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{{Short description|German poet and writer (1772–1801)}}
{{other uses}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] -->
 | name        = Novalis
 | image       = Novalis-1.jpg
 | imagesize   = 
 | caption     = 1799 portrait
 | pseudonym   = Novalis
 | birth_name  = Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg
 | birth_date  = {{Birth date|1772|5|2|df=y}}
 | birth_place = [[Wiederstedt]], [[Electorate of Saxony]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
 | death_date  = {{death date and age|1801|3|25|1772|5|2|df=y}}
 | death_place = [[Weissenfels]], Electorate of Saxony
 | alma_mater  = [[University of Jena]]<br />[[Leipzig University]]<br />[[University of Wittenberg]]<br />[[Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg|Mining Academy of Freiberg]]
 | occupation  = Writer, philosopher, poet, aristocrat, mystic, mineralogist, civil engineer
 | nationality = German
 | period      = 1791–1801
 | genre       = {{cslist|Poetry|novels|[[literary fragment|fragments]]|speeches}}
 | subject     = {{cslist|Philosophy|natural science|religion|politics}}
 | movement    = [[Jena Romanticism]]<ref name="Redfield2012" />
 | signature   = Novalis Signature.png
}}

'''Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg''' (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name '''Novalis''' ({{IPAc-en|n|oʊ|ˈ|v|ɑː|l|ɪ|s}}; {{IPA|de|noˈvaːlɪs|lang}}), was a [[German nobility|German aristocrat]] and [[polymath]], who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and [[Mysticism|mystic]]. He is regarded as an influential figure of [[Jena Romanticism]].

Novalis was born into a minor aristocratic family in [[Electoral Saxony]]. He was the second of eleven children; his early household observed a strict [[Pietism|Pietist]] faith. He studied law at the [[University of Jena]], the [[University of Leipzig]], and the [[University of Wittenberg]]. While at Jena, he published his first poem and befriended the playwright and fellow poet [[Friedrich Schiller]]. In Leipzig, he then met [[Friedrich Schlegel]], becoming lifelong friends. Novalis completed his law degree in 1794 at the age of 22. He then worked as a legal assistant in [[Bad Tennstedt|Tennstedt]] immediately after graduating. There, he met [[Sophie von Kühn]]. The following year Novalis and Sophie became secretly engaged. Sophie became severely ill soon after the engagement and died just after her 15th birthday. Sophie's early death had a life-long impact on Novalis and his writing.

Novalis enrolled at the [[Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg|Freiberg University of Mining and Technology]] in 1797, where he studied a wide number of disciplines including electricity, medicine, chemistry, physics, mathematics, [[mineralogy]] and [[natural philosophy]]. He conversed with many of the formative figures of the Early Germanic Romantic period, including [[Goethe]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Friedrich Schelling]], [[Jean Paul]] and [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|August Schlegel]]. After finishing his studies, Novalis served as a director of salt mines in [[Kingdom of Saxony|Saxony]] and later in [[Thuringia]]. During this time, Novalis wrote major poetic and literary works, including ''[[Hymns to the Night]]''. In 1800, he began showing signs of illness, which is thought to have been either tuberculosis or [[cystic fibrosis]], and died on 25 March 1801 at the age of 28.

Novalis's early reputation as a romantic poet was primarily based on his literary works, which were published by his friends Friedrich Schlegel and [[Ludwig Tieck]] shortly after his death, in 1802. These works include the collection of poems, ''Hymns to the Night'' and ''Spiritual Hymns'', and his unfinished novels, ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' and ''The Novices at Sais''. Schlegel and Tieck published only a small sample of his philosophical and scientific writings.

The depth of Novalis's knowledge in fields like philosophy and natural science came to be more broadly appreciated with the more extensive publication of his notebooks in the twentieth century. Novalis was not only well read in his chosen disciplines; he also sought to integrate his knowledge with his art. This goal can be seen in his use of the [[Literary fragment|fragment]], a form that he wrote in alongside Friedrich Schlegel, and published in Schlegel's journal ''[[Athenaeum (German magazine)|Athenaeum]]''. The fragment allowed him to synthesize poetry, philosophy, and science into a single art form that could be used to address a wide variety of topics. Just as Novalis's literary works have established his reputation as a poet, the notebooks and fragments have subsequently established his intellectual role in the formation of Early German Romanticism.

==Biography==
===Birth and early background===
[[File:Schloss Oberwiederstedt.jpg|thumb|left|[[:de:Schloss Oberwiederstedt|Oberwiederstedt castle]]]]
Novalis, baptized Georg Philipp Friedrich, was the  [[Freiherr]] (Baron) von [[Hardenberg (surname)#Noble family|Hardenberg]], born in 1772 at his family estate in the [[Electorate of Saxony]], the Schloss Oberwiederstedt, in the village of [[Wiederstedt]],<ref name=Just1805 />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n32 24}} }} which is now located in the present-day town of [[Arnstein, Saxony-Anhalt|Arnstein]]. Hardenberg descended from ancient, [[Lower Saxony|Lower Saxon]] nobility. Novalis's father was Heinrich Ulrich Erasmus Freiherr von Hardenberg (1738&ndash;1814), the estate owner and a salt-mine manager. His mother was Auguste Bernhardine (née von [[:de:Böltzig|Böltzig]]) (1749&ndash;1818), who was Heinrich's second wife. Novalis was the second of eleven children.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.5 5–7}} }} Although Novalis had an aristocratic pedigree, his family was not wealthy.<ref name="Kermode2009" />

Novalis's early education was strongly influenced by [[Pietism]]. His father was a member of the [[Moravian Church#Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine, 18th-century renewal|Herrnhuter Unity of Brethren]] branch of the [[Moravian Church]]<ref name=Pick1910/> and maintained a strict pietist household. Until the age of nine, Novalis was taught by private tutors who were trained in pietist theology; subsequently, he attended a Herrnhut school in [[Neudietendorf]] for three years.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.5 6–7}} }}

[[File:Hardenberg-Ns-Wappen.png|thumb|upright=0.5|Coat-of-arms of the Hardenberg family]]
When he was twelve, Novalis was put under the charge of his uncle [[:File:Gottlob_Friedrich_Wilhelm_von_Hardenberg.jpg|Gottlob Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Hardenberg]] (1728-1800), Land commander of the [[Teutonic Order]], who lived at his rural estate in [[:File:Rittergut_Lucklum_Einfahrt_junge_Alleebäume.jpg|Lucklum]].<ref name=Just1805 />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n34 26}} }} Novalis's uncle introduced him to the late [[Rococo]] world, where Novalis was exposed to [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] ideas as well as the contemporary literature of his time, including the works of the French [[Encyclopédistes|Encyclopedists]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp| {{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.6 8}} }} At seventeen, Novalis attended the [[Martin Luther]] [[gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] in [[Eisleben]], near [[Weissenfels]] where his family had moved in 1785. At the gymnasium, he learned rhetoric and ancient literature.<ref name=Just1805 />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n34 26}} }}

===Jena, Leipzig, Wittenberg: legal studies===
Between 1790 and 1794, Novalis went to university to study law. He first attended the [[University of Jena]]. While there, he studied [[Immanuel Kant]]'s philosophy under [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Karl Reinhold]],<ref name=Redfield2012/> and it was there that he first became acquainted with [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]]'s philosophy.<ref name= Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n35 27}} }} He also developed a close relationship with playwright and philosopher [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]. Novalis attended Schiller's lectures on history<ref name="Hiebel1954" />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.7 11}} }} and tended to Schiller when he was suffering from a particularly severe flare-up of his chronic [[tuberculosis]].<ref name="Snell2012" /> In 1791, he published his first work, a poem dedicated to Schiller, "Klagen eines Jünglings" ("Lament of a Youth"), in the magazine ''[[Der Teutsche Merkur|Der Neue Teutsche Merkur]]'', an act that was partly responsible for Novalis's father withdrawing him from Jena and looking into another university where Novalis would attend more carefully to his studies.<ref name=Saul1982 /> In the following year, Novalis's younger brother, Erasmus, enrolled at the [[University of Leipzig]], and Novalis went with him to continue his legal studies.  In 1792, he met the literary critic [[Friedrich Schlegel]], the younger brother of August.<ref name="Hiebel1954" />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.8 13}} }} Friedrich became one of Novalis's closest lifetime friends.<ref name= vonHardenberg1802/><ref name=Wulf2022>{{cite book|last=Wulf|first=Andrea|year=2022|title=Magnificent Rebels: The First Romantics and the Invention of Self|publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing |isbn=9780525657118}}</ref> {{rp|97}} A year later, Novalis matriculated to the [[University of Wittenberg]] where he completed his law degree.<ref name= Kneller2003/>

===Tennstedt: Relationship with Sophie von Kühn===
After graduating from [[Wittenberg]], Novalis moved to [[Bad Tennstedt|Tennstedt]] to work as an [[actuary]] for a district administrator,<ref name= Kneller2003/> Cölestin August Just, who became both his friend and biographer.<ref name=Just1805/> While working for Just in 1795, Novalis met the 12-year-old [[Sophie von Kühn]], who at that time was considered old enough to receive suitors.<ref name=Donehower2007 />{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google Books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=17|plainurl=yes}} 17}} }} He became infatuated with her on their first meeting, and the effect of this infatuation appeared to transform his personality.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.10 19}} }} In 1795, two days before Sophie turned thirteen they got secretly engaged. Later that year Sophie's parents gave their consent for the two to become engaged:<ref name= Tieck1815 />{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=128|plainurl=yes}} 128 }} }} Novalis's brother Erasmus supported the couple, but the rest of Novalis's family resisted agreeing to the engagement due to Sophie's unclear aristocratic pedigree.<ref name = Donehower2007/>{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google Books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=25|plainurl=yes}} 25}}}}

[[File:Sophie von Kühn.jpg|thumb|[[Sophie von Kühn]]]]
Novalis remained intellectually active during his employment at Tennstedt. It is possible that Novalis met Fichte, as well as the poet [[Friedrich Hölderlin]], in person while visiting Jena in 1795.<ref name=Gjesdal2020 /> Between 1795 and 1796, he created six sets of manuscripts, posthumously collected under the title ''Fichte Studies'', that primarily address Fichte's work but cover a range of philosophical topics.<ref name=Waibel2004/> Novalis continued his philosophical studies in 1797, writing notebooks responding to the works of Kant, [[François Hemsterhuis|Frans Hemsterhuis]], and [[Adam Karl August von Eschenmayer|Adolph Eschenmayer]].<ref name= Mason1967/>

Novalis's ongoing reflections upon Fichte's ideas, particularly those in the ''Wissenschaftslehre'' (''[[Foundations of the Science of Knowledge]]'') formed part of the foundation for his later philosophical and literary works:<ref name=Newman1989 /> Novalis focused on Fichte's argument that the concept of identity assumes a tension between self (i.e., "I") and object (i.e., "not-I").<ref name=Seyhan1992/> Novalis's critique of Fichte arose from Novalis's literary commitments:<ref name="Laman2004" /> Novalis suggests that the tension between self and object that Fichte asserts is actually a tension between language and imagination.<ref name= Aldouri2019 /> Later, Novalis would take his critique further, suggesting that identity is not the separation of subject and object, but a dynamic process of equal partners in mutual communication. Novalis's viewpoint is summarized in his aphorism "Statt Nicht-Ich -- Du!" ("Instead of 'not-I', you").<ref name=Seyhan1992/>

