View source for Northern Wei

{{Short description|Dynasty of China (386–535)}}
{{For|Northern Wei of Three Kingdoms Period|Cao Wei}}
{{Redirect|Tuoba dynasty}}
{{Coord|34.2667|N|108.9000|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = 魏
| conventional_long_name = Wei
| common_name            = Northern Wei
| era                    = <!--- Use: "Napoleonic Wars", "Cold War", etc. --->
| status                 = Empire
| status_text            = <!--- A free text to describe status the top of the infobox. Use sparingly. --->
| empire                 = <!--- The empire or country to which the entity was in a state of dependency --->
| government_type        = [[Monarchy]]||<!--- Rise and fall, events, years and dates --->|<!-- only fill in the start/end event entry if a specific article exists. Don't just say "abolition" or "declaration"-->|
| year_start             = 386
| year_end               = 535
| life_span              = 386–535
| year_exile_start       = <!--- Year of start of exile (if dealing with exiled government - status="Exile") --->
| year_exile_end         = <!--- Year of end of exile (leave blank if still in exile) --->|
| event_start            = <!--- Default: "Established" --->
| date_start             = 20 February<ref>''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷106|vol. 106]].</ref>
| event_end              = Establishment of [[Eastern Wei]], marking division
| date_end               = 8 November<ref name=ZZTJ156>''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷156|vol. 156]].</ref>|
| event1                 = [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Daowu]]'s claim of imperial title
| date_event1            = 24 January 399<ref>''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷110|vol. 110]].</ref>
| event2                 = Unification of [[Southern and Northern Dynasties|northern]] China
| date_event2            = 439
| event3                 = Movement of capital to [[Luoyang]]
| date_event3            = 25 October 493<ref>''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷138|vol. 138]].</ref>
| event4                 = [[Erzhu Rong]]'s massacre of ruling class
| date_event4            = 17 May 528<ref>''Zizhi Tongjian'', [[:zh:s:資治通鑑/卷152|vol. 152]].</ref>|
| event_pre              = <!--- Optional: A crucial event that took place before before "event_start"--->
| date_pre               = 
| event5             = Emperor Xiaowu's death
| date_event5              = 3 February 535<ref name=ZZTJ156/>||<!--- Flag navigation: Preceding and succeeding entities p1 to p5 and s1 to s5 --->
| p1                     = Former Qin
| flag_p1                = <!--- Default: "Flag of {{{p1}}}.svg" (size 30) --->
| image_p1               = <!--- Use: [[Image:Sin escudo.svg|20px|Image missing]] --->
| p2                     = Later Yan
| flag_p2                = 
| p3                     = Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms)
| flag_p3                = 
| p4                     = Northern Yan
| flag_p4                = 
| p5                     = Northern Liang
| flag_p5                = 
| s1                     = Eastern Wei
| flag_s1                = <!--- Default: "Flag of {{{s1}}}.svg" (size 30) --->
| image_s1               = <!--- Use: [[Image:Sin escudo.svg|20px|Image missing]] --->
| s2                     = Western Wei
| flag_s2                = 
| s3                     = 
| flag_s3                = 
| s4                     = 
| flag_s4                = 
| s5                     = 
| flag_s5                = |
| image_flag             = <!--- Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
| flag                   = <!--- Link target under flag image. Default: Flag of {{{common_name}}} --->
| flag_type              = <!--- Displayed text for link under flag. Default "Flag" --->|
| image_coat             = <!--- Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}}.svg --->
| symbol                 = <!--- Link target under symbol image. Default: Coat of arms of {{{common_name}}} --->
| symbol_type            = <!--- Displayed text for link under symbol. Default "Coat of arms" --->|
| image_map              = {{Continental Asia in 500 CE|center|||Map of the Northern Wei.png|none|{{Annotation|0|0|[[File:Map of the Northern Wei.png|300px]]}}}}
| image_map_caption      = {{center|The Northern Wei and contemporary Asian polities {{circa|500 CE}}.}}
| image_map2             = Northern Wei map.jpg
| image_map2_caption     = Northern Wei territory. They were bordered to the south by the [[Southern Qi]] from 479 to 502, and by the [[Liang dynasty|Liang]] from 502.
| image_map2_size        = 300
| capital                = [[Shengle]] <small>(386–398, capital of former [[Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Dai]], near modern [[Hohhot]])</small><br />[[Datong|Pingcheng]] <small>(398–493)</small><br />[[Luoyang]] <small>(493–534)</small><br />[[Chang'an]] <small>(534–535)</small>
| capital_exile          = <!-- If status="Exile" -->
| latd                   = 
| latm                   = 
| latNS                  = 
| longd                  = 
| longm                  = 
| longEW                 = |
| national_motto         = 
| national_anthem        = 
| common_languages       = [[Tuoba language|Tuoba]], [[Middle Chinese]]
| religion               = 
| currency               = [[Ancient Chinese coinage#The North and South Dynasties (420–581)|Chinese coin]],<br />[[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese cash]]||<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies --->
| leader1                = [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Daowu]]
| leader2                = [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei|Emperor Mingyuan]]
| leader3                = [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Taiwu]]
| leader4                = [[Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei|Emperor Wencheng]]
| leader5                = [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]]
| leader6                = [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Xuanwu]]
| leader7                = [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaozhuang]]
| leader8                = [[Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowu]]
| year_leader1           = 386–409
| year_leader2           = 409–423
| year_leader3           = 424–452
| year_leader4           = 452–465
| year_leader5           = 471–499
| year_leader6           = 499–515
| year_leader7           = 528–530
| year_leader8           = 532–535
| title_leader           = Emperor
| representative1        = <!--- Name of representative of head of state (eg. colonial governor) --->
| representative2        = 
| representative3        = 
| representative4        = 
| year_representative1   = <!--- Years served --->
| year_representative2   = 
| year_representative3   = 
| year_representative4   = 
| title_representative   = <!--- Default: "Governor"--->
| deputy1                = <!--- Name of prime minister --->
| deputy2                = 
| deputy3                = 
| deputy4                = 
| year_deputy1           = <!--- Years served --->
| year_deputy2           = 
| year_deputy3           = 
| year_deputy4           = 
| title_deputy           = <!--- Default: "Prime minister" --->||<!--- Legislature --->
| legislature            = <!--- Name of legislature --->
| house1                 = <!--- Name of first chamber --->
| type_house1            = <!--- Default: "Upper house"--->
| house2                 = <!--- Name of second chamber --->
| type_house2            = <!--- Default: "Lower house"--->||<!--- Area and population of a given year --->
| stat_year1             = 450<ref>Rein Taagepera "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.", Social Science History Vol. 3, 115–138 (1979)</ref>
| stat_area1             = 2000000
| stat_pop1              = <!--- population (w/o commas or spaces), population density is calculated if area is also given --->
| stat_year2             = 
| stat_area2             = 
| stat_pop2              = 
| stat_year3             = 
| stat_area3             = 
| stat_pop3              = 
| stat_year4             = 
| stat_area4             = 
| stat_pop4              = 
| stat_year5             = 
| stat_area5             = 
| stat_pop5              = 
| footnotes              = <!--- Accepts wikilinks --->
| today                  = [[China]]<br />[[Mongolia]]
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| c = {{linktext|北魏}}
| w = Pei Wei
| p = Běi Wèi
| l = Northern Wei
| j = Bak1 Ngai6
| y = Bāk Ngaih
| poj = Pak Guī
}}
{{History of China|BC=1}}
{{History of Mongolia}}
'''Wei''' ({{IPAc-en|w|eɪ}}), known in historiography as the '''Northern Wei''' ({{lang-zh|c=北魏|p=Běi Wèi}})<!--Chinese in infobox per WP:MOS-ZH-->, '''Tuoba Wei''' ({{lang-zh|c=拓跋魏|p=Tuòbá Wèi}}), '''Yuan Wei''' ({{lang-zh|c=元魏|p=Yuán Wèi}}) and '''Later Wei''' ({{lang-zh|t=後魏|p=Hòu Wèi}}), was an [[Dynasties of China|imperial dynasty of China]] ruled by the [[Tuoba]] (Tabgach) clan of the [[Xianbei]]. The first of the [[Northern and Southern dynasties#Northern dynasties|Northern dynasties]], it ruled northern China from 386 to 535<ref name="Year">{{cite book|last1=Fairbank|first1=John|last2=Goldman|first2=Merle|title=China: A New History|year=2006|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nBDC2cqb6I0C&q=Northern+Wei+386-535&pg=PA73|page=73|publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674018280}}</ref> during the period of the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]]. Described as "part of an era of political turbulence and intense social and cultural change",<ref>Katherine R. Tsiang, p. 222</ref> the Northern Wei dynasty is particularly noted for unifying northern China in 439, bringing an end to the chaotic [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period, and strengthening imperial control over the rural landscape via reforms in 485. This was also a period of introduced foreign ideas, such as [[Buddhism]], which became firmly established. The Northern Wei was referred to as "Plaited Barbarians" (索虜; ''suǒlǔ'') by writers of the [[Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties|Southern dynasties]], who considered themselves the true upholders of Chinese culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Liu |first1=Puning |title=China's Northern Wei Dynasty, 386–535: The Struggle for Legitimacy |date=21 December 2020 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-28314-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nSkGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Puning |title=Song scholars' views on the Northern Wei legitimacy dispute |journal=Archiv Orientální |date=2018 |volume=86 |page=112 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325736685}}</ref>

During the Taihe period (477–499), [[Empress Dowager Feng]] and [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] instituted sweeping reforms that deepened the dynasty's control over the local population in the [[Han Chinese|Han]] hinterland. [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] also introduced changes that eventually led to the dynasty moving its capital from [[Datong]] to [[Luoyang]], in 494. The Tuoba adopted the surname [[Yuan (surname)#Adoption by non-Han peoples|Yuan (元)]] as a part of systematic [[sinicization]].

