [[Turaida]] on the right bank of [[Gauja]] River, the ancient trading route to the [[Northwestern Rus]]. In order to gain control over the left bank of Gauja, the stone castle was built in [[Sigulda]] before 1210. By 1211, the Livonian province of [[Metsepole]] (now [[Limbaži district]]) and the mixed Livonian–Latgallian inhabited county of Idumea (now [[Straupe]]) was converted to the Roman Catholic faith. The last battle against the Livonians was the siege of Satezele hillfort near to Sigulda in 1212. The Livonians, who had been paying tribute to the East Slavic Principality of [[Polotsk]], had at first considered the Germans useful allies. The first prominent Livonian to be christened was their leader [[Caupo of Turaida]]. As the German grip tightened, the Livonians rebelled against the crusaders and the christened chief but were put down. Caupo of Turaida remained an ally of the crusaders until his death in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]] in 1217.<ref name="CHR">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmJnyTlis7oC |title=The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1961 |isbn=0-231-12889-4}}</ref>

The German crusaders enlisted newly baptised Livonian warriors to participate in their campaigns against [[Latgallians]] and [[Selonians]] (1208–1209), [[Estonians]] (1208–1227), and against [[Semigallians]], [[Samogitians]], and [[Curonians]] (1219–1290).

===Campaign against the Latgallians and Selonians (1208–1224)===
[[File:Baltic Tribes c 1200.svg|thumb|Baltic Tribes c 1200]]
After the subjugation of the Livonians, the crusaders turned their attention to the [[Latgallians|Latgallian]] principalities to the east, along the Gauja and [[Daugava River|Daugava]] rivers. The military alliance in 1208 and later conversion from [[Greek Orthodoxy]] to [[Roman Catholicism]] of the Principality of [[Tālava]] was the only peaceful subjugation of the Baltic tribes during the Nordic crusades. The ruler of Tālava, [[Tālivaldis]] ({{lang|la|Talibaldus de Tolowa}}), became the most loyal ally of German crusaders against the Estonians, and he died a Catholic martyr in 1215. The war against the Latgallian and Selonian countries along the Daugava waterway started in 1208 with the occupation of the Orthodox Principality of [[Koknese]] and the Selonian [[Sēlpils hillfort]]. The campaign continued in 1209 with an attack on the Orthodox Principality of [[Jersika]] (known as {{lang|la|Lettia}}), accused by crusaders of being in alliance with Lithuanian pagans. After the defeat, the king of Jersika, [[Visvaldis]], became the vassal of the Bishop of Livonia and received part of his country (southern [[Latgale]]) as a fiefdom. The Selonian stronghold of Sēlpils was briefly the seat of a [[Selonian diocese]] (1218–1226), and then came under the rule of the Livonian Order (and eventually the stone castle of [[Selburg]] was built in its place). Only in 1224, with the division of Tālava and [[Adzele]] counties between the Bishop of Riga and the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword|Order of the Swordbearers]], did Latgallian countries finally become the possession of German conquerors. The territory of the former Principality of Jersika was divided between the Bishop of Riga and the Livonian Order in 1239.

===Campaign against the Estonians (1208–1224)===
[[File:Kuressaare linnus (vaade hoovist).jpg|thumb|right|[[Kuressaare Castle]], Estonia, constructed by the Teutonic Order]]
By 1208, the Germans were strong enough to begin operations against the Estonians, who were at that time divided into eight major and several smaller counties led by elders with limited cooperation between them. In 1208–1227, war parties of the different sides rampaged through the Livonian, Northern Latgallian, and Estonian counties, with Livonians and Latgallians normally as allies of the Crusaders, and the Principalities of [[Polotsk]] and [[Pskov]] appearing as allies of different sides at different times. Hillforts, which were the key centres of Estonian counties, were besieged and captured a number of times. A truce between the war-weary sides was established for three years (1213–1215) and proved generally more favourable to the Germans, who consolidated their political position, while the Estonians were unable to develop their system of loose alliances into a centralised state. The Livonian leader [[Caupo of Turaida|Kaupo]] was killed in battle near [[Viljandi]] (Fellin) on 21 September 1217, but the battle was a crushing defeat for the Estonians, whose leader [[Lembitu]] was also killed. Since 1211, his name had come to the attention of the German chroniclers as a notable Estonian elder, and he had become the central figure of the Estonian resistance.