In the final months of 1795, Sophie began to suffer declining health due to a liver tumor<ref name=Mason1961/> that was thought to be caused by tuberculosis.<ref name = Barroso2019 /> As a result, she underwent liver surgery in Jena, which was performed without anesthesia.<ref name = Donehower2007/>{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google Books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=24|plainurl=yes}} 24}} }} In January 1797, Novalis was appointed [[auditor]] to the salt works at Weissenfels. To earn a stable income for his intended marriage, he accepted the position and moved to Weissenfels to assume his duties. Sophie, on the other hand, stayed with her family.<ref name=Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n38 31}} }} Sophie once more became gravely ill, during which time Novalis's parents finally relented and agreed to the couple's engagement. However, two days after her fifteenth birthday, Sophie died, while Novalis was still in Weissenfels. Four months later, Novalis's brother Erasmus, who had been diagnosed with tuberculosis, also died.<ref name=Barroso2019/> The death of Sophie, as well as his younger brother, affected Novalis deeply. Their deaths catalyzed his more intensive commitment to poetic expression.<ref name = Donehower2007/>{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google Books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=1|plainurl=yes}} 1–2}} }} Sophie's death also became the central inspiration for one of the few works Novalis published in his lifetime, {{lang|de|Hymnen an die Nacht}} (''Hymns to the Night'').<ref name= Wessell1975/><ref name=Wulf2022/>{{rp|143}}

===Freiberg: The Mining Academy===
At the end of 1797, Novalis entered the [[Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg|Mining Academy of Freiberg]] in [[Saxony]] to become qualified as a member of the staff for the salt works at Weissenfels. His principal mentor at the academy was the geologist, [[Abraham Gottlob Werner|Abraham Werner]].<ref name=Just1805 />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n41 49}} }} While at the academy, Novalis immersed himself in a wide range of studies, including electricity, galvanism, alchemy, medicine, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and natural philosophy.<ref name= Johnson1998 />  He was also able to expand his intellectual social circle. On his way to Freiberg, he met [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Friedrich Schelling]], and they later went on an art tour of [[Dresden]] together. He visited [[Goethe]] and Friedrich Schlegel's older brother, August, in [[Weimar]] and met the writer [[Jean Paul]] in Leipzig.<ref name="Hiebel1954" />{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.11 27}} }}

[[File:Novalisplaque.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Novalis house plaque, [[Freiberg, Saxony|Freiberg]]]]
In December 1798, Novalis became engaged for the second time. His fiancée was Julie von Charpentier, a daughter of Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Toussaint von Charpentier, the chair of mining studies at the University of Leipzig.<ref name=Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n48 41}} }} Unlike his relationship with Sophie, Novalis's affection for Julie developed more gradually. He initially saw his affection for Julie as a more "earthly" passion compared to his "heavenly" passion for Sophie, though he gradually softened this distinction with time. Eventually his feelings for Julie became the subject of some of his poetry, including the ''Spiritual Songs'' written in the last years of his life.<ref name="O'Brien1995" /> Novalis and Julie remained engaged until Novalis's death in 1801, and she tended him during his final illness.<ref name=Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n51 43}} }}

In Freiberg, he remained active with his literary work. It was at this time that he began a collection of notes for a project to unite the separate sciences into a universal whole.<ref name= Wood2007 /> In this collection, ''Das allgemeine Brouillon (Notes for a General Encyclopedia)'', Novalis began integrating his knowledge of natural science into his literary work. This integration can be seen in an unfinished novel he composed during this time, ''Die Lehrlinge zu Sais'' (''The Novices at Sais''), which incorporated natural history from his studies as well as ideas from his Fichte studies into a meditation on poetry and love as keys to understanding nature.<ref name= Mahoney1992 /> More specifically, he began thinking about how to incorporate his recently acquired knowledge of mining to his philosophical and poetic worldview. In this respect, he shared a commonality with other German authors of the Romantic age by connecting his studies in the mining industry, which was undergoing then the first steps to industrialization, with his literary work.<ref name="Ziolkowski1992" /> This connection between his scientific interest in mining, philosophy and literature came to fruition later when he began composing his second unfinished novel, ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''.<ref name=Erlin2014 />

[[File:Weissenfels Hardenberg Novalis.jpg|thumb|upright= 0.75|Novalis's grave in Weissenfels]]
Novalis also began to be noticed as a published author at this time. In 1798, Novalis's fragments appeared in the Schlegel brother's magazine, ''Athenaeum''.<ref name=Wulf2022/>{{rp|163}} These works included {{lang|de|Blüthenstaub}} (''Pollen''), {{lang|de|Glauben und Liebe oder der König und die Königin}} (''Faith and Love or the King and the Queen''), and ''Blumen'' (''Flowers'').<ref name=Pick1910 /> The publication of ''Pollen'' saw the first appearance of his [[pen name]], "Novalis". His choice of pen name was taken from his 13th-century ancestors who named themselves {{lang|la|de Novali}}, after their settlement [[Grossenrode]], which is called {{lang|la|magna Novalis}} in Latin.<ref name="Mahoney2004" /> {{lang|la|Novalis}} can also be interpreted as "one who cultivates new land", which connotes the metaphoric role that Novalis saw for himself.<ref name = Donehower2007/>{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google Books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=7|plainurl=yes}} 7}} }} This metaphoric sense of his pen name can be seen in the [[epigraph (literature)|epigraph]] of ''Pollen'', the first work he published as Novalis: "Friends, the soil is poor, we must scatter seed abundantly for even a moderate harvest".<ref name=Gelley1991b/>

===Weissenfels: The final years===
In early 1799, Novalis had completed his studies at Leipzig and returned to the management of salt mines in Weissenfels.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.12 29–30}} }} By December, he became an assessor of the salt mines and a director, and at the end of 1800, the 28-year-old Novalis was appointed an ''[[Amtmann]]'' for the [[Thuringia|district of Thuringia]],<ref name=Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n50 42}} }} a position comparable to a contemporary [[magistrate]].

While on a trip to Jena in the summer of 1799, Novalis met [[Ludwig Tieck]], who became one of his closest friends and greatest intellectual influences in the last two years of his life.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.13 30–34}} }} They became part of an informal social circle that formed around the Schlegel brothers, which has been come to be known as the [[Jena Romanticism|Jena Romantics]] or ''Frühromantiker'' ("early romantics").<ref name = Redding2009/> The interests of the Jena Romantics extended to philosophy as well as literature and aesthetics,<ref name="Rush2005" /> and has been considered as a philosophical movement in its own right.<ref name="Beiser2003" /> Under the influence of Tieck, Novalis studied the works of the seventeenth-century mystic, [[Jakob Böhme]], with whom he felt a strong affinity.<ref name="Mayer1993" /> He also became deeply engaged with the [[Platonism|Platonic]] [[aesthetics]] of Hemsterhuis,<ref name=Stoljar1997/> as well as the writings of the theologian and philosopher [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]].<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.13 32}} }} Schleiermacher's work inspired Novalis to write his essay, [[Christianity or Europe (Novalis)|''Christenheit oder Europa'']] (''Christianity or Europe''),<ref name=Smith2011/> a call to return Europe to a cultural and social unity whose interpretation continues to be a source of controversy.<ref name=Kleingeld2008 /> During this time, he also wrote his poems known as ''Geistliche Lieder'' (''Spiritual Songs'')<ref name=Pick1910 /> and began his novel ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''.<ref name=Tieck1815 />

From August 1800, Novalis began to cough up blood. At the time, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis. However, recent research suggests that he may have suffered from [[cystic fibrosis]], a genetic disorder that may have been responsible for the early death of many of his siblings, including his brother Erasmus.<ref name = Barroso2019/> After a severe hemorrhage in November, he was temporarily moved to Dresden for medical reasons. In January, he requested to be with his parents in Weissenfels. He died there on 25 March 1801 at the age of twenty-eight.<ref name=Tieck1815 /> He was buried in Weissenfels's ''Alter Friedhof'' (Old Cemetery).

==Legacy==
[[File:Brooklyn Museum - Night (Die Nacht) - Philipp Otto Runge.jpg|thumb|[[Philipp Otto Runge]]'s pen-and-ink drawing ''Night'' (1803). Runge's Romantic use of allegorical symbolism was influenced by his reading of Novalis.<ref name= Littlejohns2003 />]]

===As romantic poet===
When he died, Novalis had only published ''Pollen'', ''Faith and Love'', ''Blumen'', and ''Hymns to the Night''. Most of Novalis's writings, including his novels and philosophical works, were neither completed nor published in his lifetime. This problem continues to obscure a full appreciation of his work.<ref name=Wood2002/> His unfinished novels ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' and ''The Novices at Sais'' and numerous other poems and fragments were published posthumously by Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel. However, their publication of Novalis's more philosophical fragments was disorganized and incomplete. A systematic and more comprehensive collection of Novalis's fragments from his notebooks was not available until the twentieth century.<ref name=Mason1961/>

During the nineteenth century, Novalis was primarily seen as a passionate love-struck poet who mourned the death of his beloved and yearned for the hereafter.<ref name=Haase1979/> He was known as the poet of the ''[[blue flower]]'', a symbol of romantic yearning from Novalis's unfinished Novel ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' that became an key emblem for German Romanticism.<ref name=Robles2020 /> His fellow Jena Romantics, such as Friedrich Schlegel, Tieck, and Schleiermacher, also describe him as a poet who dreamt of a spiritual world beyond this one.<ref name=Haussmann1912 /> Novalis's diagnosis of tuberculosis, which was known as the ''[[tuberculosis#Society and culture|white plague]]'', contributed to his romantic reputation.<ref name= Robles2020 /> Because Sophie von Kühn was also thought to have died from tuberculosis, Novalis became the poet of the blue flower who was reunited with his beloved through the death of the white plague.<ref name=Barroso2019 />

The image of Novalis as romantic poet became enormously popular. When Novalis's biography by his long-time friend August Cölestin Just was published in 1815, Just was criticized for misrepresenting Novalis's poetic nature because he had written that Novalis was also a hard-working mine inspector and magistrate.<ref name=Donehower2007/> Even the literary critic [[Thomas Carlyle]], whose essay on Novalis played a major role in introducing him to the English-speaking world and took Novalis's philosophical relationship to Fichte and Kant seriously,<ref name=Harrold1930/> emphasized Novalis as a [[mysticism|mystic poet]] in the style of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]].<ref name=Carlyle1829/> The author and theologian [[George MacDonald]], who translated Novalis's ''Hymns to the Night'' in 1897 into English,<ref name="MacDonald1897" /> also understood him as a mystic poet.<ref name="Partridge2014"/>

===As philosophical thinker===
In the twentieth century, Novalis's writings were more thoroughly and systematically collected than previously. The availability of these works provide further evidence that his interests went beyond poetry and novels and has led to a reassessment of Novalis's literary and intellectual goals.<ref name=Ziolkowski1996 /> He was deeply read in science, law, philosophy, politics and [[political economy]] and left an abundance of notes on these topics. His early work displays his ease and familiarity with these diverse fields. His later works also include topics from his professional duties. In his notebooks, Novalis also reflected on the scientific, aesthetic, and philosophical significance of his interests. In his ''Notes for a Romantic Encyclopaedia'', he worked out connections between the different fields he studied as he sought to integrate them into a unified worldview.<ref name="Kneller2008" />