Many antiques and art works, both [[Taoist art]] and [[Buddhist art]], from this period have survived. It was the time of the construction of the [[Yungang Grottoes]] near [[Datong]] during the mid-to-late fifth century, and towards the latter part of the dynasty, the [[Longmen Grottoes]] outside the later capital city of Luoyang, in which more than 30,000 [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] images from the time of this dynasty have been found.

Towards the end of the Northern Wei dynasty there was significant internal dissension, resulting in a split into the [[Eastern Wei]] and the [[Western Wei]] dynasties under the rule of the same imperial house in 534–535, which were soon replaced by the [[Northern Qi]] and the [[Northern Zhou]] dynasties respectively. While the rule of Tuoba clan ended in the mid-6th century CE, its important policies, in particular the political recentralization reforms under Empress Dowager Feng and ethnic integration under Emperor Xiaowen, had a long-lasting impact on later periods of Chinese history.

==Founding and unification of Northern China==

=== Background ===
The [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] had developed an alliance with the [[Tuoba]] against the [[Xiongnu]] state [[Han-Zhao]]. In 315, the Tuoba chief, [[Tuoba Yilu]] was granted the title of [[Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms)|Prince of Dai]]. After his death, however, the Dai state stagnated, and with the Jin ejected from northern China, the Dai largely remained a partial ally and a partial tributary state to [[Later Zhao]] and [[Former Yan]], finally falling to [[Former Qin]] in 376.

After Former Qin's emperor [[Fu Jiān]] was defeated by Jin forces at the [[Battle of Fei River]] in his failed bid to unify China, the Former Qin state began to break apart. By 386, [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Tuoba Gui]] (Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei), the son (or grandson) of [[Tuoba Shiyijian|Tuoba Shiyiqian]] (the last Prince of Dai), reasserted Tuoba independence initially as the Prince of Dai. Later he changed his title to the Prince of Wei, and his state was therefore known as Northern Wei.

=== War with Later Yan ===
At first, the Northern Wei was internally unstable and allied with the stronger Xianbei-led [[Later Yan|Later Yan dynasty]] that ruled most of present-day [[Hebei]] and [[Liaoning]]. As Wei grew in power by subjugating neighbouring tribes such as the [[Tiefu]] and [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]], their alliance came to an end in 391 when Tuoba Gui refused to send more tribute after Yan detained his brother at their capital, and the Wei re-aligned themselves with the [[Western Yan]] in [[Shanxi]]. Wei continued hostilities even after Western Yan fell in 394, and in 395, the Later Yan emperor, [[Murong Chui]], sent his Crown Prince, [[Murong Bao]], with a massive army to lead a punitive expedition against Wei. However, at the [[Battle of Canhe Slope]], Tuoba Gui inflicted the Later Yan army a heavy defeat.

In 396, Murong Chui personally led another campaign against Wei, but though he was initially successful, the Yan troops withdrew after he became deathly ill, and he soon died on his way back. Shortly after Murong Bao ascended the throne, Tuoba Gui began an invasion on Later Yan. During the invasion, Murong Bao decided to concentrate his forces in his capital and major cities, allowing the Wei forces to quickly overrun the [[Zhongyuan|Central Plains]]. A disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Baisi]] and infighting among the imperial family finally forced the Later Yan to evacuate to Liaoning, while a branch in the south founded the [[Southern Yan]] in 398 before escaping to [[Shandong]].

With a strong foothold on the Central Plains and the Yan state split into two, Northern Wei became a regional power in northeastern China, competing with the [[Qiang (historical people)|Qiang]]-led [[Later Qin|Later Qin dynasty]] to the west and the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Eastern Jin dynasty]] to the south for a time. In 398, Tuoba Gui relocated the capital to [[Pingcheng]], and in 399, he elevated his title to Emperor of Wei. After Tuoba Gui was assassinated in 409, his son, [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei|Tuoba Si]] (Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei) took the throne and continued his father's efforts to consolidate their state.

=== Unification of the north under Emperor Taiwu ===
[[File:Sixteen Kingdoms 423 AD (2).jpg|left|thumb|China at the time of [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei's]] ascension in 423.]]
In 423, [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei]] ascended the throne with ambitions to reunify northern China. In 426, he began a war with the [[Xiongnu]]-led [[Hu Xia dynasty]], which controlled the [[Ordos Plateau|Ordos]] and [[Guanzhong]] regions in the west. By the following year, the Wei had taken the Xia capital, [[Tongwancheng]] and a substantial portion of their territory. The Xia could no longer pose a threat to Wei, though they still managed to annex Wei's ally, the [[Western Qin|Western Qin dynasty]] in the [[Longxi Commandery|Longxi]]. In 431, the last Xia emperor, [[Helian Ding]] was captured and handed over to Wei by the [[Tuyuhun]].

The [[Northern Liang|Northern Liang dynasty]] in the [[Hexi Corridor]], led by the Juqu clan of [[Lushuihu]] ethnicity, submitted to Wei as a vassal after the Xia's demise. With the west pacified, Emperor Taiwu shifted his focus to the east by launching incessant attacks on the Chinese [[Northern Yan|Northern Yan dynasty]] in [[Liaoning]]. After a large-scale invasion in 436, the Yan ruler, [[Feng Hong]] abandoned his territory to Wei as he fled to the neighbouring [[Goguryeo]]. Finally, in 439, Emperor Taiwu launched a campaign and conquered the Northern Liang, hence unifying the north and bringing an end to the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period.

== Wars with the Southern dynasties ==
{{See also|Northern and Southern dynasties}}

=== War with Liu Song ===
[[File:Tomb Terracotta Group of Figurines, Northern Wei (tomb of Sima Jinlong).jpg|thumb|upright=2|Army of Northern Wei terracotta soldiers in [[Xianbei]] uniform, tomb of [[Sima Jinlong]], 484 CE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dien |first1=Albert E. |title=Six Dynasties Civilization |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-07404-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0zp6iMZoqt0C&pg=PA223 |language=en}}</ref>]]
War between Northern Wei and Han-ruled [[Liu Song]] dynasty broke out while the former had not yet unified northern China. [[Emperor Wu of Song]] while still a Jin dynasty general, had conquered both [[Southern Yan]] in 410 and [[Later Qin]] in 417, pushing Jin frontiers further north into Wei territories. He then usurped the Jin throne and created the Song dynasty. After hearing the death of the Song emperor Wu in 422, Wei's emperor [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei|Mingyuan]] broke off relations with Song and sent troops to invade its southern neighbor. His plan is to seize three major cities south of the Yellow River: Luoyang, Hulao, and Huatai. Sizhou (司州, central Henan) and Yanzhou (兗州, modern western Shandong) and most cities in Song's Qing Province (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) fell to the Wei army. The Liu Song general [[Tan Daoji]] commanded an army to try to save those cities and were able to hold Dongyang (東陽, in modern Qingzhou, Shandong), the capital of Qingzhou province. Northern Wei troops were eventually forced to withdraw after food supplies ran out. Wei forces also stalled in their siege of Hulao, defended by the capable Liu Song general Mao Dezu (毛德祖), but were meanwhile able to capture Luoyang and Xuchang (許昌, in modern Xuchang, Henan) in spring 423, cutting off the path of any Liu Song relief force for Hulao. In summer 423, Hulao fell. The campaign then ceased, with Northern Wei now in control of much of modern Henan and western Shandong.

