View source for Nuristani languages

{{Short description|Language group of the Indo-Iranian language family}}
{{Infobox language family
|name        = Nuristani
|region      = [[Nuristan]], [[Kunar Province|Kunar]], [[Afghanistan]]<br>[[Chitral District|Chitral]], [[Pakistan]]
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam2        = [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|protoname   = [[Proto-Nuristani language|Proto-Nuristani]]
|child1      = ''[[Katë language|Katë]]''
|child2      = ''[[Prasun language|Prasun]]''
|child3      = ''[[Ashkun language|Ashkun]]''
|child4      = ''[[Nuristani Kalasha language|Nuristani Kalasha]]''
|child5      = ''[[Tregami]]''
|child6      = ''[[Zemiaki]]''
|map         = File:MAPNuristani.png
|mapcaption  = [[Kafiristan|Nuristan region]], located on southern range of [[Hindu Kush]] 
|map2        = Nuristan in Afghanistan.svg
|mapcaption2 = [[Nuristan Province]] in modern-day Afghanistan, where most speakers live
| speakers   = {{c.|214,000}}
| ethnicity = [[Nuristanis]]
|glotto      = nuri1243
|glottorefname = Nuristani
}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
The '''Nuristani languages''', known earlier as '''Kafiri languages''', are one of the three groups within the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian language family]], alongside the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] and [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] languages.<ref>[[SIL International|SIL]] [[Ethnologue]] [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90795]</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Morgenstierne |first=G. |orig-date=1973 |editor-last=Morgenstierne |editor-first=G. |chapter=Die Stellung der Kafirsprachen |language=de |trans-chapter=The position of the Kafir languages |title=Irano-Dardica |pages=327–343 |location=Wiesbaden |publisher=Reichert |date=1975}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Strand |first=Richard F. |date=1973 |title=Notes on the Nûristânî and Dardic Languages |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=93 |number=3 |pages=297–305|doi=10.2307/599462 |jstor=599462 }}</ref> They have approximately 214,000 speakers primarily in [[Nuristan]] and [[Kunar Province|Kunar]] provinces in northeastern [[Afghanistan]] and a few adjacent valleys in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]'s [[Chitral District]], [[Pakistan]]. The region inhabited by the [[Nuristanis]] is located in the southern [[Hindu Kush]] mountains, and is drained by the [[Alingar River]] in the west, the [[Pech River]] in the center, and the [[Landai Sin River|Landai Sin]] and [[Kunar River|Kunar]] rivers in the east. More broadly, the [[Nuristan]] region is located at the northern intersection of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the [[Iranian plateau]].

The Nuristani languages were not described in literature until the 19th century. The older name for the region was [[Kafiristan]] due to the pre-Islamic religious practices of its residents, but this term has been abandoned in favor of [[Nuristan]] ("land of light") after the region's people were converted to Islam.

== Languages ==
[[File:Nuristan Map (Nuristan Kart).gif|thumb|A map of Nuristani Languages by [[Georg Morgenstierne]]]]

Nuristani languages can be classified into:

* [[Katë language|'''Katë''']], also called ''Kati'', ''Kamviri'' or ''Kamkata-vari'', is the most-spoken Nuristani language at 150,000 speakers. It includes the [[Western Katë dialect|Western]], [[Northeastern Katë dialect|Northeastern]], and [[Southeastern Katë dialect|Southeastern]] dialects. 
* [[Prasun language|'''Prasun''']], also called ''Vasi-vari'', is spoken by 8,000 speakers. Prasun is considered as the most divergent member of the group, featuring a distinct grammar and phonology.
* [[Ashkun language|'''Ashkun''']], also called ''Ashkunu'' or ''Sanu-viri'', is spoken by 40,000 speakers. Although Ashkun shares commonalities with other Nuristani languages, there are some sound changes in Ashkun that are not shared by any other member.
* [[Nuristani Kalasha language|'''Nuristani Kalasha''']], formerly known as '''Waigali''', is spoken by 12,000 speakers. It is rather closely related with [[Tregami language|Tregami]] and [[Zemiaki language|Zemiaki]]. Nuristani Kalasha is distinct from [[Kalasha language|Kalasha-mun]], which is an Indo-Aryan language.
* [[Tregami language|'''Tregami''']] ({{Literally|of three villages}}) is spoken by 3,500 speakers in the three villages of Gambir, Kaṭâr, and Devoz in the [[Watapur District]] of Kunar Province, Afghanistan.
* [[Zemiaki language|'''Zemiaki''']] is spoken by 500 speakers. It is so far the smallest Nuristani language known to exist. Local traditions confirm a historical link with [[Nuristani Kalasha language|Nuristani Kalasha]].