Novalis's philosophical writings are often grounded in nature. His works explore how personal freedom and creativity emerge in the affective understanding of the world and others. He suggests that this can only be accomplished if people are not estranged from the earth.<ref name="Nassar2013" />{{rp|{{plain link|{{Google Books|Iw9JAgAAQBAJ|page=55|plainurl=yes}} 55}}}} In ''Pollen'', Novalis writes "We are on a mission: Our calling is the cultivation of the earth",<ref name=Gelley1991b/> arguing that human beings come to know themselves through experiencing and enlivening nature.<ref name="Nassar2013" />{{rp|{{plain link|{{Google books|Iw9JAgAAQBAJ|page=55|plainurl=yes}} 55}}}} Novalis's personal commitment to understanding one's self and the world through nature can be seen in Novalis's unfinished novel, ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'', in which he uses his knowledge of natural science derived from his work overseeing salt mining to understand the human condition.<ref name=Erlin2014 /> Novalis's commitment to cultivating nature has even been considered as a potential source of insight for a deeper understanding of the environmental crisis.<ref name=Becker&Manstetten2004/>

==Magical idealism<!--'Magical idealism' redirects here-->==
[[File:Philipp Otto Runge 001.jpg|thumb|[[Philipp Otto Runge]]'s ''Der kleine Morgen'' (''Little Morning'') (1808) was also inspired by Novalis's ideas.<ref name=GHDI2003 />]]
Novalis's personal worldview—informed by his education, philosophy, professional knowledge, and pietistic background—has become known as '''magical idealism'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA-->, a name derived from Novalis's reference in his 1798 notebooks to a type of literary prophet, the ''magischer Idealist'' (''magical idealist'').<ref name="Warnes2006" /> In this worldview, philosophy and poetry are united.<ref name=Wood2007/> Magical idealism is Novalis's synthesis of the [[German idealism]] of Fichte and Schelling with the creative imagination.<ref name=Cahen-Maurel2019/> The goal of the creative imagination is to break down the barriers between language and world, as well as the subject and object.<ref name="Warnes2006" /> The ''magic'' is the enlivening of nature as it responds to our will.<ref name=Wood2007/>

Another element of Novalis's magical idealism is his concept of ''love''. In Novalis's view, love is a sense of relationship and sympathy between all beings in the world,<ref name=Cahen-Maurel2019/> which is considered both the basis of magic and its goal.<ref name=Wood2007/> From one perspective, Novalis's emphasis on the term ''magic'' represents a challenge to what he perceived as the [[disenchantment]] that came with modern rationalistic thinking.<ref name="Josephson-Storm2017" />{{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google books|id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ|page=88|plainurl=yes}} 88 }}}} In modern interpretation from the rationalistic perspective, however, Novalis's use of ''magic'' and ''love'' in his writing is a [[Performativity|performative act]] of his philosophical and literary goals. These words are meant to startle readers into attentiveness, making them aware of his use of the arts, particularly poetry with its metaphor and symbolism, to explore and unify various understandings of nature in his all-embracing investigations.<ref name= Kneller2010/>

Magical idealism also addresses the idea of health.<ref name=Cahen-Maurel2019/> Novalis derived his theory of health from the Scottish physician [[John Brown (physician, born 1735)|John Brown]]'s [[Brunonian system of medicine|system of medicine]], which sees illness as a mismatch between sensory stimulation and internal state.<ref name=Warnes2009 /> Novalis extends this idea by suggesting that illness arises from a disharmony between the self and the world of nature.<ref name=Cahen-Maurel2019/> This understanding of health is immanent: the "magic" is not otherworldly, it is based on the body and mind's relationship to the environment.<ref name=Neubauer1971/> According to Novalis, health is maintained when we use our bodies as means to sensitively perceive the world rather than to control the world: the ideal is where the individual and the world interplay harmoniously.<ref name=Beiser2003/> It has been argued that there is an anxiety in Novalis's sense of magical idealism that denies actual touch, which leads inevitably to death, and replaces it with an idea of "distant touch".<ref name="Krell1998" />

==Religious views==
[[File:Caspar David Friedrich - Der Mönch am Meer - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|left|[[Caspar David Friedrich]]'s ''Monk by the Sea'' (ca. 1808). Friedrich was also influenced by Novalis's and the [[Jena Romanticism|Jena Romantics]]' aesthetic theories.<ref name= Miller1974 />]]
Novalis's religious perspective remains a subject of debate. Novalis's early rearing in a Pietist household affected him through this life.<ref name=Just1805/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n32 25}} }} The impact of his religious background on his writings are particularly clear in his two major poetic works. ''Hymns to the Night'' contains many Christian symbols and themes.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.20 68–78}}}} And, Novalis's ''Spiritual Songs'', which were posthumously published in 1802 were incorporated into Lutheran hymnals; Novalis called the poems "Christian Songs", and they were intended to be published in the ''Athenaeum'' under the title ''Specimens From a New Devotional Hymn Book''.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plain link|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.21 78}} }}  One of his final works, which was posthumously named ''Die Christenheit oder Europa'' (''Christianity or Europe'') when it was first published in full in 1826, has generated a great deal of controversy regarding Novalis's religious views.<ref name=Kleingeld2008/> This essay, which Novalis himself had simply entitled ''Europa'', called for European unity in Novalis's time by poetically referencing a mythical Medieval golden age when Europe was unified under the Catholic Church.<ref name=Littlejohns2007/>

One view of Novalis's work is that it maintains a traditional Christian outlook. Novalis's brother Karl writes that during his final illness, Novalis would read the works of the theologians [[Nicolaus Zinzendorf]] and [[Johann Kaspar Lavater]], as well as the [[Bible]].<ref name=vonHardenberg1802 /> On the other hand, during the decades following Novalis's death, German intellectuals, such as the author [[Karl Hillebrand]] and the literary critic [[Hermann Theodor Hettner]] thought that Novalis was essentially a Catholic in his thinking.<ref name=Haussmann1912 /> In the twentieth century, this view of Novalis has sometimes led to negative assessments of his work. ''Hymns to the Night'' has been described as an attempt by Novalis to use religion to avoid the challenges of modernity,<ref name=Monroe1983 /> and ''Christianity or Europe'' has been described variously as desperate prayer, a reactionary manifesto or a theocratic dream.<ref name=Kleingeld2008/>

Another view of Novalis's work is that it reflects a Christian mysticism.<ref name= Hiebel1954/> After Novalis died, the Jena Romantics wrote of him as a seer who would bring forth a new gospel:<ref name=Haussmann1912 /> one who lived his life as one aiming toward the spiritual while looking at death as a means of overcoming human limitation<ref name=Wernaer1910/> in a revolutionary movement toward God.<ref name=Wessell1975/> In this more romantic view, Novalis was a visionary who saw contemporary Christianity as a stage to an even higher expression of religion<ref name=Willoughby1934/> where earthly love rises to a heavenly love<ref name= Toy1918 /> as death itself is defeated by that love.<ref name=Rehder1948 /> At the end of the nineteenth century, the playwright and poet [[Maurice Maeterlinck]] also described Novalis as a mystic. However, Maeterlinck acknowledged the impact of Novalis's intellectual interests on his religious views, describing Novalis as a "scientific mystic" and comparing him to the physicist and philosopher [[Blaise Pascal]].<ref name=Maeterlinck1912/>

More recently, Novalis's religious outlook has been analysed from the point of view of his philosophical and aesthetic commitments.<ref name= Beiser2002/> In this view, Novalis's religious thought was based on his attempts to reconcile Fichte's idealism, in which the sense of self arises in the distinction of subject and object, with [[Baruch Spinoza]]'s [[Philosophy of Baruch Spinoza|naturalistic philosophy]], in which all being is one substance. Novalis sought a single principle through which the division between ego and nature becomes mere appearance.<ref name= Beiser2002/> As Novalis's philosophical thinking on religion developed, it became influenced by the Platonism of Hemsterhuis, as well as the [[Neoplatonism]] of [[Plotinus]]. Accordingly, Novalis aimed to synthesize naturalism and theism into a "religion of the visible cosmos".<ref name=Crowe2008 /> Novalis believed that individuals could obtain mystic insight, but religion can remain rational: God could be a Neoplatonic object of intellectual intuition and rational perception, the [[Logos#Neoplatonism|logos]] that structures the universe.<ref name=Beiser2002/> In Novalis's view, this vision of the logos is not merely intellectual, but moral too, as Novalis states "god is virtue itself".<ref name=Nassar2013/>{{rp|{{plain link|{{Google Books|Iw9JAgAAQBAJ|page=78|plainurl=yes}} 78}}}} This vision includes Novalis's idea of love, in which self and nature united in a mutually supportive existence.<ref name="O'Meara2014"/> This understanding of Novalis's religious project is illustrated by a quote from one of his notes in his ''Fichte-Studien'' (''Fichte Studies''):  "Spinoza ascended as far as nature- Fichte to the 'I', or the person, I ascend to the thesis of God".<ref name=Crowe2008 />

According to this Neoplatonic reading of Novalis, his religious language can be understood using the "magic wand of analogy",<ref name=Dieckmann1955 /> a phrase Novalis used in ''Europe and Christianity'' to clarify how he meant to use history in that essay.<ref name= Novalis1799/> This use of analogy was partly inspired by Schiller, who argued that analogy allows facts to be connected into a harmonious whole,<ref name= Cahen-Maurel2019 /> and by his relationship with Friedrich Schlegel, who sought to explore the revelations of religion through the union of philosophy and poetry.<ref name= Weltman1936 /> The "magic wand of analogy" allowed Novalis to use metaphor, analogy and symbolism to bring together the arts, science, and philosophy in his search for truth.<ref name=Kneller2010/> This view of Novalis's writing suggests that his literary language must be read carefully. His metaphors and images- even in works like ''Hymns to the Night''- are not only mystical utterances,<ref name = Freeman2000 /> they also express philosophical arguments.<ref name= Gwee2011/> Read in this perspective, a work like Novalis's ''Christianity or Europe'' is not a call to return to a lost golden age. Rather, it is an argument in poetic language, phrased in the mode of a myth,<ref name=Littlejohns2007 /> for a [[Cosmopolitanism|cosmopolitan]] vision of a unity<ref name = Kleingeld2008/> that brings together past and future, ideal and real, to engage the listener in an unfinished historical process.<ref name=Smith2011/>