[[File:Northern Wei warrior, tomb mural, Datong.jpg|thumb|left|Northern Wei warrior, tomb mural, Datong]]
[[Emperor Wen of Song]] continued the northern campaigns of his father. In 430, under the able general Dao Yanzhi, Liu Song recovered the four cities of Luoyang, Hulao, Huatai and Qiao'ao south of the Yellow River. However, the emperor's unwillingness to advance past this line caused the destruction of the empire's ally, [[Tiefu|Xia]], by the Wei. The emperor was to repeat this mistake as several northern states such as [[Northern Yan]] who had offered to ally with Liu Song against Wei were declined, eventually leading to Wei's unification of the North in 439.

In 450, Emperor Wen attempted to destroy the Northern Wei by himself and launched a massive invasion. Although initially successful, the campaign turned into a disaster. The Wei lured the Liu Song to cross the Yellow River, and then flanked them, destroying the Eastern army.

As the Liu Song armies retreated, [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Taiwu]] ordered his troop to move south. The provinces south of the Yellow River were devastated by the Wei army. Only Huatai, a fortified city, held out against the Wei. Wei troops retreated in January 451, however, the economic damage to the Song was immense. Emperor Wen made another attempt to conquer Northern Wei in 452, but failed again. On returning to the capital, he was assassinated by the heir apparent, Liu Shao.

In 466, [[Liu Zixun]] waged an unsuccessful civil war against the Emperor Ming of Liu Song. The governors of Xu Province (徐州) and Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong), who earlier pleaded allegiance to Liu Zixun, in fear of reprisal from the Liu Song emperor Emperor Ming, surrendered these territories to rival Northern Wei. Northern Wei forces quickly took up defense position against the attacking forces sent by Emperor Ming. With Liu Song forces unable to siege [[Pengcheng]] effectively, they were forced to withdraw in spring 467, making these populous provinces lost to the Northern Wei.

=== War with Southern Qi ===
In 479, [[Xiao Daocheng]] usurped the throne of Liu Song and became emperor of the new [[Southern Qi]] dynasty. Upon hearing the news, the Northern Wei emperor prepared to invade under the pretext of installing Liu Chang, son of [[Emperor Wen of Song]] who had been in exile in Wei since 465 AD.

Wei troops began to attack [[Shouyang]] but could not take the city. The Southern Qi began to fortify their capital, Jiankang in order to prevent further Wei raids.

Multiple sieges and skirmishes were fought until 481 but the war was without any major campaign. A peace treaty was signed in 490 with the [[Emperor Wu of Southern Qi|Emperor Wu]].

=== War with Liang ===
[[File:Northern Wei soldier.jpg|thumb|Northern Wei officer. Tomb statuette, [[Luoyang]] Museum.]]
In 502, the Southern Qi general [[Xiao Yan]] toppled the emperor [[Xiao Baojuan]] after waging a three-year civil war against him. Xiao Yan enthroned in Jiankang to become Emperor Wu of the [[Liang dynasty]].

As early as 503 AD, the Northern Wei was hoping to restore the Southern Qi throne. Their plan was to install [[Xiao Baoyin]], a Southern Qi prince, to become emperor of the puppet state. A southern expedition was led by Prince Yuan Cheng of Wei and Chen Bozhi, a former Qi general. Until spring 505, Xinyang and Hanzhong were fallen to the Northern Wei.

In 505, Emperor Wu began the Liang offensive. A strong army was quickly amassed under the general [[Wei Rui (Liang dynasty)|Wei Rui]] and caught the Wei by surprise, calling it the strongest army they have seen from the Southern dynasties in a hundred years. In spring 506, Wei Rui was able to capture [[Hefei]]. In fall 506, Wei Rui attacked the Northern Wei army stationed at Luokou for nearly a year without advancing. However, when Wei army gathered, Xiao Hong Prince of Linchuan, the Liang commander and younger brother of Emperor Wu, escaped in fear, causing his army to collapse without a battle. Northern Wei forces next attacked the fortress of Zhongli (鍾離, in modern [[Bengbu]]), However, they were defeated by a Liang army commanded by Wei Rui and [[Cao Jingzong]], effectively ending the war. After the [[Battle of Zhongli]], there would continue to be border battles from time to time, but no large-scale war for years.

In 524, while Northern Wei is plagued by agrarian rebellions to the north and west, Emperor Wu launched a number of attacks on Wei's southern territory. Liang forces largely met little resistance. In spring 525, the Northern Wei general Yuan Faseng (元法僧) surrendered the key city of Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu) to Liang. However, in summer 525, Emperor Wu's son Prince Xiao Zong (蕭綜), grew suspicions that he was actually the son of Southern Qi's emperor Xiao Baojuan (because his mother Consort Wu was formerly Xiao Baojuan's concubine and had given birth to him only seven months after she became Emperor Wu's concubine), surrendered Pengcheng to Northern Wei, ending Liang's advances in the northeast, although in summer 526, Shouyang fell to Liang troops after Emperor Wu successfully reemployed the damming strategy. For the next several years, Liang continued to make minor gains on the borders with Northern Wei.

[[File:Cernuschi Museum 20060812 128 (detail).jpg|thumb|left|Mounted warrior of the Northern Wei dynasty from the collections of the [[Musée Cernuschi]].]]
In 528, after a coup in Northern Wei, with the warlord [[Erzhu Rong]] overthrowing Empress Dowager Hu, a number of Northern Wei officials, including Yuan Yue, Yuan Yu, and Yuan Hao fled and surrendered territories they controlled to Liang. In winter 528, Emperor Wu created Yuan Hao the Prince of Wei—intending to have him lay claim to the Northern Wei throne and, if successful, become a Liang vassal. He commissioned his general Chen Qingzhi (陳慶之) with an army to escort Yuan Hao back to Northern Wei. Despite the small size of Chen's army, he won battle after battle, and in spring 529, after Chen captured Suiyang (modern Shangqiu). Yuan Hao, with Emperor Wu's approve, proclaimed himself the emperor of Northern Wei. In summer 529, troops under Erzhu unable to stand up to Chen Qingzhi, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei to flee the capital Luoyang. After capturing Luoyang, Yuan Hao secretly wanted to rebel against Liang: when Chen Qingzhi requested Emperor Wu to send reinforcements, Yuan Hao sent Emperor Wu a submission advising against it, and Emperor Wu, believing Yuan Hao, did not send additional troops. Soon, Erzhu and Emperor Xiaozhuang counterattacked, and Luoyang fell. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight, and Chen's own army was destroyed, although Chen himself was able to flee back to Liang.

In 530, Emperor Wu made another attempt to establish a vassal regime in Northern Wei by creating Yuan Yue the Prince of Wei, and commissioning Yuan Yue's uncle Fan Zun (范遵) with an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei. Yuan Yue made some advances, particularly in light of the disturbance precipitated soon thereafter when Emperor Xiaozhuang ambushed and killed Erzhu Rong and was in turn overthrown by Erzhu Rong's nephew Erzhu Zhao and cousin Erzhu Shilong. However, Yuan Yue realized that the Erzhus then became firmly in control of Luoyang and that he would be unable to defeat them, and so returned to Liang in winter 530.

In 532, with Northern Wei again in civil war after the general Gao Huan rose against the Erzhus, Emperor Wu against sent an army to escort Yuan Yue back to Northern Wei, and subsequently, Gao Huan welcomed Yuan Yue, but then decided against making Yuan Yue emperor. Subsequently, Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei, whom Gao made emperor, had Yuan Yue executed.

With Northern Wei divided into Eastern Wei and Western Wei in light of Emperor Xiaowu's flight, Emperor Wu initially continued to send his forces to make minor territorial gains on the borders, against both Eastern Wei and Western Wei, for several years.

== Policies ==
[[File:Shanxi Museum - coffin paintings.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Decorated panel of a Northern Wei sarcophagus. Excavated in Zhijiabao, [[Datong]]. Shanxi Museum.<ref>For a similar coffin see {{cite journal |last1=Karetzky |first1=Patricia Eichenbaum |last2=Soper |first2=Alexander C. |title=A Northern Wei Painted Coffin |journal=Artibus Asiae |date=1991 |volume=51 |issue=1/2 |pages=5–28 |doi=10.2307/3249674 |jstor=3249674 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249674|url-access=subscription }}</ref>]]
Early in Northern Wei history, the state inherited a number of traditions from its initial history as a Xianbei tribe, and some of the more unusual ones, from a traditional Chinese standpoint, were:
* The officials did not receive [[salaries]] until [[Empress Dowager Feng]] took power, but were expected to requisition the necessities of their lives directly from the people they governed. As Northern Wei Empire's history progressed, this appeared to be a major contributing factor leading to corruption among officials. Not until the second century of the empire's existence did the state begin to distribute salaries to its officials.
* Empresses were not named according to imperial favors or [[Chinese nobility|nobility]] of birth, but required that the candidates submit themselves to a ceremony where they had to personally forge golden statues, as a way of discerning divine favor. Only an imperial consort who was successful in forging a golden statue could become the empress.
* All men, regardless of ethnicity, were ordered to tie their hair into a single braid that would then be rolled and placed on top of the head, and then have a cap worn over the head.
* When a [[crown prince]] is named, his mother, if still alive, must be forced to commit suicide. According to some historians, this may not have been a Tuoba traditional custom, but believed it to be a tradition instituted by the founding emperor [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Daowu]] based on [[Emperor Wu of Han]]'s execution of his favorite [[concubine]] Consort Zhao, the mother of his youngest son [[Emperor Zhao of Han|Liu Fuling]] (the eventual Emperor Zhao), before naming Prince Fuling crown prince.
* As a result, because emperors would not have mothers, they often honored their [[wet nurse]]s with the honorific title, "[[Nurse Empress Dowager]]" (保太后, ''bǎo tài hòu'').