== History ==
{{See also|Proto-Nuristani language}}

[[File:Map of Attested and Hypothetical Old Indo-Iranian Dialects.png|thumb|Map of attested and hypothetical ancient Indo-Iranian dialects. '''Nuristani languages''' are displayed in yellow, situated between the Iranian (in green) and Indo-Aryan languages (in orange).]]

Nuristani languages are [[Indo-European languages]], ultimately descending from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]. The prehistory of Nuristani is unclear, except that it apparently split off from the rest of the Indo-European languages as part of the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch.

The [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]] of late 3rd millennium BCE represents the reconstructed ancestral language which the Nuristani languages share with [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan language|Avestan]] as their common origin. This makes Nuristani languages closely related to Indo-Iranian languages like [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], and more distantly related to other Indo-European languages like [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. However, its classification within the Indo-Iranian branch was debated until recent scholarship settled its position as a third branch distinct from [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] or [[Iranian languages|Iranian]], though extensive Indo-Aryan influence can be detected.

[[Proto-Nuristani language|Proto-Nuristani]] is the reconstructed ancestral language of all the modern-day Nuristani languages, representing the latest point at which the languages were still unified as a single language. Proto-Nuristani began breaking off into distinct languages from around the 8th century BCE. The influences from surrounding [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] and [[Iranian languages]] onto early Nuristani languages have been highly complex, due to different patterns of migration and settlement by various Nuristani-speaking tribes through their history.<ref>Strand, Richard F. (2023). "Kâmboǰâs and Sakas in the Holly-Oak Mountains: On the Origins of the Nûristânîs." In Cacopardo, Alberto M., and Augusto S. Cacopardo, eds., Roots of Peristan: The Pre-Islamic Cultures of the Hindukush/Karakorum. Serie Orientale Roma, n.s. 37, Part II: 781-808. Roma.</ref>

The Nuristani languages continued their development as the primary languages of the Nuristani peoples, who maintained a history of interaction with surrounding [[Indo-Aryan people|Indo-Aryan]] peoples and later the [[Afghans|Afghan]] people, who became dominant in the region. In the [[1890s]], the region of [[Kafiristan|Nuristan]] was finally incorporated into [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] due to geopolitical pressure.<ref>Strand, R. (2010). ''Nurestâni Languages''. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition</ref> Today, ethnic [[Nuristanis]] make up over 99% of the population of [[Nuristan]].<ref name="mrrd">{{Cite web |title=Nurstan Provincial Profile |url=http://www.mrrd.gov.af/nabdp/Provincial%20Profiles/Nuristan%20PDP%20Provincial%20profile.pdf |access-date=14 September 2017 |archive-date=7 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101007182106/http://www.mrrd.gov.af/nabdp/Provincial%20Profiles/Nuristan%20PDP%20Provincial%20profile.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> The Nuristani languages are spoken by about 78% of the total Nuristani population, and by 84% in villages.<ref name="mrrd"/>

Today, Indo-Aryan [[Dardic languages]] like [[Khowar language|Khowar]], [[Pashai language|Pashai]], and [[Kalasha-mun]], and [[Eastern Iranian languages]] like [[Munji language|Munji]], [[Sanglechi language|Sanglechi]], and [[Yidgha language|Yidgha]] are natively spoken in the neighboring regions of [[Nuristan]], leading to language contact. [[Dameli language|Dameli]], a neighboring Indo-Aryan language, has a significant amount of vocabulary borrowed from Nuristani languages, and thus was previously classified as a Nuristani language. However, the morphology and the pronominal system of Dameli are characteristically Indo-Aryan, leading to its re-classification as Dardic.<ref name="jain-cardona-2007">{{Cite encyclopaedia|year=2007|title=The Indo-Aryan languages|editor1-first=Danesh|editor1-last=Jain|editor2-first=George|editor2-last=Cardona|page=905|quote='Dardic' is a geographic cover term for those Northwest Indo-Aryan languages which ''[..]'' developed new characteristics different from the IA languages of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Although the Dardic and Nuristani (previously 'Kafiri') languages were formerly grouped together, Morgenstierne (1965) has established that the Dardic languages are Indo-Aryan, and that the Nuristani languages constitute a separate subgroup of Indo-Iranian.|isbn=978-0415772945|author-first=Elena|author-last=Bashir|author-link=Elena Bashir}}</ref>

== Vocabulary ==

The most archaic layer of Nuristani lexicon is the common inheritance from [[Proto-Indo-European]], shared with other [[Indo-European languages]]. For example, [[Tregami language|Tregami]] ''[[wikt:tre#Tregami|tre]]'' is cognate with [[English language|English]] ''[[wikt:three#English|three]]'', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''[[wikt:три#Russian|три (tri)]]'', and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''[[wikt:tres#Spanish|tres]]''.