==Writings==
===Poetry===
[[File:Novalis.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Posthumous [[Romanticism|Romantic]] portrait of Novalis from 1845 by [[Friedrich Eduard Eichens]] (based on Franz Gareis's 1799 painting)]]
Novalis is best known as a German Romantic poet.<ref name = Wood2007 /> His two sets of poems, ''[[Hymns to the Night]]'' and ''Spiritual Songs'', are considered his major lyrical achievements.<ref name=Mason1961 /> ''Hymns to the Night'' were begun in 1797 after the death of Sophie von Kühn. About eight months after they were completed, a revised edition of the poems was published in the ''Athenaeum''. The ''Spiritual Songs'', which were written in 1799, were posthumously published in 1802. Novalis called the poems ''Christian Songs'', and they were intended to be entitled ''Specimens From a New Devotional Hymn Book''. After his death many of the poems were incorporated into Lutheran hymn-books.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.21 78–87}} }}  Novalis also wrote a number of other occasional poems, which can be found in his collected works.<ref name=Mason1961 /> Translations of poems into English include:
*''Hymns to the Night''
**{{cite book|chapter= Hymns to the Night|translator=W. Hastie|translator-link=William Hastie| title=Hymns and Thoughts on Religion by Novalis|publisher=T. & T. Clark|location=Edinburgh, Scotland|year=1888|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsthr00nova/page/n69}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter= Hymns to the Night|translator=Hope, M. J. |title=Novalis: His Life, Thoughts and Works|publisher=McClurg|location=Chicago|year=1891|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n246/}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter= Hymns to the Night|translator=MacDonald, George|translator-link=George MacDonald|title=Rampolli|year=2005|orig-year=1897|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8949/8949-h/8949-h.htm#link2H_4_0003|via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|title= Hymns to the Night|translator=Higgins, Dick|translator-link=Dick Higgins| publisher=McPherson & Company|location=Kingston, NY|year=1988}} This modern translation includes the German text (with variants) ''en face''.
*''Spiritual Songs''
**{{cite book|chapter= Spiritual Songs|translator=[[William Hastie|Hastie, W.]]|title=Hymns and Thoughts on Religion by Novalis|publisher=T. & T. Clark|location=Edinburg, Scotland|year=1888|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsthr00nova/page/30}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter= Spiritual Hymns|translator1=F. V. M. T|translator2=U. C. B.|translator-link2= Una Pope-Hennessy|title=The Disciples at Saïs and Other Fragments|publisher=Methuen|location=London|year=1903|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/disciplesatsais00nova/page/52 }} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter= Spiritual Songs|translator=MacDonald, George|translator-link=George MacDonald|title=Rampolli|publisher=T. & T. Clark|location=Chicago|year=2005|orig-year=1897|chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8949/8949-h/8949-h.htm#link2H_4_0003a|via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|title= Hymns to the Night/Spiritual Songs|translator=MacDonald, George|translator-link=George MacDonald|others= with foreword by [[Sergei O. Prokofieff|Prokofieff, Sergei O.]]|publisher=Temple Lodge Publishing|location=London|year=2001|isbn=9780904693416}}

===Unfinished novels===
Novalis wrote two unfinished novel fragments, ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' and ''Die Lehrlinge zu Sais'' (''The Novices at Sais''), both of which were published posthumously by Tieck and Schlegel in 1802. The novels both aim to describe a universal world harmony with the help of poetry. ''The Novices at Sais'' contains the fairy tale "Hyacinth and Rose Petal". ''[[Heinrich von Ofterdingen]]'' is the work in which Novalis introduced the image of the ''blue flower''. ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' was conceived as a response to Goethe's ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship]]'', a work that Novalis had read with enthusiasm but judged as being highly unpoetical.<ref name=Maeterlinck1912 /> He disliked Goethe making the economical victorious over the poetic in the narrative, so Novalis focused on making ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' triumphantly poetic.<ref name= Hahn2004 /> Both of Novalis's novels also reflect human experience through metaphors related to his studies in natural history from Freiburg.<ref name= Mahoney1992/> Translations of Novels into English include:
[[File:Novalis ms.jpg|thumb|Novalis's handwriting (excerpt from ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'')]]
*''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''
**{{cite book|title= Henry von Ofterdingen: A Romance|publisher=John Owens|location=Cambridge, England|year=1842|url=https://archive.org/details/henryofterdinge00schlgoog/page/n4/mode/2up}} {{free access}} (Translated by Frederick S. Stallknecht and Edward C. Sprague.) <ref name=Crocker1873/>
**{{cite book|chapter= Heinrich von Ofterdingen|translator=Hope, M. J. |title=Novalis: His Life, Thoughts and Works|publisher=McClurg|location=Chicago|year=1891|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n58}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|title=Henry von Ofterdingen|translator=Hilty, Palmer|location= Long Grove, IL|publisher=Waveland Press|year=1990|url={{Google books|id=Rto3zQEACAAJ|plainurl=yes}}}}
*''The Novices at Sais''
**{{cite book|chapter= The Disciples at Saïs|translator1=F. V. M. T|translator2=U. C. B.|translator-link2= Una Pope-Hennessy|title=The Disciples at Saïs and Other Fragments|publisher=Methuen|location=London|year=1903|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/disciplesatsais00nova/page/90/}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|title=The Novices of Sais|translator=Manheim, Ralph|translator-link=Ralph Manheim|location= Brooklyn, NY|publisher=[[Archipelago Books]]|year=2005}} This translation was originally published in 1949 and includes illustrations by [[Paul Klee]].

===Fragments===
Together with Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis developed the fragment as a literary artform in German. For Schlegel, the fragment served as a literary vehicle that mediated apparent oppositions. Its model was the fragment from classical sculpture, whose part evoked the whole, or whose finitude evoked infinite possibility, via the imagination.<ref name= Tanehisa2009 /> The use of the fragment allowed Novalis to easily express himself on any issue of intellectual life he wanted to address,<ref name=Stoljar1997 /> and it served as a means of expressing Schlegel's ideal of a universal "progressive universal poesy", that fused "poetry and prose into an art that expressed the totality of both art and nature".<ref name="Schlegel1798" /> This genre particularly suited Novalis as it allowed him to express himself in a way that kept both philosophy and poetry in a continuous relationship.<ref name="Kneller2010" /> His first major use of the fragment as a literary form, ''Pollen'', was published  in the ''Athenaeum'' in 1798.<ref name=Stoljar1997/> English translations include:
*''Pollen''
**{{cite wikisource|title=Writings of Novalis, Volume 2|wslink=Translation:Writings of Novalis|chapter=Pollen}} This and subsequent wikisource references are translations from {{cite book|last=Minor|first=Jakob|editor-link=Jakob Minor|title=''Novalis Schriften, Volume 2''|trans-title=Writings of Novalis, Volume 2|year=1907|publisher= Eugene Diederichs|location=Jena, Germany|url=https://archive.org/details/novalisschrifte00minogoog/page/n9|language=de|pages=110–139|ref=none}} This version of ''Pollen'' is the one published in the ''Athenaeum'' in 1798, which was edited by Schlegel.<ref name=Gelley1991a /> and includes four of Schlegel's fragments in fine print.
**{{cite journal|author=Gelley, Alexander|year= 1991|title= Miscellaneous Remarks (Original Version of Pollen)|journal=New Literary History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=383–406|doi= 10.2307/469045|jstor= 469045|ref=none}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}} This version is translated from Novalis's unpublished original manuscript.
**{{cite book|chapter=Pollen|translator=Stoljar, Margaret Mahoney|title=Novalis: Philosophical Writings|location=Albany, NY|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1997|url={{Google books|id=OQsMWQEMslQC|plainurl=yes|ref=none}}}} This version is also translated from Novalis's unpublished original manuscript.

===Political writings===
{{Conservatism in Germany|Intellectuals}}
During his lifetime, Novalis wrote two works on political themes, ''Faith and Love or the King and the Queen'' and his speech ''Europa'', which was posthumously named ''Christianity or Europe''. In addition to their political focus, both works share a common theme of poetically arguing for the importance of "faith and love" to achieve human and communal unification.<ref name=Kleingeld2008 /> Because these works poetically address political concerns, their meaning continues to be the subject of disagreement. Their interpretations have ranged from being seen as reactionary manifestos celebrating hierarchies to utopian dreams of human solidarity.<ref name=Rosellini2000 />

''Faith and Love or the King and the Queen'' was published in ''Yearbooks of the Prussian Monarchy'' in 1798 just after King [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Wilhelm Frederick III]] and his popular wife [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Louise]] ascended to the throne of Prussia.<ref name=Stoljar1997/> In this work, Novalis addresses the king and queen, emphasizing their importance as role models for creating an enduring state of interconnectedness both on the individual and collective level.<ref name=MataladeMazza2009 /> Though a substantial portion of the essay was published, Frederick Wilhelm III censored the publication of additional installments as he felt it held the monarchy to impossibly high standards. The work is also notable in that Novalis extensively used the literary fragment to make his points.<ref name=Kleingeld2008 />

''Europa'' was written and originally delivered to a private group of friends in 1799. It was intended for the ''Athenaeum''; after it was presented, Schlegel decided not to publish it. It was not published in full until 1826.<ref name=Kleingeld2008 /> It is a poetical, cultural-historical speech with a focus on a political utopia with regard to the Middle Ages. In this text Novalis tries to develop a new Europe which is based on a new poetical Christendom which shall lead to unity and freedom. He got the inspiration for this text from a book written by Schleiermacher, ''Über die Religion'' (''[[On Religion]]''). The work was a response to the French Revolution and its implications for the French enlightenment, which Novalis saw as catastrophic. It anticipated the growing German and Romantic critiques of the then-current enlightenment ideologies in the search for a new European spirituality and unity.<ref name= Hiebel1954/>{{rp|{{plainlink|https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel.22 87–98}} }} Below  are some available English translations, as well as two excerpts that illustrate how ''Europa'' has variously been interpreted.
* ''Faith and Love or the King and the Queen''
**{{cite wikisource|title=Writings of Novalis, Volume 2|wslink=Translation:Writings of Novalis|chapter=Faith and Love or the King and the Queen}} This version follows the published version in that it treats the first six fragments as part of a prelude, so it is numbered differently than later versions. Page links in wikisource document can be used to compare the English translation to German original.
**{{cite book|chapter=Faith and Love or the King and the Queen|translator=Stoljar, Margaret Mahoney|title=Novalis: Philosophical Writings|location=Albany, NY|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1997|url={{Google books|id=OQsMWQEMslQC|plainurl=yes}}}}
**{{cite book|chapter=Novalis, ''Faith and Love''|title=The Early Political Writings of the German Romantics|translator=Beiser, Frederick C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, England|year=1996|url={{Google books|id=dUr3gXNLuK0C|plainurl=yes}}}}
*''Europa'' (posthumously named ''Christianity or Europe'')
**{{cite web|title=Novalis, "Christendom or Europe" &#91;Die Christenheit oder Europa&#93; (1799)|website=German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)|url=http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/13_Class.Romanticism_Doc.3_English.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104185623/http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/13_Class.Romanticism_Doc.3_English.pdf|archive-date=4 November 2020|translator=Passage, Charles E.}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter= The Future of Christendom &#91;excerpt from ''Europa''&#93; |translator=[[William Hastie|Hastie, W.]]|title=Hymns and Thoughts on Religion by Novalis|publisher=T. & T. Clark|location=Edinburg, Scotland|year=1888|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hymnsthr00nova/page/132}} {{free access}}
**{{cite book|chapter=''Spiritual Advent'' &#91;excerpt from ''Europa''&#93;|translator=Seth, Catriona|editor1=Seth, Catriona|editor2=von Kulessa, Rotrand|title= The Idea of Europe: Enlightenment Perspectives|location=Cambridge, England: Open Book Press, 2017|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1sq5v84.50|jstor=j.ctt1sq5v84.50|ref=none}} {{open access}}