As [[Sinicization]] of the Northern Wei state progressed, these customs and traditions were gradually abandoned.

After building a Chinese-style capital at Ye, Tuoba Gui sought to break the autonomy of the tribes. He reorganised the people into eight artificial tribes forcibly settled around the capital, which served as military units. He also removed the traditional tribal leaders. These reforms helped to change tribal loyalties and strengthen their loyalty to the dynasty. These tribes served as the Emperor's personal professional military caste which helped to sustain the dynasty against any threats.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Mark Edward |author-link1=Mark Edward Lewis |title=China Between Empires: The Northern and Southern Dynasties |date=2011 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674060357 |pages=79–80}}</ref>

===The Reform under Empress Dowager Feng===
[[File:Officials, China, Northern Wei dynasty, c. 500-534, earthenware - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC04084.JPG|thumb|Figurines of Northern Wei court ladies (c. 500–534), Royal Ontario Museum.]]
After securing Xianbei hegemony in the hinterland of China, the North Wei regime, under the rule of [[Empress Dowager Feng]] (438–490; also known as Empress Dowager Wenming) implemented a package of reforms in 485-486 AD, greatly solidifying its fiscal foundations and strengthening state penetration to the local society.

This reform introduced two far-reaching policies, namely, the "equal-field landholding system", and the "three-elder system". In the new "equal-filed system" (''juntian zhi'') unveiled in 485, the state redistributed abandoned or uncultivated land to commoner subjects attached with obligations of tax duty in the forms of grain, cloth, and labor service. In principle, each household was entitled to lands proportional to its labor power. Specifically, two types of land with tenure were assigned to a household: the first was open land for crop cultivation ({{convert mu|40|mu|ha|lk=in|sf=2}}) for each adult male in the household, and half those amounts for adult females which was returnable after the recipient reached a specific advanced age or died. The second was the land to support textile production (10 or 20 mu,{{Efn|around 0.67 to 1.33 hectares}} with the same gender distribution principle as open land) in one of two forms, namely, "mulberry lands" in silk-producing areas, and "hemp lands" in regions where sericulture was infeasible. Importantly, mulberry land was inheritable because of the long-term investment and care mulberry orchards required. Households possessing slaves and plow oxen were entitled to substantially larger allocations. The open land allocations would be doubled or tripled in areas where the land was less fertile or the population sparse. Sale of these land grants was forbidden, although subleasing was permitted under some circumstances. Land allocations would be adjusted annually to account for changes in the composition of the household and its number of oxen.<ref name=vonGlahn-Econ2016>{{cite book |last1=von Glahn |first1=Richard |title=The Economic History of China: From Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5C9CwAAQBAJ |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781139343848}}</ref>{{rp|297–311}}

Another policy was the establishment of the three-elders system (sanzhang-zhi) in 486, which was designed to compile accurate population registers and to integrate village society into the state administration. In this system, five households were to make up one neighborhood (li), headed by one neighborhood elder (linzhang) while five neighborhoods were grouped into a village and headed by one village elder (lizhang). Finally, over five villages, there was one ward elder (dangzhang). The three elders, appointed by the government, were responsible for detecting and re-registering population outside of state accounts, requisitioning corvee labor and taxes, and taking care of the poor and orphaned under their jurisdiction. This policy significantly bolstered the state's control over the common people.<ref name="ReferenceA">* [[Jacques Gernet]] (1972). "''A History Of Chinese Civilization''". Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24130-8}}</ref>

The reforms of Empress Dowager Feng boosted agricultural production and tax receipts on a long-term basis, and broke the economic power of local aristocrats who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages that dotted the rural landscape of the North from taxation. The Northern Wei dynasty had doubled the registered population to more than 5 million households since the reforms.<ref name="Referenceebreg">* [[Ebrey, Patricia Buckley]] (1978). "The Aristocratic Families in Early Imperial China: A Case Study of the Po-Ling Tsui Family". Cambridge University Press.{{ISBN|1107020778}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dien |first1=Albert |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 2, The Six Dynasties, 220–589 |date=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1107020771 |pages=461–478}}</ref>

These institutional infrastructures erected by the Northern Wei state survived the fall of the dynasty and paved the way for China's eventual unification in 589 AD under the Sui dynasty.

===Later reforms===
[[File:Northern Wei Pottery Figure (9924027666).jpg|thumb|Soldier figurine of Northern Wei]]
The Northern Wei used the previous dynasties' Nine-rank system as a way of assigning official positions to wealthy and prestigious Han Chinese families, according to hereditary rank. Officials were also given considerable autonomy, such as appointing subordinate officials.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Conrad Schirokauer, Miranda Brown |title=A Brief History of Chinese Civilization |date=2012 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781133709251 |page=85 |edition=4}}</ref>

===Deportations===
During the reign of [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Daowu]] (386–409), the total number of deported people from the regions east of [[Taihangshan]] (the former Later Yan territory) to [[Datong]] was estimated to be around 460,000. [[Deportation]]s typically took place once a new piece of territory had been conquered.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Northern Wei dynasty deportations
|-
!Year
!People
!Number
!Destination
|-
| 398
| Xianbei of Hebei and Northern [[Shandong]]
| 100,000
| [[Datong]]
|-
| 399
| Great Chinese families
| 2,000 families
| [[Datong]]
|-
| 399
| Chinese peasants from Henan
| 100,000
| [[Shanxi]]
|-
| 418
| Xianbei of Hebei
| ?
| [[Datong]]
|-
| 427
| Pop. of the Kingdom of Xia
| 10,000
| [[Shanxi]]
|-
| 432
| Pop. of Liaoning
| 30,000 families
| [[Hebei]]
|-
| 435
| Pop. of Shaanxi and Gansu
| ?
| [[Datong]]
|-
| 445
| Chinese peasants from Henan and Shandong
| ?
| North of Yellow River
|-
| 449
| Craftsmen from Chang'an
| 2,000 families
| [[Datong]]
|}

===Sinicization===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=
| image1   = NorthernWeiMaitreya.JPG
| caption1 = 
| image2   = NorthernWei489.JPG
| caption2 = 
| footer=Northern Wei [[Buddha]] [[Maitreya]] (443 CE), and [[Buddhist]] statue (489 CE). [[Tokyo National Museum]].
}}
As the Northern Wei state grew, the emperors' desire for [[Han Chinese]] institutions and advisors grew. [[Cui Hao]] (381–450), an advisor at the courts in [[Datong]] played a great part in this process.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> He introduced Han Chinese administrative methods and penal codes in the Northern Wei state, as well as creating a [[The Northern Celestial Masters|Taoist theocracy]] that lasted until 450. The attraction of Han Chinese products, the royal court's taste for luxury, the prestige of Chinese culture at the time, and [[Taoism]] were all factors in the growing Chinese influence in the Northern Wei state. Chinese influence accelerated during the capital's move to [[Luoyang]] in 494 and [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] continued this by establishing a policy of systematic [[sinicization]] that was continued by his successors. Xianbei traditions were largely abandoned. The royal family took the [[sinicization]] a step further by changing their family name to Yuan. Marriages to Chinese families were encouraged. With this, [[Buddhist]] temples started appearing everywhere, displacing Taoism as the state religion. The temples were often created to appear extremely lavish and extravagant on the outside of the temples.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Also from 460 onwards the emperors started erecting huge statues of the Buddha carved near their capital Pingcheng which declared the emperors as the representatives of the Buddha and the legitimate rulers of China.<ref>{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinru|author-link=Xinru Liu|title=The Silkroad in World History|year=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=77}}</ref>

The Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the [[Xianbei]] [[Tuoba]] royal family in the 480s.<ref name="Watson1991">{{cite book|first=Rubie Sharon |last=Watson |title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–}}</ref> More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the [[Southern dynasties]] who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei.<ref>{{cite thesis|url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/33493331/TANG-DISSERTATION-2016.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y |title= Divorce and the Divorced Woman in Early Medieval China (First through Sixth Century) |pages=151, 152, 153 |last=Tang |first=Qiaomei |date=May 2016 |type=A dissertation presented by Qiaomei Tang to The Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of East Asian Languages and Civilizations |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] were married to Han Chinese elites, the [[Liu Song]] royal Liu Hui 劉輝), married Princess Lanling (蘭陵公主) of the Northern Wei,<ref>{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinsch |first1=Bret |title=Women in Early Medieval China |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1538117972 |page=97 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=84BqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hinsch |first1=Bret |title=Women in Imperial China |date=2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1442271661 |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1L7kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Jen-der |editor1-last=Swartz |editor1-first=Wendy |editor2-last=Campany |editor2-first=Robert Ford |editor3-last=Lu |editor3-first=Yang |editor4-last=Choo |editor4-first=Jessey |title=Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231531009 |pages=156–165 |edition=illustrated |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AeiIl2y6vJQC&pg=PA161 |chapter=9. Crime and Punishment The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu|ref=none}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Australian National University. Dept. of Far Eastern History |title=Papers on Far Eastern History, Volumes 27–30 |date=1983 |publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. |pages=86, 87, 88 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+lanling}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yi-t’ung |title=Slaves and Other Comparable Social Groups During The Northern Dynasties (386-618) |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |date=1953 |volume=16 |issue=3/4 |page=322 |doi=10.2307/2718246 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718246 |publisher=Harvard-Yenching Institute|jstor=2718246 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Princess Huayang (華陽公主) to Sima Fei (司馬朏), a descendant of [[Jin dynasty (266–420)]] royalty, [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei]]'s sisters, the Shouyang Princess, was wedded to the [[Liang dynasty]] ruler [[Emperor Wu of Liang]]'s son Xiao Zong [[w:zh:蕭綜|蕭綜]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&q=Xiao+Baoyin&pg=PA1566|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}}</ref> One of [[Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei]]'s sisters was married to Zhang Huan, a Han Chinese, according to the [[Book of Zhou]] (Zhoushu). His name is given as Zhang Xin in the ''[[Book of Northern Qi]]'' (Bei Qishu) and ''[[History of the Northern Dynasties]]'' (Beishi) which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a [[naming taboo]] on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adamek |first1=Piotr  |date=2017 |title=Good Son is Sad If He Hears the Name of His Father: The Tabooing of Names in China as a Way of Implementing Social Values |trans-title= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzQrDwAAQBAJ&q=zhang+emperor+xiaowu&pg=PA242 |url-status= |url-access= |format= |language= |location= |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1351565219 |archive-url= |archive-date= |page=242|via= |quote=... Southern Song.105 We read the story of a certain Zhang Huan 張歡 in the Zhoushu, who married a sister of Emperor Xiaowu 宣武帝 of the Northern Wei (r.}}</ref>

[[File:Northern Wei Tomb of Emperor Xuanwu, 499-515 AD (06) - Coffin.jpg|thumb|Sarcophagus of [[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei|Emperor Xuanwu]] (483-515 CE).]]
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi ([[w:zh:司馬楚之|司馬楚之]]) as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to [[Sima Jinlong]] ([[w:zh:司馬金龍|司馬金龍]]). [[Northern Liang]] Xiongnu King [[Juqu Mujian]]'s daughter married Sima Jinlong.<ref name="WattMet2004">{{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=James C. Y. |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/ |title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD |author2=Angela Falco Howard, Metropolitan Museum of Art Staff, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York, NY., Boris Ilʹich Marshak, Su Bai, Zhao Feng, Maxwell K. Hearn, Denise Patry Leidy, Chao-Hui Jenny Lui, Valentina Ivanova Raspopova, Zhixin Sun |date=2004 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=1588391264 |edition=illustrated |page=23}}</ref>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n44 18]}}

The Northern Wei's Eight Noble [[Xianbei]] surnames ([[w:zh:八大贵族|八大贵族]]) were the Buliugu (步六孤), Helai (賀賴), [[Dugu (surname)|Dugu]] ([[w:zh:獨孤|獨孤]]), Helou (賀樓), Huniu (忽忸), Qiumu (丘穆), Gexi (紇奚), and Yuchi ([[w:zh:尉遲|尉遲]]). They adopted Chinese last names.

The Tuoba emperors claimed themselves to be descendants of the mythical [[Yellow Emperor]], and Emperor Mingyuan honored the [[Han dynasty]] emperors along with [[Emperor Yao]], [[Emperor Shun]] and the [[Shang dynasty]] noble, [[Bi Gan]].<ref name="ChenShuguo2009" />{{rp|141}} They also adopted the Chinese [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Five Phases]] generation theory; initially under [[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Emperor Daowu]], they claimed the Earth element, which was the same element as the Yellow Emperor, but under [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]], they claimed the element of Water,  which was generated from the [[Western Jin Dynasty|Western Jin dynasty's]] element of Metal. They vehemently rejected the legitimacy of the [[Southern dynasties]], including the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Eastern Jin]], as well as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]].<ref>Liu, P. (2018, April 25). Political legitimacy in Chinese history : the case of the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-535). Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/61623</ref>

[[Confucianism]] was upheld by the Northern Wei, with [[Confucius]] being honored in sacrifices by [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei|Emperor Mingyuan]] and [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]].<ref name="ChenShuguo2009">{{cite book |last=Shuguo |first=Chen |author-link=:zh:陈戍国 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ |title=Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220–589 AD) (2 vols) |date=23 November 2009 |publisher=[[Koninklijke Brill]] |others=Translated by [[:zh:南恺时|Keith N. Knapp]] |isbn=978-90-474-2929-6 |editor-last1=Lagerwey |editor-first1=John |editor-link1=:de:John Lagerwey |chapter=State religious ceremonies |editor-last2=Lü |editor-first2=Pengzhi |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53}}</ref>{{rp|140}} Two scions from the lineage of [[Yan Hui]], the favourite disciple of Confucius, and four scions from Confucius's lineage had ranks bestowed on them in [[Shandong]] in 495. A fief of ten households and rank of ''Grandee who venerates the sage'' (崇聖大夫) was bestowed on Kong Sheng (孔乘) in 472, while a fief of 100 households and the rank of [[Duke Yansheng#Three Kingdoms period .28220.E2.80.93280 CE.29 through Northern and Southern dynasties era .28420.E2.80.93589.29|''Marquis who worships the sage'']] (崇聖侯) was bestowed on Kong Lingzhen (孔靈珍) in 495; both men were Confucius's scions in the 28th generation and were enfeoffed during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen.<ref name="LiGang2009">{{cite book |last=Gang |first=Li |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ |title=Early Chinese Religion, Part Two: The Period of Division (220-589 AD) (2 vols) |date=23 November 2009 |publisher=[[Koninklijke Brill]] |others=Translated by Tatiana Boucabelle |isbn=978-90-474-2929-6 |editor-last1=Lagerwey |editor-first1=John |editor-link1=:de:John Lagerwey |chapter=State religious policy |editor-last2=Lü |editor-first2=Pengzhi |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA193}}</ref>{{rp|257}}

An anti-Buddhist plan was concocted by the Celestial Masters under [[Kou Qianzhi]] along with [[Cui Hao]] under the Taiwu Emperor.<ref name="Xunliao2009">{{cite book|last=Xunliao |first=Zhang |others=Translated by J.E.E. Pettit|chapter=Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA437 |editor-last1=Lagerwey|editor-first1=John|editor-link1=:de:John Lagerwey|editor-last2=Lü|editor-first2=Pengzhi |title=Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220–589 Ad)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSawCQAAQBAJ|date=30 October 2009|publisher=[[Koninklijke Brill]]|isbn=978-90-04-17585-3}}</ref>{{rp|533}} The Celestial Masters of the north urged the persecution of Buddhists under the Taiwu Emperor in the Northern Wei, attacking Buddhism and the Buddha as wicked and as anti-stability and anti-family.<ref name="Xunliao2009"/>{{rp|534}} Anti Buddhism was the position of Kou Qianzhi.<ref name="Xunliao2009"/>{{rp|535}} There was no ban on the Celestial Masters despite the nonfullfilment of Cui Hao and Kou Qianzhi's agenda in their anti-Buddhist campaign.<ref name="Xunliao2009"/>{{rp|539}}

=== Rouran conflict and building the Great Wall ===
During the early years of the dynasty, the [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]] were among the people subjugated by the Northern Wei. In 394, a branch of the Rouran, led by [[Yujiulü Shelun]] rebelled and fled westward across the [[Gobi Desert]]. By 402, Shelun had formed an empire on the northern grasslands through his conquest of the local [[Tiele people|Tiele]] tribes, and that year, he claimed the title of Qiudoufa Khagan (丘豆伐可汗). The [[Rouran Khaganate]] were a constant threat to the Northern Wei as they incessantly raided their northern frontiers, and at times, the Wei emperors would personally lead their armies into the steppe to campaign against them.