The Christian kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden were also greedy for conquests on the Eastern shores of the Baltic. While the Swedes made only [[Battle of Lihula|one failed foray]] into western Estonia in 1220, the Danish Fleet, headed by King [[Valdemar II]] of Denmark, had landed at the Estonian town of Lindanisse<ref>{{cite web |url=https://runeberg.org/salmonsen/2/7/0518.html |title=Estland |work=Salmonsens konversationsleksikon|language=da}}</ref> (present-day [[Tallinn]]) in 1219. After the [[Battle of Lyndanisse|Battle of Lindanise]], the Danes established a fortress, which was besieged by Estonians in 1220 and 1223, but held out. Eventually, the whole of northern Estonia came under [[Danish Estonia|Danish control]].

===Wars against Saaremaa (1206–1261)===
The last Estonian county to hold out against the invaders was the island county of [[Saaremaa]] (Ösel), whose war fleets had raided Denmark and Sweden during the years of fighting against the German crusaders.

In 1206, a Danish army led by the king [[Valdemar II]] and [[Anders Sunesen|Andreas, the Bishop of Lund]], landed on Saaremaa and attempted to establish a stronghold without success. In 1216, the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] and the bishop Theodorich joined forces and invaded Saaremaa over the frozen sea. In return, the [[Oeselians]] raided the territories in Latvia that were under German rule the following spring. In 1220, the Swedish army led by king [[John I of Sweden]] and the bishop [[Karl Magnusson (Bjälboätten)|Karl of Linköping]] conquered [[Lihula]] in [[Lääne County|Rotalia]] in Western Estonia. Oeselians attacked the Swedish stronghold the same year, conquered it, and killed the entire Swedish garrison, including the Bishop of Linköping.

In 1222, the Danish king [[Valdemar II]] attempted the second conquest of Saaremaa, this time establishing a stone fortress housing a strong garrison. The Danish stronghold was besieged and surrendered within five days, with the Danish garrison being returned to [[Tallinn|Revel]], leaving bishop [[Albert of Riga]]'s brother Theodoric, and few others, behind as hostages for peace. The castle was razed to the ground by the Oeselians.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GNBNHgAACAAJ |title=The Baltic Crusade |first=William L. |last=Urban |publisher=Lithuanian Research and Studies Center |year=1994 |pages=113–114 |isbn=0-929700-10-4}}</ref>

A 20,000 strong army under Papal legate [[William of Modena]] crossed the frozen sea while the Saaremaa fleet was icebound, in January 1227. After the surrender of two major Oeselian strongholds, [[Muhu]] and [[Valjala]], the Oeselians formally accepted Christianity.

In 1236, after the defeat of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword in the [[Battle of Saule]], military action on Saaremaa broke out again. In 1261, warfare continued as the Oeselians had once more renounced Christianity and killed all the Germans on the island. A peace treaty was signed after the united forces of the [[Livonian Order]], the [[Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek]], and [[Danish Estonia]], including mainland Estonians and Latvians, defeated the Oeselians by conquering their stronghold at Kaarma. Soon thereafter, the [[Livonian Order]] established a stone fort at [[Pöide Parish|Pöide]].

===Wars against the Curonians and Semigallians (1201–1290)===
Although the [[Curonians]] had attacked Riga in 1201 and 1210, [[Albert of Riga|Albert of Buxhoeveden]], considering Courland a tributary of [[Valdemar II of Denmark]], had been reluctant to conduct a large scale campaign against them. After Albert's death in 1229, the crusaders secured the peaceful submission of Vanemane (a county with a mixed Livonian, [[Oselia]]n, and Curonian population in the northeastern part of Courland) by treaty in 1230. In the same year, the papal vice-legate Baldouin of Alnea annulled this agreement and concluded an agreement with the ruler ({{lang|la|rex}}) of [[Bandava]] in the central Courland [[Lammekinus]], delivering his kingdom into the hands of the papacy. Baldouin became the popes's delegate in Courland and bishop of Semigallia; however, the Germans complained about him to the [[Roman Curia]], and in 1234, Pope [[Gregory IX]] removed Baldouin as his delegate.

After their decisive defeat in the [[Battle of Saule]] by the Samogitians and Semigallians, the remnants of the Sword Brothers were reorganized in 1237 as a subdivision of the [[Teutonic Order]], and became known as the [[Livonian Order]]. In 1242, under the leadership of the master of the Livonian Order [[Andrew of Groningen]], the crusaders began the military conquest of Courland. They defeated the Curonians as far south as [[Embūte]], near the contemporary border with Lithuania, and founded their main fortress at [[Kuldīga]]. In 1245, Pope Innocent IV allotted two-thirds of conquered Courland to the Livonian Order, and one third to the [[Bishopric of Courland]].