===Collected and miscellaneous works in English===
Additional works that have been translated into English are listed below. Most of the works reflect Novalis's more philosophical and scientific sides, most of which were not systematically collected, published, and translated until the 20th century. Their publication has called for a reassessment of Novalis and his role as a thinker as well as an artist.<ref name=Gelley1991a />
*Philosophical and political works
**{{cite web|translator=Güven, Fervit|title=Monologue|website=Earlham College|url=http://legacy.earlham.edu/~guvenfe/monolog.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129195845/http://legacy.earlham.edu/~guvenfe/monolog.html|archive-date=29 January 2020}} {{free access}} In ''Monologue'', Novalis discuss the limits and nature of language.<ref name=Schaber1974/>
**{{cite wikisource|title=Writings of Novalis, Volume 2|wslink=Translation:Writings of Novalis}} This translation of Jacob Minor's version of Novalis's collected works includes ''Pollen'', ''Faith and Love or the King and Queen'', and ''Monologue''. It also includes ''Klarisse'', Novalis's brief description Sophie von Kühn.
**{{cite book|editor=Bernstein, Jay|translator=Crick, Joyce P|title=Classic and Romantic German Aesthetics|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|url={{Google books|id=fq-izHLZwnYC|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}} This collection contains a selection of Novalis's fragments, as well as his work ''Dialogues''. This volume also has collections of fragments by Friedrich Schlegel and Hölderlin.
**{{cite book|translator=Stoljar, Margaret Mahoney|editor=Stoljar, Margaret Mahoney|title=Novalis: Philosophical Writings|location=Albany, NY|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=1997|url={{Google books|id=OQsMWQEMslQC|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}} This volume contains several of Novalis' works, including ''Pollen'' or ''Miscellaneous Observations'', one of the few complete works published in his lifetime (though it was altered for publication by Friedrich Schlegel); ''Logological Fragments I'' and ''II''; ''Monologue'', a long fragment on language; ''Faith and Love or The King and Queen'', a collection of political fragments also published during his lifetime;  ''On Goethe''; extracts from ''Das allgemeine Broullion'' or ''General Draft''; and his essay ''Christendom or Europe''.
**{{cite book|title=The Early Political Writings of the German Romantics|translator=Beiser, Frederick C.|editor=Beiser, Frederick C.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location= Cambridge, England|year=1996|url={{Google books|id=dUr3gXNLuK0C|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}} This volume includes ''Pollen'', ''Faith and Love or the King and Queen'', ''Political Aphorisms'', ''Christianity or Europe: A Fragment''. It also has works by Friedrich Schlegel and Schleiermacher.
*Notebooks
**{{cite book|translator=Kellner, Jane|editor=Kellner, Jane  |title=Fichte Studies|location=Cambridge, England|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|url={{Google books|id=fq-izHLZwnYC|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}}  This book is in the same series as the ''Classic and Romantic German Aesthetics.'' Contains Novalis's notes as he read and responded to Fichte's ''The Science of Knowledge''.
**{{cite book|translator=Wood, David W.|editor=Wood, David W.|title=Novalis: Notes for a Romantic Encyclopaedia (Das Allgemeine Brouillon)|location=Albany, NY|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2007|url={{Google books|lvhLwgMw7XAC|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}}([http://novalis.autorenverzeichnis.de/notes/0001-0010.html The first 50] of the 1151 entries are available online {{free access}}.) This is an English translation of Novalis's unfinished project for a "universal science". It contains his thoughts on philosophy, the arts, religion, literature and poetry, and his theory of "Magical Idealism". The Appendix contains substantial extracts from Novalis' ''Freiberg Natural Scientific Studies 1798/1799''.
*Journals
**{{cite book|translator=Donehower, Bruce.|editor=Donehower, Bruce. |title=The Birth of Novalis: Friedrich von Hardenberg's Journal of 1797, with Selected Letters and Documents|location=Albany, NY|publisher=State University of New York Press|year=2007|url={{Google books|UYpkY-G1f84C|plainurl=yes}}|ref=none}} This book includes Novalis's letters and journals around the time of Sophie's illness, as well as early biographies on Novalis.
[[File:Weißenfels, Klosterstraße 24-20151105-001.jpg|thumb|''Novalis Museum'' at [[Weissenfels]]]]

===Collected works (in German)===
Novalis's works were originally issued in two volumes by his friends Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. 1802; a third volume was added in 1846). Editions of Novalis's collected works have since been compiled by C. Meisner and [[Bruno Wille]] (1898), by [[Ernst Heilborn]] (3 vols., 1901), and by J. Minor (4 vols., 1907). ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' was published separately by J. Schmidt in 1876.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} The most current version of Novalis's collected works, a German-language, six-volume edition of Novalis works ''Historische-Kritische Ausgabe - Novalis Schriften'' (HKA), is edited by Richard Samuel, Hans-Joachim Mähl & Gerhard Schulz. It is published by [[Kohlhammer Verlag]], Stuttgart, 1960–2006.
*Novalis's Collected Works (Available online.)
** ''Novalis Schriften'' (''Novalis's Writings'') (edited by Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel; in German with [[Fraktur]] font), Berlin, Germany: G. Reimer, 1837 (fifth edition). This is the collection that originally established Novalis's reputation.
*** [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_2905AAAAMAAJ/page/n3 Volume I]
*** [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_1d45AAAAMAAJ/page/n1/mode/2up Volume II]
** ''Novalis Schriften'' (edited by [[Jakob Minor]]; in German with [[Fraktur]] font) Jena, Germany: Eugene Diederiche, 1907. This a more comprehensive and better organized collection than Tieck and Schlegel's.
***[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_tRdEAAAAIAAJ Volume I: Poetry]
***[https://archive.org/details/novalisschrifte00minogoog Volume II: Longer prose pieces, includes ''Europa'' and ''Faith and Love or the King and Queen'']
***[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Ok3iAAAAMAAJ Volume III: Various fragments]
***[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EE7iAAAAMAAJ/page/n5/mode/2up Volume IV: Includes the unfinished novels]

Novalis's ''Correspondence'' was edited by [[J. M. Raich]] in 1880. See [[R. Haym]] ''Die romantische Schule'' (Berlin, 1870); A. Schubart, ''Novalis' Leben, Dichten und Denken'' (1887); C. Busse, ''Novalis' Lyrik'' (1898); J. Bing, ''Friedrich von Hardenberg'' (Hamburg, 1899), E. Heilborn, ''Friedrich von Hardenberg'' (Berlin, 1901).{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}

==Influence==
The political philosopher [[Karl Marx]]'s metaphorical argument that religion was the [[opium of the people]] was prefigured by Novalis's statement in ''Pollen'' where he describes "[[Philistinism|philistines]]" with the following analogy, "Their so-called religion works just like an opiate: stimulating, sedating, stilling pain through innervation".<ref name="O'Brien1995" /> {{rp|{{plainlink|{{Google books|id=p-eh94Z7opAC|page=154|plainurl=yes}} 145}}}}

Hungarian philosopher [[György Lukács]] derived his concept of philosophy as [[transcendental homelessness]] from Novalis. In his 1914–15 essay ''Theory of the Novel'' quotes Novalis at the top of the essay, "Philosophy is really homesickness—the desire to be everywhere at home."<ref>{{Cite book|last=Novalis, 1772-1801.|title=Notes for a romantic encyclopaedia : Das Allgemeine Brouillon|date=2007|publisher=State University of New York Press|others=Wood, David W., 1968-|isbn=978-1-4294-7128-2|location=Albany|pages=155|oclc=137659435}}</ref> The essay unfolds closely related to this notion of Novalis—that modern philosophy "mourns the absence of a pre-subjective, pre-reflexive anchoring of reason"<ref>{{Citation|last=Gjesdal|first=Kristin|title=Georg Friedrich Philipp von Hardenberg [Novalis]|date=2014|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/entries/novalis/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2014|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2020-09-15}}</ref> and is searching to be grounded but cannot achieve this aim due to philosophy's modern discursive nature. Later, however, Lukács repudiated Romanticism, writing that Novalis's "cult of the immediate and the unconscious necessarily leads to a cult of night and death, of sickness and decay."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Fortschritt und Reaktion in der deutschen Literatur|last=Lukacs|first=György|publisher=Aufbau-Verlag|year=1947|publication-place=Berlin|chapter=Romanticism (Die Romantik als Wendung in der deutschen Literatur)|chapter-url=https://www.marxists.org/archive/lukacs/works/1945/romanticism.htm|translator-last=P.|translator-first=Anton}}</ref>

The musical composer [[Richard Wagner]]'s libretto for the opera ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]'' contains strong allusions to Novalis's symbolic language,<ref name=Scott1998/> especially the dichotomy between the Night and the Day that animates his ''Hymns to the Night.''<ref name=Hutcheon&Hutcheon1999 />

The literary critic [[Walter Pater]] includes Novalis's quote, ''"Philosophiren ist dephlegmatisiren, vivificiren"'' ("to philosophize is to throw off apathy, to become revived")<ref name="Laman2004" /> in his conclusion to ''Studies in the History of the Renaissance''.

The [[Western esotericism|esotericist]] and philosopher [[Rudolf Steiner]] spoke in various lectures (now published) about Novalis and his influence on [[anthroposophy]].<ref name="Steiner1908" />

The literary critic, philosopher and photographer's [[Franz Roh]] term ''magischer Realismus'' that he coined in his 1925 book ''Nach-Expressionismus, Magischer Realismus: Probleme der neuesten europäischen Malerei'' (''Post-expressionism, Magic Realism: Problems in Recent European Painting'') may have been inspired by Novalis's term ''magischer Realist''.<ref name="Warnes2009" />

[[André Breton]] and the [[Surrealists]] were greatly influenced by Novalis.<ref>Wallace Fowlie, "Surrealism in 1960: A Backward Glance", ''Poetry'', Vol. 95, No. 6 (Mar., 1960), p. 371.</ref> Breton cited Novalis extensively in his study of art history, ''L'Art Magique'', as well.

The 20th-century philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]] uses a Novalis fragment, "Philosophy is really homesickness, an urge to be at home everywhere" in the opening pages of ''The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics''.<ref name="Heidegger1929" />

The UK Charity "Novalis Trust" which provides care and education for individuals with additional needs.<ref>[https://novalis-trust.org.uk/ Achieving more together] Novalis-Trust.</ref>

The author [[Hermann Hesse]]'s writing was influenced by Novalis's poetry,<ref name=Mileck1983/> and  Hesse's last full-length novel ''Glasperlenspiel'' (''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'') contains a passage that appears to restate one of the fragments  in Novalis's ''Pollen''.<ref name=Ziolkowski1961/>

The artist and activist [[Joseph Beuys]]'s aphorism "Everyone is an artist" was inspired by Novalis,<ref name=Adamopoulos2015 /> who wrote "Every person should be an artist" in ''Faith and Love or the King and the Queen''.

The author [[Jorge Luis Borges]] refers often to Novalis in his work.<ref name=Warnes2006/>

The [[krautrock]] band [[Novalis (band)|Novalis]] took their name from Novalis and used his poems for lyrics on their albums.

Novalis records, which are produced by AVC Audio Visual Communications AG, Switzerland, was named in tribute to Novalis's writings.

The avant-garde filmmaker [[Stan Brakhage]] made the short film [https://www.criterion.com/films/23953-by-brakhage-an-anthology-volume-two ''First Hymn to the Night – Novalis''] in 1994. The film, which visually incorporates the text of Novalis's poem, was issued on Blu-ray and DVD in an anthology of Brakhage's films by [[The Criterion Collection|Criterion Collection]].

The artist and animator Chris Powell created the award-winning animated film [https://chrisvpowell.carbonmade.com/projects/6546251 ''Novalis'']. The title character is a robot named after Novalis.

Novalis has also influenced [[film theory]] by way of [[Jacques Rancière]], who employs various elements of German Idealism and Romanticism in his philosophical work on critical philosophy and the regimes of art.<ref>Kitchen, Will. (2023) ''Film, Negation and Freedom: Capitalism and Romantic Critique''. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic, pp. 47-76</ref>

The composer, guitarist, and electronic music artist [[Erik Wøllo]] titled one of his songs "Novalis".

[[Penelope Fitzgerald]] based her historical novel ''The Blue Flower'' on Novalis's love affair with Sophie and her influence on his art.