To resist the threats posed by the Rourans, Northern Wei emperors started to embark on building its own [[Great Wall]], the first since the Han dynasty. In 423, a defence line over 2,000 ''li'' ({{convert|1080|km}}) long was built; its path roughly followed the old [[Zhao (state)|Zhao]] wall from [[Chicheng]] County in Hebei Province to [[Wuyuan County, Inner Mongolia]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Lovell | first = Julia | author-link = Julia Lovell | title = The Great Wall : China against the world 1000 BC – 2000 AD | publisher = Picador Pan Macmillan | location = Sydney | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-330-42241-3 }}</ref> In 446, 100,000 men were put to work building an inner wall from [[Yanqing County|Yanqing]], passing south of the Wei capital [[Pingcheng]], and ending up near Pingguan on the eastern bank of the Yellow River. The two walls of Northern Wei formed the basis of the double-layered [[Xuanfu]]–[[Datong]] wall system that protected Beijing a thousand years later during the Ming dynasty.

===Governance===

Local society in northern China was not governed by civil bureaucrats but by military clientage during the reign of the Northern Wei Xianbei emperors, with the local Han Chinese aristocratic families jointly ruling and controlling power with them. The Han Chinese aristocrat families ruled over their private fiefs (home jurisdictions) with large military authority and civil authority as entrusted to them by the Xianbei emperor. The Xianbei emperor also turned their own Xianbei nomad warriors into a hereditary military caste and extinguish their tribal loyalties. To the consternation of the Xianbei nobles, Han Chinese aristocrats started to be appointed to government positions by the Northern Wei emperors when the Central Plains population regrew in the middle of the 5th century.

Han Chinese commoners started pledging their allegiance as buqu (部曲) (armed retainers) to elite Han Chinese aristocratic magnates in their wubao (塢堡) (fortified settlements) when the local communities relied on the magnates to direct their defense after the [[Disaster of Yongjia|311 sack of Luoyang]]. Oaths were pledged in alliances between paramount commanders who joined their fortress villages together in leagues.<ref name="vonGlahn-Econ2016" />{{rp|170}} The magnates retained the services and fealty of their thrall retainers after the fighting was over. Subject to the emperor was overtaken by the concept of village membership. Magnates had both unrelated bondsmen, private clients and fellow clan kinsmen in their armies. 50 to 60 square leagues of farmland in Hebei's southwest Taihang mountain foothills were taken as a fief by thousands of members of the Han Chinese aristocratic Zhaojun Li clan under the leader of a cadet leader of the clan, Li Xianfu. Clan loyalties were extensively utilized by local magnates.<ref name="vonGlahn-Econ2016" />{{rp|171}}  Li Xianfu was appointed as zongzhu (宗主) (clan chief) by the clan collectively in spite of him not inheriting the officer and rank of his father which went to his elder brother. Local level order was controlled by Li Xiangu and other magnates and the Northern Wei Xianbei monarchs had to rely on them. The Northern Wei gave them title of governors officially in their fiefs.

In Shanxi and Hebei the magnate clans became even more powerful and local society was dominated by them and they experienced increased solidarity due to Northern Wei patronage. These arrangement with local Han Chinese aristocratic magnate clans led to a lack of soldiers and revenue directly under the control of the Northern Wei state itself. Particularly after the 460s when Liu Song held Huaibei and Shandong were taken by the Northern Wei they needed soldiers and tax revenue. Nobles, officials and meritorious generals received large amounts of lihu (隸戶) or tongli (僮隸) (bondservants) from war captives in according with Xianbei nomad tradition during wars. These bondservants, compared to the past, made up a large part of the farming population under Northern Wei. The zahu (雜戶) (service households) made out of artisans, weavers, salt makers, entertainers, clerks were also turned into hereditary occupations among war captives captured by Northern Wei, while privately entertainers and craftsmen were also attached to magnate families. The few independent farmers under Northern Wei were subjected to the demands of corvée labor from the states due to the fact that Xianbei noble and Han Chinese aristocratic households controlled the majority of the population as retainers.

The Northern Wei attempted to back up its thinly stretched Xianbei warriors by conscription Han Chinese free subjects into their military in 473 but this only let to the magnates gaining more private client retainers as the Han Chinese farmers chose to became retainers to evade the conscription and corvée. These were the regions for the reforms under Empress Dowager Wenming (438–90)<ref name="vonGlahn-Econ2016" />{{rp|172}} when she tried to turn the state into a Han Chinese style bureaucratic centralized empire. She reigned as regent for her grandson Emperor Xiaowen and brought into the Northern Wei government Han Chinese aristocrats. The capital was moved to the Central Plain's Luoyang away from Pingcheng in 493 by Emperor Xiaowen.<ref name="vonGlahn-Econ2016" />{{rp|173}}
 
The system of having retainers (buqu) existed in the Xin dynasty to the Tang dynasty and was part of the Northern Wei.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tseng |first1=Chin-Yin |title=The Representation of Military Troops in Pingcheng Tombs and the Private Household Institution of Buqu in Practice |journal=Asian Studies |date=2019 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=221–243 |doi=10.4312/as.2019.7.2.221-243 |url=https://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/as/article/view/8313|doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Disunity and breakup ==
[[File:Uprisings of Northern Wei.jpg|thumb|300px|Uprisings of late Northern Wei which would eventually cause the collapse of Northern Wei]]
The fall of Northern Wei began with rebellions staged by Six Garrison populations. This rebellion was rooted in the internal struggle within the Six Garrisons between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers. Six Garrisons were established to protect the Northern Wei regime from the invasion of Rouran and consisted of numerous ethnic groups, such as Xianbei, Gaoche, and Xiongnu as well as Han Chinese. Tribes were the basic social units, although grouped into militarized garrisons. The upper-class military elites who occupied governing offices mainly included the middle-to-low aristocrats of the Xianbei, other tribe chiefs, and Han strongmen. The internal conflict between upper-class military elites and lower-class soldiers and ethnic settlers was on the basis of the vulnerable economic base (heavily relied on livestock production and the support from the central government) and harsh environmental conditions in Six Garrison areas. The struggle for survival drove military officers of Six Garrisons to implement unfair policies biased to their own ethnic groups at the cost of others.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Xue |first1=Haibo |title=5-6 Shiji Beibian Liuzhen Haoqiang Qiushuai Shehui Diwei Yanbian Yanjiu (A Study of the Evolution of the Social Status of Magnates and Marshals in the Six Northern Towns) |date=2020 |publisher=Zhonghua Shuju. |isbn=9787101143775}}</ref> The cause of these wars was the growing rift between the governing aristocracy which was increasingly adopting Han-style sedentary policies and lifestyles and their nomadic tribal armies who continued to preserve the old steppe way of life.<ref name=ger>{{cite book |last1=Jacques Gernet |title=A History of Chinese Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521497817 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern/page/192 192]–193 |edition=illustrated, reprint, revised}}</ref>

=== Rebellion of the Six Garrisons ===
{{multiple image|perrow=3|total_width=480|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| image1   = Sculpture and mural from cave 254. Pillar and north wall. Northern Wei. Mogao.jpg
| image2   = Mogao Cave 254, Shibi Jataka, Northern Wei period.jpg
| image3   = Mogao Cave 254, Shibi Jataka, Northern Wei period (detail of a Central Asian merchant).jpg
| footer=Sculpture and murals from [[Mogao Caves|Mogao cave]] nb. 254, built during the Northern Wei period between 475
 and 490 CE, after their conquest of the area from the [[Northern Liang]].<ref name="SA">{{cite journal |last1=Abe |first1=Stanleyk |title=Art and Practice in a Fifth-Century Chinese Buddhist Cave Temple |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1990 |volume=20 |pages=1–31 |jstor=4629399 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629399 |issn=0571-1371}}</ref> It is one of the earliest caves in [[Dunhuang]], and displayed Western Indic features and Western influences, transmitted through the [[Kizil Caves]] (detail of a [[Sogdia|Central Asian]] trader).<ref>{{cite web |title=Mogao Cave 254 莫高第254号窟 · A. Stories Behind The Dunhuang Caves 敦煌石窟背后的故事 · UW Dunhuang Project: Exhibitions |url=https://dunhuang.ds.lib.uw.edu/Dunhuang-Exhibitions/exhibits/show/history-and-stories-behind/254intro |website=dunhuang.ds.lib.uw.edu |publisher=University of Washington}}</ref><ref name="SA"/> The panel represents the ''[[Jataka|Shibi Jataka]]''.
}}
Rebellions broke out on [[Six Frontier Towns|six major garrison-towns]] on the northern border and spread like wildfire throughout the north. These rebellions lasted for a decade.