At the [[Battle of Durbe]] in 1260, a force of Samogitians and Curonians overpowered the united forces of the Livonian and Teutonic Orders; over the following years, however, the Crusaders gradually subjugated the Curonians, and in 1267, concluded the peace treaty stipulating the obligations and the rights of their defeated rivals. The unconquered southern parts of their territories (Ceklis and Megava) were united under the rule of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].

[[File:2010 09 04 7Tervete37.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Tērvete castle hill in 2010.]]

The conquest of Semigallian counties started in 1219 when crusaders from Riga occupied [[Mežotne]], the major port on the [[Lielupe]] waterway, and founded the [[Bishopric of Semigallia]]. After several unsuccessful campaigns against the pagan Semigallian duke [[Viestards]] and his Samogitian kinsfolk, the [[Roman Curia]] decided in 1251 to abolish the Bishopric of Semigallia, and divided its territories between the Bishopric of Riga and the Order of Livonia. In 1265, a stone castle was built at [[Jelgava]], on the Lielupe, and became the main military base for crusader attacks against the Semigallians. In 1271, the capital hillfort of [[Tērvete]] was conquered, but Semigallians, under the Duke [[Nameisis]], rebelled in 1279, and the Lithuanians under [[Traidenis]] defeated Livonian Order forces in the [[Battle of Aizkraukle]]. Duke Nameisis' warriors unsuccessfully attacked Riga in 1280, in response to which around 14,000 crusaders besieged Turaida castle in 1281. To conquer the remaining Semigallian hillforts, the Order's master [[Villekin of Endorpe]] built a castle called {{lang|de|Heiligenberg}} ({{literal translation|Saints' Hill}}) right next to the Tērvete castle in 1287. The same year, the Semigallians made another attempt to conquer Riga, but again failed to take it. On their return home, Livonian knights attacked them, but were defeated at the [[Battle of Garoza]], in which the Orders' master Villekin and at least 35 knights lost their lives. The new master of the Order [[Konrad von Hattstein]] organised the last campaigns against the Semigallians in 1289 and 1290; the hillforts of [[Dobele]], [[Rakte]], and [[Sidabre]] were conquered, and most of the Semigallian warriors joined the Samogitian and Lithuanian forces.

==Prussia and Lithuania==
{{Main|Prussian Crusade|Lithuanian Crusade}}

=== Campaigns of Bolesław the Curly and Konrad of Masovia ===
From 1147, the Polish Duke of Mazovia, Boleslaw the Curly, led many expeditions against pagan Prussia, with some of them being successful and resulting in the conquest of parts of the Prussian territories.<ref>{{cite book |first=Magdalena |last=Biniaś-Szkopek |title=Bolesław IV Kędzierzawy – książę Mazowsza i princeps |language=pl |publisher=Poznań<!--apparently the name of the publisher, not just location--> |year=2009}}</ref>

[[Konrad I of Masovia|Konrad I]], the Polish Duke of [[Masovia]], unsuccessfully attempted to conquer [[Prussia (region)|pagan Prussia]] in crusades in 1219 and 1222.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lewinski-Corwin|first=Edward Henry|author-link=Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin|title=A History of Prussia|publisher=The Polish Book Importing Company|location=New York|year=1917|page=628}}</ref> Taking the advice of the first Bishop of Prussia, [[Christian of Oliva]], Konrad founded the crusading [[Order of Dobrzyń]] (or ''Dobrin'') in 1220. However, this order was largely ineffective, and Konrad's campaigns against the [[Old Prussians]] were answered by incursions into the already captured territory of Culmerland ([[Chełmno Land]]). Subjected to constant Prussian counter-raids, Konrad wanted to stabilize the north of the Duchy of Masovia in this fight over the border area of Chełmno Land. Masovia became part of Poland in the 10th century, but native Prussians, [[Yotvingians]], and Lithuanians were still living in the territories north of Masovia, where no settled borders existed. Konrad's military weakness led him, in 1226, to ask the Roman Catholic monastic order of the [[Teutonic Knights]] to come to Prussia and suppress the Old Prussians.