==References==
<references>
<ref name="Adamopoulos2015">{{cite web|last=Adamopoulos, Konstantin|date=2015|translator=Collins, Charlotte|title= Everyone is an Artist: The Participative Anthroposophy of the Artist Joseph Bueys|website=Fikrun Wa Fann: A Publication of the Goethe-Institut|url=http://www.goethe.de/ges/phi/prj/ffs/the/104/en15051259.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315162453/http://www.goethe.de/ges/phi/prj/ffs/the/104/en15051259.htm|archive-date= 15 March 2016}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Aldouri2019">{{Cite journal|last=Aldouri, Hamman|date=2019|title=Before Hegel: Schiller, Novalis and ''Aufhebung''|url=http://www.cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/752/1304|journal=Cosmos and History|volume=15|issue=1|pages=10–30}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Barroso2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Barroso, Maria Do Sameiro|date=2019|title=Insights on the History of Tuberculosis: Novalis and the Romantic Idealization|journal=Antropologia Portuguesa|volume=36|issue=36|pages=7–25|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: researchgate available; doi restricted-->|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337898914}}[[ResearchGate]]:&nbsp;[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337898914 337898914] {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Becker&Manstetten2004">{{Cite journal|last1=Becker, Christian|last2=Manstetten, Reiner|date=2004|title=Nature as a You: Novalis' Philosophical Thought and the Modern Ecological Crisis|journal=Environmental Values|volume=13|issue=1|pages=101–118|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->|jstor=30301971}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Beiser2002">{{Cite book|last=Beiser |first=Frederick C.|author-link=Frederick Beiser|date=2003|chapter=Novalis' Magic Idealism|title=German Idealism: The Struggle Against Subjectivism, 1781–1801|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=0674007697|location= Cambridge, MA |chapter-url={{Google Books|id=gKlL6pzQ14sC|page=417|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>

<ref name="Beiser2003">{{Cite book|last=Beiser |first=Frederick C.|author-link=Frederick Beiser|date=2003|title=The Romantic Imperative: The Concept of Early German Romanticism |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674011809|location= Cambridge, MA |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTzc-gasxpUC}}</ref>

<ref name = Cahen-Maurel2019>{{Cite journal|last=Cahen-Maurel, Laure|date=2019|title=Novalis's Magical Idealism: A Threefold Philosophy of the Imagination, Love and Medicine|journal=Symphilosophie: International Journal of Philosophical Romanticism |volume=1|pages=129–165|url=https://symphilosophie.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/7-symphilosophie-1-2019-cahen-maurel-17-dec-2019.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026035833/https://symphilosophie.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/7-symphilosophie-1-2019-cahen-maurel-17-dec-2019.pdf|archive-date=26 October 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Carlyle1829">{{cite book|author=Carlyle, Thomas|date=1852|orig-year=1829|author-link=Thomas Carlyle|editor= Emerson, Ralph Waldo|editor-link=Ralph Waldo Emerson|chapter= Novalis|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/criticalmiscella00incarl/page/n11/|title=Critical and Miscellaneous essays|publisher=Philadelphia, PA: A. Hart|pages=167–186}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name=Crocker1873>{{cite magazine|editor= Crocker, Samuel R.|title=Notes and Queries|journal=The Literary World, Vols 3-4|date=1873|page=137,154|url={{Google books|id=4bhNAQAAMAAJ|page= 154|plainurl=yes}}}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Crowe2008">{{Cite journal|last=Crowe, Benjamin D. |date=2008|title=On 'The Religion of the Visible Universe': Novalis and the Pantheism Controversy|journal=British Journal for the History of Philosophy|volume=16|issue=1|pages=125–146|doi=10.1080/09608780701789335|s2cid=170382946|url=https://www.benjamindcrowe.com/uploads/6/1/7/9/61796147/novalis_bjhp.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029221625/https://www.benjamindcrowe.com/uploads/6/1/7/9/61796147/novalis_bjhp.pdf|archive-date= 29 October 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Dieckmann1955">{{Cite journal|last=Dieckmann |first=Liselotte |author-link=Liselotte Dieckmann |date=1955|title=The Metaphor of Hieroglyphics in German Romanticism|journal=Compariative Literature|volume=7|issue=4|pages=306–312|doi=10.2307/1769042|jstor=1769042}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Donehower2007">{{cite book|editor-last=Donehower, Bruce|date=2007|orig-year=1802|author-last=Donehower, Bruce|chapter= Introduction|chapter-url={{Google books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=1|plainurl=yes}}|title=The Birth of Novalis: Friedrich von Hardenberg's Journal of 1797, with Selected Letters and Documents|publisher=Albany, NY: State University of New York Press|pages=1–34|isbn=9780791480687}}</ref>

<ref name="Erlin2014">{{cite book|last=Erlin, Matt|year=2014|chapter=Products of the Imagination: Mining, Luxury, and the Romantic Artist in Novalis’s Heinrich von Ofterdingen|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt5hh26b.11|title=Necessary Luxuries: Books, Literature, and the Culture of Consumption in Germany, 1770–1815|pages=175–202|publisher=Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press|jstor=10.7591/j.ctt5hh26b.11|isbn=9780801453045|jstor-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name= "Freeman2000">{{cite thesis|last= Freeman, Veronica|title= The Poetization of Mystical Constructs in the Work of Novalis|type=PhD|publisher=University of Florida|url=https://archive.org/details/poetizationofmys00free}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Gjesdal2020">{{Citation|last=Gjesdal, Kristin|author-link=Kristin Gjesdal|title=Georg Friedrich Philipp von Hardenberg [Novalis]|date=2020|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/novalis/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Fall 2020|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200906051258/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/novalis/|archive-date=6 September 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Gelley1991a">{{Cite journal|last=Gelley, Alexander|date=1991|title=Novalis, Miscellaneous Remarks: Introduction|journal=New Literary History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=377–381|doi=10.2307/469044|jstor=469044}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Gelley1991b">{{Cite journal|last=Gelley, Alexander|date=1991|title=Novalis, Miscellaneous Remarks [Original Version of Pollen]|journal=New Literary History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=383–406|doi=10.2307/469045|jstor=469045}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name=GHDI2003>{{Cite web|date=2003|title=Philipp Otto Runge, ''Small Morning'' (1808)|url=http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=2207&language=english|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201104220134/http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=2207&language=english|archive-date= 4 November 2020|website=German History in Documents and Images}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Gwee2011">{{Cite journal|last=Gwee, S. L. |author-link=Gwee Li Sui|date=2011|title=Night in Novalis, Schelling, and Hegel|journal=Studies in Romanticism |volume=50|issue=1|pages=105–124|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->|jstor=23056008}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Haase1979">{{Cite journal|last=Haase, Donald|date=1979|title=Romantic Facts and Critical Myths: Novalis' Early Reception in France|journal=The Comparist|volume=3|pages=23–31|jstor=44366652}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Hahn2004">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Hahn, Hans-Joachim|date=2004|title= Heinrich Von Ofterdingen 1802: Novel by Novalis|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760-1850|publisher=Oxfordshire, England: Taylor & Francis |pages= 485–486|url={{Google books|id=p8qFuJ7-eqkC|page=485|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="Harrold1930">{{Cite journal|last=Harrold, F. |date=1930|title=Carlyle and Novalis|journal=Studies in Philology|volume=27|issue=21|pages=47–63|jstor=4172052}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Haussmann1912">{{Cite journal|last=Haussmann, J. F. |date=1912|title=German Estimates of Novalis from 1800-1850|journal=Modern Philology|volume=9|issue=2|pages=399–415|doi=10.1086/386867|jstor=432442|s2cid=161077351}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Heidegger1929">{{Cite book|title=The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics: World, Finitude, Solitude|last=Heidegger|first=Martin|author-link=Martin Heidegger|date=2001|orig-year=1929|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253214294|edition= Reprint|location=Bloomington, IN|language=English|translator-last=McNeill|translator-first=William|translator-last2=Walker|translator-first2=Nicholas|page=5|url={{Google book|id=ZYU9tyb4K2wC|page=5|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="Hiebel1954">{{cite book|last=Hiebel |first=Frederick |year=1954 |author-link=Friedrich Hiebel |title=Novalis:German Poet—European Thinker—Christian Mystic |volume=10 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, NC |doi=10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel |jstor=10.5149/9781469657554_hiebel|isbn=9781469657554 }} {{open access}}</ref>

<ref name=Hutcheon&Hutcheon1999>{{Cite journal|last1=Hutcheon, Linda|last2=Hutcheon, Michael|date=1999|title=Death Drive: Eros and Thanatos in Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde"|journal=Cambridge Opera Journal|volume=11|issue=3|pages=267–293|doi=10.1017/S0954586700005073|jstor=823612|s2cid=194063366 }} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Johnson1998">{{Cite journal|last=Johnson, Laurie|date=1998|title="Wozu überhaupt ein Anfang?" Memory and History in "Heinrich von Ofterdingen"|journal=Colloquia Germanica|volume=31|issue=1|page=33|jstor=23981057}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Josephson-Storm2017">{{Cite book|last=Josephson-Storm, Jason A.|date=2017 |title=The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |url={{Google books|id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|isbn=978-0-226-40336-6}}</ref>

<ref name="Just1805">{{Cite book|last=Just, Cölestin August|translator-last=Hope, Margaret Jane|date=1891|orig-date=1805|chapter=Life of Novalis|title=Novalis: His Life, Thoughts, and Works|pages=23–50 |location=Chicago|publisher=A. C. McClurg |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/novalishislifet00hopegoog/page/n30/mode/2up}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Kermode2009">{{Cite book|last=Kermode, Frank|author-link=Frank Kermode|year=2009|orig-year=5 October 1995|title=Bury Place Papers:Essays from the London Review of Books|chapter=Dark Fates [Review of ''The Blue Flower'' by Penelope Fitzgerald]|url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v17/n19/frank-kermode/dark-fates|publisher=London: London Review of Books|isbn=9781873092040|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

<ref name="Kleingeld2008">{{Cite journal|last=Kleingeld, Paula|date=2008|title=Romantic Cosmopolitanism: Novalis's "Christianity or Europe"|journal=Journal of the History of Philosophy|volume=46|issue=2|pages=269–284 |doi=10.1353/hph.0.0005 |url=https://philarchive.org/archive/KLERCN|archive-url=<!--bot stopper-->https://web.archive.org/web/20201024024201/https://philarchive.org/archive/KLERCN|archive-date= 24 October 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Kneller2003">{{cite book|last=Novalis|contributor-last=Kneller, Jane|date=2003|contribution=Chronology|title=Fichte Studies|publisher=Cambridge: Cambridge University Press|contribution-url ={{Google books|id=aG44AB1yw4IC|pg=PR36|plainurl=yes}}|isbn = 9780521643924}}</ref>

<ref name="Kneller2008">{{Cite journal|last=Kneller, Jane|date=5 September 2008|title=Review of Novalis, David Wood (Ed., Tr.) ''Notes for a Romantic Encyclopaedia: Das Allgemeine Brouillon''|journal=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews|volume=9|url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/notes-for-a-romantic-encyclopaedia-das-allgemeine-brouillon/|issn=1538-1617}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Kneller2010">{{Cite book|last=Kneller, Jane|editor-last= Moyar, Dean|date=2010|chapter=Early German romanticism: The Challenge of Philosophizing|title=The Routledge Companion to Nineteenth Century Philosophy|pages=295–327|chapter-url={{Google books|id=sqKLAgAAQBAJ|page=311|plainurl=yes}}|publisher=London: Routledge|isbn=9781135151119}}</ref>

<ref name="Krell1998">{{cite book|last=Krell, David Farrell|author-link=David Farrell Krell|date=1998|title= Contagion: Sexuality, Disease and Death in German Idealism and Romanticism|pages=21–22|publisher= Indianapolis, IN: Indiana State University|url={{Google books|id=Oh5W40KlqqUC|page=21|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>