In 523, nomadic Rouran tribes suffered a major famine due to successive years of drought. In April, the Rouran Khan sent troops to raid the Wei territory. People of the town rose up and killed the town's commander. Rebellion soon broke out against across the region. In Woye, Poliuhan Baling (破六韓拔陵) became a rebel leader. His army quickly took Woye and laid siege to Wuchuan and Huaishuo.

Elsewhere in Qinzhou (Gansu), Qiang ethnic leaders such as Mozhe Dati (莫折大提) also rose up against the government. In Gaoping (present-day Guyuan), Hu Chen (胡琛) and the [[Tiele people|Chile]] rebelled and titled himself the King of Gaoping. In Hebei, [[Ge Rong]] rebelled, proclaiming himself the Emperor of Qi.

The Poliuhan Baling rebellion was defeated in 525. Similar rebellions had spread to other regions such as Hebei and Guanzhong and were pacified by 530.

=== Rise of Erzhu Rong and Heyin Massacre ===
Exacerbating the situation, [[Empress Dowager Hu (Northern Wei)|Empress Dowager Hu]] poisoned her own son [[Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaoming]] in 528 after Emperor Xiaoming showed disapproval of her handling of the affairs as he started coming of age and got ready to reclaim the power that had been held by the empress in his name when he inherited the throne as an infant, giving the Empress Dowager rule of the country for more than a decade. Upon hearing the news of the 18-year-old emperor's death, the general [[Erzhu Rong]], who had already mobilised on secret orders of the emperor to support him in his struggle with the Empress Dowager Hu, turned toward Luoyang. Announcing that he was installing a new emperor chosen by an ancient Xianbei method of casting bronze figures, [[Erzhu Rong]] summoned the officials of the city to meet their new emperor. However, on their arrival, he told them they were to be punished for their misgovernment and butchered them, throwing the Empress Hu and her candidate (another puppet child emperor [[Yuan Zhao]]) into the [[Yellow River]]. Reports estimate 2,000 [[courtiers]] were killed in this Heyin massacre on the 13th day of the second month of 528.{{efn|1,300 or 2000 according to different versions of the ''[[Book of Wei]]''<ref>{{citation |first=W.J.F. |last=Jenner |title=Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the Lost Capital (493–534) |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford |date=1981 |page=90 }}.</ref>}} Erzhu Rong claimed [[Yuan Ziyou]] grandson of Emperor Xianwen the new emperor as [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei]].

In 529, Liang general [[Chen Qingzhi]] sacked Luoyang, forced Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee and claimed [[Yuan Hao]] another grandson of Emperor Xianwen emperor, before his final defeat by Erzhu Rong.

=== Civil war and the two generals ===
[[File:Northern Wei pedestal.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Tiger-shaped funerary stone bed. Northern Wei. Shenzhen Museum.]]
[[File:Stone funerary bed (tomb of Sima Jinlong), detail.jpg|thumb|250px|Stone funerary bed of General [[Sima Jinlong]], 484 CE.]]
The Erzhu clan dominated the imperial court thereafter, the emperor held power in name only and most decisions actually went through the Erzhus. The emperor did stop most of the rebellions, largely reunifying the Northern Wei state. However, [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaozhuang]], not wishing to remain a puppet emperor and highly wary of the Erzhu clan's widespread power and questionable loyalty and intentions towards the throne (after all, this man had ordered a massacre of the court and put to death a previous emperor and empress before), killed Erzhu Rong in 530 in an ambush at the palace, which led to a resumption of civil war, initially between Erzhu's clan and Emperor Xiaozhuang, and then, after their victory over Emperor Xiaozhuang in 531, between the Erzhu clan and those who resisted their rule. In the aftermath of these wars, two generals set in motion the actions that would result in the splitting of the Northern Wei into the Eastern and Western Wei.

General [[Gao Huan]] was originally from the northern frontier, one of many soldiers who had surrendered to Erzhu, who eventually became one of the Erzhu clan's top lieutenants. But later, Gao Huan gathered his own men from both Han and non-Han troops, to turn against the Erzhu clan, entering and taking the capital Luoyang in 532. Confident in his success, he deposed [[Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei]], the emperor supported by the Erzhu clan, as well as [[Yuan Lang]] the emperor previously supported by Gao himself, and set up a new emperor [[Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei]] on the Luoyang throne and continued his campaigns abroad. The emperor, however, together with the military head of Luoyang, [[Husi Chun]], began to plot against [[Gao Huan]]. Gao Huan succeeded, however, in keeping control of Luoyang, and the emperor and a handful of followers fled west, to the region ruled by the powerful warlord [[Yuwen Tai]]. Gao Huan then announced his decision to move the Luoyang court to his capital city of [[Ye (ancient China)|Ye]]. "Within three days of the decree, 400,000 families—perhaps 2,000,000 people—had to leave their homes in and around the capital to move to Yeh as autumn turned to winter."<ref>Jenner, ''Memories of Loyang'', p. 101.</ref> There now existed two rival claimants to the Northern Wei throne, leading to the state's division in 534–535 into the [[Eastern Wei]] and [[Western Wei]]. The Eastern Wei were initially significantly stronger and looked likely to end Western Wei quickly, but were defeated at the [[Battle of Shayuan]] in 537, confirming the split of the Northern Wei

=== Fall ===
Neither Eastern Wei nor Western Wei was long-lived.<ref>Charles Holcombe, A History of East Asia: From the Origins of Civilization to the Twenty-First Century, p 68 Cambridge University Press, 2011</ref> In 550, Gao Huan's son [[Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi|Gao Yang]] forced [[Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei]] to yield the throne to him, ending Eastern Wei and establishing the [[Northern Qi]]. Similarly, in 557, Yuwen Tai's nephew [[Yuwen Hu]] forced [[Emperor Gong of Western Wei]] to yield the throne to Yuwen Tai's son [[Emperor Xiaomin of Northern Zhou|Yuwen Jue]], ending the Western Wei and establishing the [[Northern Zhou]]. In 581, the Northern Zhou official [[Emperor Wen of Sui|Yang Jian]] had the emperor to yield the throne to him, establishing the [[Sui dynasty]].

== Legacy and culture ==
[[Image:少林寺.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Shaolin Temple]] was built by [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Emperor Xiaowen]] in 477 AD]] 
The Northern Wei dynasty was the most long-lived and most powerful of the northern dynasties prior to the reunification of China by the [[Sui dynasty]]. Its most important legacy was the sweeping reforms introduced under Empress Dowager Feng and continued under her successors. While the dynasty officially ended in 557, these reforms, especially the equal-field landholding system, lasted until the mid-eight century CE. The reforms completely reshaped China's political development as they reverted the trends associated with feudalism in earlier times ({{circa|second to fifth centuries CE}}) such as the devolution of power to local strongmen and political fragmentation. Historians generally credit the Northern Wei dynasty for laying the foundation for China's eventual reunification under the Sui dynasty. [[Ray Huang]], for example, pointed out that these reforms brought about the "infrastructure of a regenerated empire" and new rulers after Northern Wei, such as Yang Jian of the Sui dynasty, would inherit "the bulk of the agricultural resources and the peasant manpower" made available via the reforms to reunify the whole of China.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Huang|first=Ray|title=China: a Macro History|publisher=ME Sharpe, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=9781563247309|pages=94}}</ref>

Many of the most important heritages of China, such as the [[Yungang Grottoes]], the [[Longmen Caves]], the [[Shaolin Monastery]], the [[Songyue Pagoda]], were built by the Northern Wei. Important books such as [[Qimin Yaoshu]] and [[Commentary on the Water Classic]], a monumental work on China's geography, was written during the era.

The legend of [[Hua Mulan]] is originated from the Northern Wei era, in which Mulan, disguised as a man, takes her aged father's place in the Wei army to defend China from [[Rouran]] invaders.