=== Campaigns of Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black ===
Campaigns against Yotvingians and Lithuanians were also conducted in the years 1248–1282 by princes Bolesław the Chaste and Leszek the Black. They defeated the forces of pagans invading Mazovia, Kujawy, and the Lublin region. They also carried out several expeditions to Yotvingian territories.<ref>{{cite book |first=Kromer |last=Marcin |language=pl |title=Kronika polska Marcina Kromera biskupa warmińskiego ksiąg XXX... |publisher=Sanok |year=1857 |page=475}}</ref>

== Teutonic Order in Livonia and Votia (1237–1410) ==
{{Multiple issues|
{{Original research|section|date=November 2024}}
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2024}}
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{{Further|Treaty of Stensby|1240–1241 Votia campaign|Battle of Wesenberg (1268)|Battle of Grunwald}}
{{See also|1240 Izborsk and Pskov campaign|Battle of Lake Peipus}}
The Northern Crusades provided both the rationale and the opportunity for the growth and expansion of the [[Teutonic Order]], a [[Germans|German]] military religious order founded as a hospital in Acre around 1190 and established as a military order in 1198. Duke [[Konrad I of Masovia]], a region in east-central [[Poland]], appealed to the Teutonic Knights to defend his borders and subdue the pagan [[Old Prussians]] in 1226. In 1234, a significant expedition began in which Polish forces, allied with the Teutonic Knights, defeated the Old Prussians in a battle on the Dzierzgoń river.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Marian |last1=Biskup |first2=Gerard |last2=Labuda |title=Dzieje Zakonu Krzyżackiego w Prusach |language=pl |location=Gdańsk |publisher=Morskie |year=1986 |page=140}}</ref> While engaged in the decades-long subjugation of the Prussians, the Teutonic Knights also entered into conflict with the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

When the Livonian Brothers of the Sword were heavily defeated by [[Samogitians]] and [[Semigallians]] at the [[Battle of Saule]] in 1236, coinciding with Estonian revolts, the remnants of the order were incorporated into the Teutonic Order in 1237, becoming its autonomous Livonian branch. This allowed the Teutonic Order, through its Livonian branch, to exercise political control over large territories in the Baltic region. [[Mindaugas]], the ruler of Lithuania, was baptised with his wife around 1251 and crowned King in 1253 with papal approval, hoping this would help stop Crusader attacks, although it ultimately did not prevent further conflict. The Teutonic Knights failed to subdue Lithuania. The country began its official [[Christianization of Lithuania|conversion to Catholic Christianity]] following the marriage of Grand Duke [[Jogaila]] to [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]], the young ruling Queen (crowned as King) of Poland, and Jogaila's own baptism in 1386; the formal Christianization of Lithuania commenced in 1387. However, even after Lithuania's official conversion, the conflict persisted, culminating in the pivotal [[Battle of Grunwald]] (also known as Tannenberg or Žalgiris) in 1410. In this battle, the allied forces of Poland and Lithuania, supported by [[Tatars|Tatar]], [[Moldovans|Moldovan]], [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]], and [[Czechs|Czech]] contingents, decisively defeated the Teutonic Knights.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