<ref name="Laman2004">{{Cite book|last=Laman, Barbara|date=2004|chapter=German Romantic Theory and Joyce's Early Works|chapter-url={{Google books|id=Fac5yn8HJGwC|page=37|plainurl=yes}}|title=James Joyce and German Theory: The Romantic School and All That|publisher=Madison,NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press|page=37|isbn=9781611472844}}</ref>

<ref name= Littlejohns2007 >{{cite book|author=Littlejohns, Richard|year=2007|chapter=Everlasting Peace and Medieval Europe: Romantic Myth-Making in Novalis's ''Europa''|title=Myths of Europe|publisher=Leiden, Netherlands: Brill|pages=176–182|chapter-url={{Google Books|42ACxuCP82oC|page=171|plainurl=yes}}}}</ref>

<ref name=Littlejohns2003>{{Cite journal|author=Littlejohns, Richard|date=2003|title=Philipp Otto Runge's "Tageszeiten" and Their Relationship to Romantic Nature Philosophy|journal=Studies in Romanticism|volume=42|issue=1|pages=55–74|doi=10.2307/25601603|jstor=25601603}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="MacDonald1897">{{Citation|last=Novalis|translator-last= MacDonald, George|translator-link=George MacDonald|date=1897|orig-year=1800|title=Novalis-Hymns to the Night: Translated by George MacDonald and found in Rampolli (1897)|website=The George MacDonald WWW Page: Home to the George MacDonald Society|url=http://www.george-macdonald.com/etexts/hymn_to_night.html|access-date=18 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410111534/http://www.george-macdonald.com/etexts/hymn_to_night.html|archive-date=10 April 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Maeterlinck1912">{{cite book|author=Maeterlinck, Maurice|author-link=Maurice Maeterlinck|date=1912|chapter=Novalis|title=On Emerson and Other Essays|translator=Moses, Montrose J.|translator-link=Montrose Jonas Moses|publisher=New York: Dodd, Mead and Company|pages=51–88|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/onemersonandoth01mosegoog/page/n55}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name=Mahoney1992>{{Cite journal|last=Mahoney, Dennis F. |date=1992|title=Human History as Natural History in "The Novices of Sais" and "Heinrich von Ofterdingen"|journal=Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques|volume=18|issue=3|pages=111–124|jstor=41292842}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Mahoney2004">{{cite book|last=Mahoney, Dennis F.|date= 7 September 2004|editor=Knapp, Gerhard P.|chapter=Novalis|title=The Literary Encyclopedia|publisher=United Kingdom: The Literary Dictionary Company|chapter-url=http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=1975}}</ref>

<ref name=Mason1961>{{Cite journal|last=Mason, Eudo C.|author-link=Eudo Mason|date=1961|title=Novalis Re-Edited and Reassessed|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=56|issue=4|pages=538–552|doi=10.2307/3721616|jstor=3721616}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name=Mason1967>{{Cite journal|last=Mason, Eudo C.|author-link=Eudo Mason|date=1967|title=New Light on the Thought of Novalis: Volume 2 of the Stuttgart Edition|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=62|issue=1|pages=86–91|doi=10.2307/3724113|jstor=3724113}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name= MataladeMazza2009>{{Cite book|last=Matala de Mazza, Ethel|date=2009|chapter=Romantic Politics and Society|title=The Cambridge Companion to German Romanticism|editor=Saul, Nicholas|pages=191–207|url=http://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/3616/EthelMazzaromantic.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814223348/http://kops.uni-konstanz.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/3616/EthelMazzaromantic.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=14 August 2017}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Mayer1993">{{Cite book|last=Mayer, Paola|date=1999|chapter=An Interrupted Reception: Novalis|title=Jena Romanticism and Its Appropriation of Jakob Böhme: Theosophy, Hagiography, Literature|chapter-url={{Google books|id=ACdlw1O-tpIC|page=82|plainurl=yes}}|page=82|publisher=Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press|isbn=9780773518520}}</ref>

<ref name=Mileck1983>{{Cite journal|last=Mileck, Joseph|date=1983|title=Hermann Hesse and German Romanticism: An Evolving Relationship|journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology|volume=82|issue=2|pages=168–185|jstor=27709146}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name=Miller1974>{{Cite journal|last=Miller, Phillip B.|date=1974|title=Anxiety and Abstraction: Kleist and Brentano on Caspar David Friedrich|journal=Art Journal|volume=33|issue=3|pages=205–210|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->|jstor=775783}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name=Monroe1983>{{Cite journal|last=Monroe, Jonathan|date=1983|title=Novalis' "Hymnen an die Nacht" and the Prose Poem "avant la lettre"|journal=Studies in Romanticism|volume=22|issue=1|pages=93–110|doi=10.2307/25600414|jstor=25600414}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Nassar2013">{{Cite book|last=Nassar, Dalia|date=2013|chapter=Romanticizing Nature and Self|title=The Romantic Absolute: Being and Knowing in Early German Romantic Philosophy, 1795-1804|url={{Google Books|id=Iw9JAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|page=55|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226084237}}</ref>

<ref name="Neubauer1971">{{Cite book|last=Neubauer, John|date=1971|chapter=The Anthropology and Physiology of Magic|title=Bifocal Vision: Novalis' Philosophy of Nature and Disease|volume=68|pages=57–75|chapter-url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9781469658070_neubauer.7|publisher=Durham, NC: University of Carolina Press|doi=10.5149/9781469658070_neubauer|jstor=10.5149/9781469658070_neubauer.7|isbn=9781469658063}} {{open access}}</ref>

<ref name=Newman1989>{{Cite journal|last=Newman, Gail|date=1989|title=The Status of the Subject in Novalis's ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen'' and ''Kleist's Die Marquise von O...''|journal=The German Quarterly|volume=62|issue=1|pages=59–71|doi=10.2307/407036|jstor=407036}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Novalis1799">{{Cite web|last=Novalis|date=1799|title="Christendom or Europe"[''Die Christenheit oder Europa'']|url=http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/13_Class.Romanticism_Doc.3_English.pdf|website=German History in Documents and Images}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="O'Brien1995">{{Cite book|last=O'Brien, William Arctander|date=1995|chapter=After Sophie: Julie von Charpentier|title=Novalis, Signs of Revolution, Literature|chapter-url={{Google books|id=p-eh94Z7opAC|page=66|plainurl=yes}}|pages=66–70|publisher=Durham, NC: Duke University Press|isbn=9780822315193}}</ref>

<ref name="O'Meara2014">{{cite book|author= O'Meara, John|date=2014|title=The Way of Novalis: An Exposition on the Process of His Achievement|publisher=Ottawa, Canada: HcP|page=94|url={{Google Books|ARMDAwAAQBAJ|page=94|plainurl=yes}}}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Partridge2014">{{Cite web|last=Partridge, Michael|date=2014|title=George MacDonald & Novalis|website=The George MacDonald WWW Page: Home to the George MacDonald Society|url=http://www.george-macdonald.com/resources1/novalis.html|access-date=23 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410111851/http://www.george-macdonald.com/resources1/novalis.html|archive-date= 10 April 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Pick1910">{{cite book|last=Novalis|contributor-last=Pick, Bernhard|author-link=Bernhard Pick| date=1910|contribution=Introduction|title=Devotional Songs of Novalis|editor-last= Pick, Bernard|publisher=Chicago: Open Court|pages=3–18|contribution-url=https://archive.org/details/devotionalsongso01nova/page/3/mode/2up1}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Redding2009">{{cite book|last=Redding, Paul|author-link=Paul Redding|year=2009|title=Continental Idealism: Leibniz to Nietzsche|chapter=The Jena Romanticism of Friedrich Schlegel and Friedrich Schelling|publisher=New York: Routledge|pages=116–134|doi=10.4324/9780203876954|isbn=9781134068432|chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/mono/10.4324/9780203876954-13/jena-romanticism-friedrich-schlegel-friedrich-schelling-schelling|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023233218if_/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9780203876954/chapters/10.4324/9780203876954-13|archive-date=23 October 2020}} {{closed access}}</ref>

<ref name="Redfield2012">{{cite book|author=Redfield, Marc|editor1-last=Faflak, Joel|editor2-last=Wright, Julia M.|date=2012|chapter=Philosophy- Early German Romanticism: Schlegel, Novalis, Hölderlin|chapter-url={{Google book|id=vTzad2nPZtwC|page=334|plainurl=yes}}|title=A Handbook of Romanticism Studies|publisher=New York: John Wiley & Sons|page=334}}</ref>

<ref name="Rehder1948">{{Cite journal|last=Rehder|first=Helmut|date=1948|title=Novalis and Shakespeare|journal=PMLA|volume=63|issue=2|pages=604–624|doi=10.2307/459430|jstor=459430|s2cid=163195393 }} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Robles2020">{{Cite journal|last=Robles|first=Nicolas Roberto|date=2020|title=Novalis: The White Plague and the Blue Flower|journal=Hektoen International|volume=12|issue=3|issn=2155-3017|url=https://hekint.org/2020/09/29/novalis-the-white-plague-and-the-blue-flower/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107175231/https://hekint.org/2020/09/29/novalis-the-white-plague-and-the-blue-flower/|archive-date=7 November 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Rosellini2000">{{Cite book | last = Rosellini, Jay Julian|date=2000 |chapter=Predecessors and Predilections: A Problematic Legacy|title =Literary Skinheads? Writing from the Right in a Reunified Germany| location = West Lafayette, IN | publisher = Purdue University Press |chapter-url =http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=0&article=1021&context=purduepress_ebooks&type=additional|pages=3–26|isbn = 9781557532060}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Rush2005">{{Cite journal|last=Rush|first=Fred|date=2005|title=Review of The Romantic Imperative: The Concept of Early German Romanticism|journal=Mind|volume=114|issue=455|pages=709–713|jstor=3489014|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Saul1982">{{Cite journal|last=Saul|first=Nicholas|date=1982|title=Novalis's "Geistige Gegenwart" and His Essay "Die Christenheit Oder Europa"
|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=77|issue=2|pages=361–377|doi=10.2307/3726818|jstor=3726818}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Schlegel1798">{{Cite web|last=Schlegel, Friedrich| author-link=Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|year=1798|title=Athenaeum Fragments|url=http://ghdi.ghi-dc.org/sub_document.cfm?document_id=368|website=German History in Documents and Images|access-date=30 October 2018}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Scott1998">{{Cite journal|last=Scott, Jill|date=1998|title=Night and Light in Wagner's Tristan und Isolde and Novalis's Hymnen an die Nacht: Inversion and Transfiguration
|journal=University of Toronto Quarterly|volume=67|issue=4|pages=774–780|doi=10.3138/utq.67.4.774|s2cid=170123721}} {{closed access}}</ref>