===Central Asian influences===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align    = right
| direction =horizontal
| image1   = Sik Road Camel driver (Northern Wei).jpg
| image2   = Sasanian Gilt Silver Plate, from Northern Wei 504 CE tomb.jpg
| footer=Many objects suggesting exchanges with Central Asia have been found, especially in Northern Wei tombs. '''Left''': Model of a Silk Road camel driver, Northern Wei period. '''Right''': a [[Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom|Kushano-Sasanian]] style plate with hunting scene, from the Northern Wei tomb of [[Feng Hetu]] (封和突, a [[Xianbei]] military official, 438–501) in Xiaozhan village, Datong. Shanxi Museum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harper |first1=Prudence O. |title=An Iranian Silver Vessel from the Tomb of Feng Hetu |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |date=1990 |volume=4 |pages=51–59 |jstor=24048350 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24048350 |issn=0890-4464}}</ref><ref name=WattMet2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n177/mode/2up 152]}}
}}
Northern Wei art came under influence of Indian and Central Asian traditions through the mean of trade routes. A Central Asian (胡) named An Tong (安同), a descendant of the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] missionary [[An Shigao]], was political counsellor to the first Northern Wei emperor [[Tuoba Gui]] (370–409).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vaissière |first1=Étienne de la |title=Sogdian Traders: A History |date=12 November 2018 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-0699-0 |page=62 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cqWODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |language=en}}</ref> Most importantly for Chinese art history, the Wei rulers converted to [[Buddhism]] and became great patrons of [[Buddhist art]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Tuoba Xianbei and the Northern Wei Dynasty |url=https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/nwei/essay.html |website=depts.washington.edu}}</ref> Numerous [[:Commons:Category:Central Asian objects of Northern Wei tombs|Central Asian objects]] have been found in Northern Wei tombs, such as the tomb of [[Feng Hetu]].<ref name=WattMet2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n173/mode/2up 148]}} It is believed that the main influx of Western objects among the Northern Wei followed the defeat of the [[Rouran Khaganate|Rouran]] circa 450 CE, which allowed for the visit of diplomatic and, mainly, merchant caravans from [[Khotan]], [[Kashmir]] and [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian Persia]].<ref name=WattMet2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n179/mode/2up 154]}}
Also, when the Northern Wei defeated the [[Northern Liang]] in 439 CE, they captured a great number of [[Sogdia]]n merchants from their capital [[Wuwei, Gansu|Wuwei]], and resettled them in their own capital at [[Datong]], thereby fostering trade.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Li |first1=Xiao |title=Studies on the History and Culture Along the Continental Silk Road |date=10 September 2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-15-7602-7 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DW78DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 |language=en|quote="It is evident that when the Northern Wei defeated Northern Liang and seized its capital (439), they captured a large number of Sogdian merchants living in Wuwei and resettled them in Pingcheng (present-day Datong), the capital of the Northern Wei."}}</ref>

<gallery>
Northern Wei Gilt Silver (10100940894).jpg|Gilt silver from [[Bactria]] (5th c.), Northern Wei tomb.<ref name=WattMet2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n179/mode/2up 154]}}|alt=Gilt silver from Bactria (5th c.), Northern Wei tomb.: 154
Northern Wei Gilt Silver Cup (10100966774).jpg|Gilt silver cup from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb.<ref name=WattMet2004/>{{rp|[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JbdS-R3y72MC/page/n175/mode/2up 150]}}|alt=Gilt silver cup from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb.: 150
Northern Wei Gilt Silver Cup (10100972454).jpg|Gilt silver from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb
Northern Wei Persian Silver Coins (detail).jpg|Sasanian silver coins from Central Asia, Northern Wei tomb
</gallery>

== Sovereigns of the Northern Wei dynasty {{anchor|Rulers}} ==

{{See also|Chinese emperors family tree (middle)#Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei |label 1 = The family tree of Northern Wei rulers }}

{| class="wikitable" width="80%" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! [[Posthumous name]] !! Personal name !! Period of reign !! [[Era name]]s
|-
|[[Emperor Daowu of Northern Wei|Daowu]]
|Tuoba Gui
|386–409
|Dengguo (登國) 386–396<br />Huangshi (皇始) 396–398<br />Tianxing (天興) 398–404<br />Tianci (天賜) 404–409
|-
|[[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei|Mingyuan]]
|Tuoba Si
|409–423
|Yongxing (永興) 409–413<br />Shenrui (神瑞) 414–416<br />Taichang (泰常) 416–423
|-
|[[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei|Taiwu]]
|Tuoba Tao
|424–452
|Shiguang (始光) 424–428<br />Shenjia (神䴥) 428–431<br />Yanhe (延和) 432–434<br />Taiyan (太延) 435–440<br />Taipingzhenjun (太平真君) 440–451<br />Zhengping (正平) 451–452
|-
|–
|[[Tuoba Yu]]
|452
|Chengping (承平) 452<br />
|-
|[[Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei|Wencheng]]
|Tuoba Jun
|452–465
|Xing'an (興安) 452–454<br />Xingguang (興光) 454–455<br />Tai'an (太安) 455–459<br />Heping (和平) 460–465
|-
|[[Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei|Xianwen]]
|Tuoba Hong
|466–471
|Tian'an (天安) 466–467<br />Huangxing (皇興) 467–471
|-
|[[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei|Xiaowen]]
|Tuoba Hong<br />Yuan Hong{{efn|The imperial Tuoba family changed their family name to Yuan (元) during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen in 496 so their names in this table will also thus be "Yuan" subsequently.}}
|471–499
|Yanxing (延興) 471–476<br />Chengming (承明) 476<br />Taihe (太和) 477–499
|-
|[[Emperor Xuanwu of Northern Wei|Xuanwu]]
|Yuan Ke 
|499–515
|Jingming (景明) 500–503<br />Zhengshi (正始) 504–508<br />Yongping (永平) 508–512<br />Yanchang (延昌) 512–515
|-
|[[Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei|Xiaoming]]
|Yuan Xu
|516–528
|Xiping (熙平) 516–518<br />Shengui (神龜) 518–520<br />Zhengguang (正光) 520–525<br />Xiaochang (孝昌) 525–527<br />Wutai (武泰) 528
|-
|–
|[[Yuan Zhao]]{{efn|Empress Dowager Hu initially declared Emperor Xiaoming's "son" (actually a daughter) emperor, but almost immediately after admitted that she was actually female and declared Yuan Zhao emperor instead. Emperor Xiaoming's [[Daughter of Emperor Xiaoming of Northern Wei|unnamed daughter]] was therefore arguably an "emperor" and his successor, but is not commonly regarded as one. Indeed, Yuan Zhao himself is often not considered an emperor.}} 
|528
|–
|-
|[[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei|Xiaozhuang]]
|Yuan Ziyou
|528–530{{efn|The Northern Wei imperial prince [[Yuan Hao]], under support by rival [[Liang dynasty]]'s troops, declared himself emperor and captured the capital [[Luoyang]] in 529, forcing Emperor Xiaozhuang to flee. Yuan Hao carried imperial title and received pledges of allegiance from provinces south of the [[Yellow River]] for about three months before [[Erzhu Rong]] recaptured Luoyang. Yuan Hao fled and was killed in flight. Due to the briefness of Yuan Hao's claim on the throne and the limited geographic scope of his reign, he is usually not counted among the succession of Northern Wei emperors.}}
|Jianyi (建義) 528<br />Yongan (永安) 528–530
|-
|–
|[[Yuan Ye (emperor)|Yuan Ye]]
|530–531
|Jianming (建明) 530–531
|-
|[[Emperor Jiemin of Northern Wei|Jiemin]]
|Yuan Gong
|531–532
|Putai (普泰) 531–532
|-
|–
|[[Yuan Lang]]
|531–532
|Zhongxing (中興) 531–532
|-
|[[Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei|Xiaowu]]
|Yuan Xiu 
|532–535
|Taichang (太昌) 532<br />Yongxing (永興) 532<br />Yongxi (永熙) 532–535
|}

<gallery>
Image:Buddhist Stela Northern Wei period.jpg| A Buddhist [[stela]] from the Northern Wei period, built in the early sixth century.
Image:Buddhist paintings Yungang.jpg|Northern Wei wall murals and painted figurines, [[Yungang Grottoes]], fifth to sixth centuries
File:Seattle terracota china 04.JPG|Cavalry of the Northern and Southern dynasties
File:Northern Wei Cavalry (4).jpg|Northern Wei cavalry
File:Dinastia wei del nord, due cavalieri, cina del nord, 500-550 ca..JPG|Northern Wei cavalry
</gallery>

==Further reading==
* Pearce, Scott. 2023. ''Northern Wei (386-534): A New Form of Empire in East Asia''. Oxford University Press.

==See also==
* [[Change of Xianbei names to Han names]]
* [[Jinping Commandery]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{Refbegin}}
* ''[[Book of Wei]]''.
* [[W.J.F. Jenner|Jenner, W. J. F.]] ''Memories of Loyang: Yang Hsuan-chih and the lost capital (493–534)''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981.
* ''[[History of Northern Dynasties]]''.
* Tsiang, Katherine R. "Changing Patterns of Divinity and Reform in the Late Northern Wei" in ''The Art Bulletin'', Vol. 84 No. 2 (June 2002), pp.&nbsp;222–245.
* ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]''.
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category-inline|Northern Wei Dynasty}}

{{Clear}}
{{NS Dynasties}}
{{Northern Dynasties emperors}}
{{Yuan Wei emperors}}
{{Donghu and Xianbei}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wei}}
[[Category:Northern Wei| ]]
[[Category:386 establishments]]
[[Category:4th-century establishments in China]]
[[Category:6th-century disestablishments in China]]
[[Category:535 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Tuoba]]
[[Category:Dynasties of China]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:History of Mongolia]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 530s]]