In 1221, [[Pope Honorius III]] expressed concern about [[Finnish–Novgorodian wars|conflicts in the Finnish region involving Novgorod]], after receiving alarming information from the [[Archbishop of Uppsala]]. He authorized the Bishop of Finland to establish a [[trade embargo]] against the "barbarians" described as threatening Christianity in Finland.<ref name="DF64">{{cite letter |url=https://df.narc.fi/document/64 |language=la<!--Website is in Swedish, but the letter itself is in Latin. Title here is translated from Swedish--> |title=To prevent all supplies to the barbarian peoples who surrounded his diocese, in order thereby to possibly inhibit their attacks |author=[[Pope Honorius III]] |recipient=the Bishop of Finland |date=13 January 1221 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 64}}</ref> The specific identity or origin of these "barbarians", presumably cited from the Archbishop's letter, remains unclear and may not have been known precisely, even by the Pope. However, when the call for an embargo was renewed around 1229, it specifically targeted Russians (Novgorodians).<ref name="DF74">{{cite letter |url=https://df.narc.fi/document/74 |language=la<!--Website is in Swedish, but the letter itself is in Latin. Title here is translated from Swedish--> |title=To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the recently converted Finns |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop and Archdeacon of Riga and the Abbot of Dünamünde |date=23 January 1229 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 74}}</ref><ref name="DF76">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/76 |language=la |title=To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith for as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck |date=27 January 1229 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 76}}</ref> Based on Papal letters from that year,{{refn|See ''Diplomatarium Fennicum'' 
documents 72,<ref name="DF72">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/72 |language=la |title=Concerning the removal of the diocesan see in Finland to a more suitable location |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop and Abbot of the Order of St John and the Dean of Lübeck |date=23 January 1229 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 72}}</ref> 73,<ref name="DF73">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/73 |language=la |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby |title=To ensure that no injustice be done to the Bishop, clergy and people of Finland, which the Holy See has taken under its protection |date=23 January 1229  |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 73}}</ref> 74,<ref name="DF74"/> 75,<ref name="DF75">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/75 |language=la |title=To prohibit trade with the Russians as enemies of the Catholic faith as long as they hate and attack the newly converted Finns |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Provost of Visby |date=27 January 1229 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 75}}</ref> 76,<ref name="DF76"/> 77,<ref name="DF77">{{cite letter |url=https://df.narc.fi/document/77 |language=la |title=Bull ratifying ownership by the Finnish church of former pagan groves and sanctuaries which the converts have voluntarily given to the church |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop of Finland |date=31 January 1229 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 77}}</ref> and 78.<ref name="DF78">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/78 |language=la |title=To prevent merchants of Gotland from engaging in trade with the heathens harassing the Christian church in Finland |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Bishop of Linköping, the Cistercian Abbot of Gotland and the Dean of Visby |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 78}}</ref>}} the [[Bishop of Finland]] requested that the Pope, [[Pope Gregory IX|Gregory IX]], authorize or call for a trade embargo against Novgorodians to be implemented by Baltic Sea ports, including [[Visby]], [[Riga]], and [[Lübeck]]. In the following decade (specifically around 1232–1237), Pope Gregory IX also requested the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]] send troops to protect Finland from Novgorod incursions. Whether any knights were actually dispatched remains unknown.<ref name="DF80">{{cite letter|url=https://df.narc.fi/document/80 |language=la |title=To protect the Bishop of Finland and the recently converted Finns from the attacks of the Russians |author=[[Pope Gregory IX]] |recipient=the Order of the Sword in Livonia |date=24 November 1232 |id=Diplomatarium Fennicum 80}}</ref>

The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[Russia|Russian lands]] (particularly the Republics of [[Pskov Republic|Pskov]] and Novgorod), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX,<ref name=Christiansen/> were a component of the Northern Crusades. One of the major setbacks for the eastward expansion into Russian principalities was the [[Battle on the Ice|Battle of the Ice]] in 1242, where forces of Novgorod defeated the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order. Separately, with or without explicit papal blessing for every campaign, Sweden also undertook several [[Swedish-Novgorodian Wars|crusades against Orthodox Novgorod]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Missionary work and crusading activity in Estonia by the Livonian Order and other Catholic powers led to conflicts with Novgorod, which had its own interests in the region, including attempts to subjugate, raid, or convert the pagan Estonians. The Estonians, in turn, sometimes sought alliances with Novgorod against the Crusaders.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fonnesberg-Schmidt, I.M. |title=The popes and the Baltic crusades, 1147–1254 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004155022 |pages=215–218, 220}}</ref>

Intermittent warfare between Novgorod and the crusader states in Livonia continued. These conflicts ultimately halted the eastward expansion of the Livonian Order, while Novgorodian attempts to gain control over Estonia and Livonia also failed. The region ([[Terra Mariana]]) remained under the complex political control of the Livonian Confederation, primarily the Livonian Order and powerful Prince-Bishops.

==See also==
*[[Ostsiedlung]]
*[[Finnish–Novgorodian wars]]
*[[Swedish–Novgorodian Wars|Swedish–Novgorodian wars]]
*[[Christianization of Lithuania]]
*[[Chronology of the Northern Crusades]]

==External links==
*[https://www.worldhistory.org/Northern_Crusades/ Northern Crusades], article about the crusades from ''Ancient History Encyclopedia''

==Bibliography==
*Paul Srodecki and Norbert Kersken, eds. ''The Expansion of the Faith: Crusading on the Frontiers of Latin Christendom in the High Middle Ages''. Turnhout: Brepols, 2022. ISBN 978-2-503-58880-3

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Crusader States}}
{{Catholic Church in Sweden}}
{{Latin Church footer}}
{{History of the Catholic Church}}
{{Christian History}}

[[Category:Northern Crusades| ]]
[[Category:Christianization of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Estonia]]
[[Category:13th century in Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Poland during the Piast dynasty]]
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:12th century in Europe]]
[[Category:13th century in Europe]]
[[Category:Military history of the Teutonic Order]]
[[Category:Persecution of Pagans]]