<ref name="Seyhan1992">{{cite book|last=Seyhan, Azade|date=2012|title=Representation and Its Discontents: The Critical Legacy of German Romanticism|chapter=Representation and Criticism|publisher=Berkeley, CA: University of California Press|pages=90–92|chapter-url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft4199n921&chunk.id=d0e1931&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e1931&brand=ucpress}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Smith2011">{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=John H.|date=2011|title=Living Religion as Vanishing Mediator: Schleiermacher, Early Romanticism, and Idealism|journal=The German Quarterly|volume=84|issue=2|pages=143|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->|jstor=41237070}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Snell2012">{{cite book|last=Snell, Robert|title=Uncertainties, Mysteries, Doubts: Romanticism and the Analytic Attitude|chapter=Psychoanalysis and Mysticism|publisher=New York: Routledge|date=2012|page=31|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=jPy-2-NNDe0C|page=PA31|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="Steiner1908">{{Citation|last=Steiner, Rudolf|author-link=Rudolf Steiner|date=2015|orig-year=1908-1909|translator-last= von Maltitz, Hannah|title=Novalis: On his Hymns to the Night|url=http://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/NV1851_index.html|access-date=29 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190718023539/https://wn.rsarchive.org/Lectures/NV1851_index.html|archive-date=18 July 2019}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Stoljar1997">{{cite book|author=Novalis|contributor=Stoljar, Margaret Mahoney |year=1997|title=Novalis: Philosophical Writings|contribution=Introduction|publisher=New York: Routledge|pages=1–22|chapter-url={{Google Books|id=Lg2ulMgA7JMC|page=PA4|plainurl=yes}} }}</ref>

<ref name="Schaber1974">{{Cite journal|last=Schaber, Steven C. |date=1974|title=Novalis' "Monolog" and Hofmannsthal's "Ein Brief": Two Poets in Search of a Language|journal=The German Quarterly|volume=47|issue=2|pages=204–214|doi=10.2307/403360|jstor=403360}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Tanehisa2009">{{Cite journal|last=Tanehisa|first=Otabe|date=1918|title=Friedrich Schlegel and the Idea of the Fragment: A Contribution to Romantic Aesthetics|journal=Aesthetics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=59–68|url=http://www.bigakukai.jp/aesthetics_online/aesthetics_13/text/text13_otabe.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222135351/http://www.bigakukai.jp/aesthetics_online/aesthetics_13/text/text13_otabe.pdf|archive-date=22 December 2018}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Tieck1815">{{cite book|editor-last=Donehower, Bruce|date=2007|orig-year=1815|author-last=Tieck, Ludwig|author-link=Ludwig Tieck|chapter=Ludwig Tieck "Biography of Novalis, 1815|chapter-url={{Google books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=126|plainurl=yes}}|title=The Birth of Novalis: Friedrich von Hardenberg's Journal of 1797, with Selected Letters and Documents|publisher=Albany, NY: State University of New York Press|pages=126–136|isbn=9780791480687}}</ref>

<ref name="Toy1918">{{Cite journal|last=Toy|first=Walter D.|date=1918|title=The Mysticism of Novalis|journal=Studies in Philology|volume=15|issue=1|pages=14–22|jstor=4171721}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="vonHardenberg1802">{{cite book|editor-last=Donehower, Bruce|date=2007|orig-year=1802|author-last=von Hardenberg, Karl|chapter=Karl von Hardenberg: Biography of His Brother Novalis|chapter-url={{Google books|id=UYpkY-G1f84C|page=106|plainurl=yes}}|title=The Birth of Novalis: Friedrich Von Hardenberg's Journal of 1797, with Selected Letters and Documents|publisher=Albany, NY: State University of New York Press|page=106|isbn=9780791480687}}</ref>

<ref name="Waibel2004">{{Cite journal|last=Waibel, Violetta L.|date=2004|title=Review of Jane Kneller (Ed.) ''Novalis Studies'' |url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/novalis-fichte-studies/|website=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews: An Electronic Journal|access-date=22 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823064636/https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/novalis-fichte-studies/|archive-date= 23 August 2020}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Warnes2006">{{Cite journal|last=Warnes, Christopher|author-link=Christopher Warnes|date=2006|title=Magical Realism and the Legacy of German Idealism|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=101|issue=2|pages=488–498|doi=10.2307/20466796|jstor=20466796|s2cid=170406207 }} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Warnes2009">{{Cite book|last=Warnes, Christopher|author-link=Christopher Warnes |date=2009|url=https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9780230545281|title=Magical Realism and the Postcolonial Novel: Between Faith and Irreverence| publisher=London: Palgrave Macmillan UK|page=19|isbn=978-0-230-23443-7}}</ref>

<ref name="Weltman1936">{{Cite journal|last=Weltman, J. |date=1975|title=The Religion of Friedrich Schlegel|journal=Modern Language Review|volume=31|issue=4|pages=539–544|doi=10.2307/3716141|jstor=3716141}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name=Wernaer1910>{{cite book|author=Wernaer, Robert M.|year=1910|chapter=Novalis and His Hymns to the Night|title=Romanticism and the Romantic School in Germany|publisher=New York: D. Appleton|page=212|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/romanticismandr00werngoog/page/n240}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name="Wessell1975">{{Cite journal|last=Wessell, Leonard P. Jr.|date=1975|title=Novalis' Revolutionary Religion of Death|journal=Studies in Romanticism|volume=14|issue=4|pages=425–452|doi=10.2307/25599987|jstor=25599987}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Willoughby1934">{{Cite journal|last=Willoughby, L. A. |date=1938|title=German Affinities with the Oxford Movement|journal=The Modern Language Review|volume=29|issue=1|pages=52–56|doi=10.2307/3716061|jstor=3716061}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood2002">{{Cite journal|last=Wood, David D.|date=2002|title=Novalis: Kant Studies (1797)|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/0031-806X.00072|journal=The Philosophical Forum|volume=32|issue=4|doi=10.1111/0031-806X.00072|pages=328–338|url-access=subscription}} {{closed access}}</ref>

<ref name="Wood2007">{{cite book|last=Novalis|date=2007|contributor-last=Wood, David D.|contribution=Introduction: The Unknown Novalis|contribution-url=https://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/61378.pdf|title=Notes for a Romantic Encyclopaedia: Die Allgemeine Brouillon|publisher=Albany, NY: State University of New York Press|pages=ix-xxx|isbn=9780791469736}} {{free access}}</ref>

<ref name=Ziolkowski1961>{{Cite journal|last=Ziolkowski, Theodore|author-link=Theodore Ziolkowski|date=1996|title=Hermann Hesse's Chiliastic Vision|journal=Monateshefte|volume=53|issue=4|pages=199–210|jstor=30161816}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>

<ref name="Ziolkowski1992">{{cite book|last=Ziolkowski, Theodore|author-link=Theodore Ziolkowski|year=1992|chapter=The Mind: Image of the Soul|chapter-url={{Google books|id=uxzGab52gZ4C|page=18|plainurl=yes}}|title=German Romanticism And Its Institutions|pages=18–26|publisher=Princeton,NJ: Princeton University Press}}</ref>

<ref name=Ziolkowski1996>{{Cite journal|last=Ziolkowski, Theodore|author-link=Theodore Ziolkowski|date=1996|title=Novalis: Signs of Revolution by Wm. Arctander O'Brien [Book Review]|journal=Modern Philology|volume=94|issue=2|pages=240–246|doi=<!-- Citation bot bypass: JSTOR available; doi restricted-->|jstor=437966}} {{limited access}} {{registration required}}</ref>
</references>

==Sources==
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Novalis|volume=19|page=829}}

==Further reading==
*Ameriks, Karl (ed.). ''The Cambridge Companion to German Idealism''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000
*Arena, Leonardo Vittorio, ''La filosofia di Novalis'', Milano: Franco Angeli, 1987 (in [[Italian language|Italian]])
*Behler, Ernst. ''German Romantic Literary Theory''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993
*Beiser, Frederick. ''German Idealism''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002. Argues that the early romantics should be understood as serious philosophical thinkers.  Novalis's philosophical commitments are discussed in detail.
*[[Antoine Berman|Berman, Antoine]]. ''[[L'épreuve de l'étranger. Culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin]].'', Paris, Gallimard, Essais, 1984. {{ISBN|978-2-07-070076-9}} (in [[French language|French]])
*{{Cite book |last=Carlyle |first=Thomas |url= |title=[[Critical and Miscellaneous Essays]]: Volume II |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |year=1829 |series=The Works of Thomas Carlyle in Thirty Volumes |volume=XXVII |location=New York |publication-date=1904 |pages=1–55 |chapter=Novalis |author-link=Thomas Carlyle |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/worksofthomascar27carliala/page/vi/mode/2up}}
*[[Penelope Fitzgerald|Fitzgerald, Penelope]]. ''[[The Blue Flower]]''. Boston, MA: Mariner Books, 1995. A novelization of Novalis' early life, development and relationship with Sophie von Kühn.
*[[Bruce Haywood|Haywood, Bruce]]. ''Novalis, the veil of imagery; a study of the poetic works of [[Friedrich von Hardenberg]], 1772–1801'', 's-Gravenhage, Mouton, 1959; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959.
*Krell, David Farrell. ''Contagion: Sexuality, Disease, and Death in German Idealism and Romanticism''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998. First part addresses what Krell calls Novalis's "Thaumaturgic Idealism".
*Kuzniar, Alice. ''Delayed Endings''. Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1987. Explores Novalis's and Hölderlin's use of nonclosure to create a new Romantic sense of narrative time.
*Lacoue-Labarthe, Phillipe and Jean-Luc Nancy. ''The Literary Absolute: The Theory of Literature in German Romanticism.''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1988.
*Molnár, Geza von. ''Novalis' "Fichte Studies"''.
*O’Brien, William Arctander. ''Novalis: Signs of Revolution''. Durham: Duke University Press, 1995.  {{ISBN|0-8223-1519-X}}
*Pfefferkorn, Kristin. ''Novalis: A Romantic's Theory of Language and Poetry''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
*[[Sergei O. Prokofieff|Prokofieff, Sergei O.]] ''Eternal Individuality. Towards a Karmic Biography of Novalis''. Temple Lodge Publishing, London 1992.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Wikisource author-inline}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=35529}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Librivox author |id=309}}
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/novalis/ Novalis] by Anna Ezekiel, ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/novalis/ Novalis] by Kristin Gjesdal, ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''
*[http://logopoeia.com/novalis/index.html Novalis: Hymns to The Night] – a translation of the work by George MacDonald
*[http://www.schloss-oberwiederstedt.de Oberwiederstedt Manor], birthplace of Novalis and home to the International Novalis Society and the Novalis Foundation (in [[German language|German]])
*[http://novalis.autorenverzeichnis.de/english/index.html Aquarium: Friedrich von Hardenberg im Internet] – a multi-lingual website for information on Novalis, including translations, reviews, general discussions, odd trivia and scholarly articles. (Last updated in 2007.)
*{{Cite NIE|wstitle=Novalis|year=1905 |short=x}}
*{{Cite Americana|wstitle=Novalis|year=1920|short=x}}
*[https://novalis70.webnode.hu/english-version Excerpts from Henry of Ofterdingen with illustrations (mostly paintings by Caspar David Friedrich)]

{{Romanticism|state=collapsed}}
{{Idealism}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Novalis}}
[[Category:1772 births]]
[[Category:1801 deaths]]
[[Category:Novalis| ]]
[[Category:People from Mansfeld-Südharz]]

[[Category:German Lutherans]]

[[Category:German monarchists]]
[[Category:Romantic philosophers]]
[[Category:Romantic poets]]
[[Category:Natural philosophers]]
[[Category:Leipzig University alumni]]
[[Category:Hardenberg family]]
[[Category:18th-century German poets]]
[[Category:19th-century German poets]]
[[Category:19th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis]]
[[Category:German male poets]]
[[Category:Scholars from the Electorate of Saxony]]
[[Category:Poets from the Electorate of Saxony]]
[[Category:Deaths from tuberculosis]]
[[Category:18th-century pseudonymous writers]]
[[Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers]]
[[Category:Protestant mystics]]
[[Category:German Christian mystics]]
[[Category:German idealists]]