Much of Nuristani lexicon traces back to the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]] of the late 3rd millennium BCE (cf. [[Askunu language|Ashkun]] ''[[wikt:ćës#Ashkun|ćës]]'' "markhor hair" and [[Marathi language|Marathi]] ''[[wikt:केस#Marathi|kes]]'' "hair"). Due to the relative isolation of the [[Nuristan#Early history|Nuristan]] region until the turn of the 20th century, the Nuristani languages were thought to have retained some inherited words from the ancient [[Indo-Iranians#Religion|Indo-Iranian]] religion, predating Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. However, recent research on Nuristani [[theonyms]] shows robust semantic and linguistic correspondences with [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] religious terminologies, which points to a significant [[Historical Vedic religion#Post-Vedic religions|post-Vedic Hindu]] influence on Nuristani theology and religious vocabulary.<ref name="Halfmann 2023 350">{{cite journal|last=Halfmann|first=Jakob|date=2023|title=Nuristani Theonyms in Light of Historical Phonology |journal=Roots of Peristan, Rome, Italy|pages=350}}</ref> Remnants of inherited Indo-Iranian elements may have survived in some [[Prasun language|Prasun]] theonyms with hitherto unknown etymologies.<ref name="Halfmann 2023 350"/> In contrast, there is no trace of any [[Zoroastrian]] influence on Nuristani vocabulary, suggesting that Nuristani languages were not widely spoken in areas where Zoroastrianism was practiced.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halfmann|first=Jakob|date=2023|title=Nuristani Theonyms in Light of Historical Phonology |journal=Roots of Peristan, Rome, Italy|pages=320}}</ref>

Nuristani-speaking peoples have since long participated in enduring social contact with [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] speakers, leading to a large number of early Indo-Aryan loanwards and relative semantic closeness among the shared cognates between Indo-Aryan and Nuristani languages.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Strand|first=Richard F.|date=2022|title=Ethnolinguistic and Genetic Clues to Nûristânî Origins |journal=International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction |volume=19  |pages=267–353}}</ref> There have been important historical exchanges between the Nuristani religious practices and earlier forms of [[Hinduism]]. For instance, [[Katë language|Katë]] ''[[wikt:Indrë#Kamkata-viri|Indrë]]'' may be linked to the Hindu deity [[Indra]], from which it derives [[Katë language|Katë]] ''[[wikt:indrõ#Kamkata-viri|indrõ]]'' "rainbow" (''Indra-bow'') and ''[[wikt:indrëṣ#Kamkata-viri|indrëṣ]]'' "earthquake" (''Indra-impulse'').<ref>{{cite book|last=Strand|first=Richard F. |date=2016|title="inrʹo˜" in Nûristânî Etymological Lexicon }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Strand|first=Richard F. |date=2016|title="inrʹaṣ" in Nûristânî Etymological Lexicon }}</ref>

[[Middle Indo-Aryan languages]] like [[Gandhari language|Gandhari]] have shared a broader cultural and linguistic milieu with Nuristani languages for many centuries in the [[Gandhara]] region. In addition, Nuristani languages borrowed words for "law" and "judge" from the Iranian [[Bactrian language]] around the 1st century CE, suggesting some degree of contact with Bactrian-speaking state institutions, possibly the [[Kushan Empire]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Halfmann|first=Jakob|date=2023|title=Lād 'law' – a Bactrian loanword in the Nuristani languages |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London}}</ref>

The most recent influx of loanwords into Nuristani is from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Pashto language|Pashto]] since the incorporation of [[Nuristan Province]] into [[Afghanistan]] in the 1890s.

The chart below compares some basic vocabulary among the modern-day Nuristani languages.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! English !! [[Prasun language|Prasun]] !! [[Katë language|Katë]] !! [[Ashkun language|Ashkun]] !! [[Nuristani Kalasha language|Nuristani Kalasha]] !! [[Tregami language|Tregami]]
|-
| one || [[wikt:upün#Prasuni|upün]] || [[wikt:ew#Kamkata-viri|ew]] || [[wikt:ac̣#Ashkun|ac̣]] || [[wikt:ew#Waigali|ew]] || [[wikt:yo#Tregami|yo]]
|-
| two || [[wikt:lü#Prasuni|lü]] || [[wikt:dyu#Kamkata-viri|dyu]], [[wikt:dü#Kamkata-viri|dü]] || [[wikt:du#Ashkun|du]] || [[wikt:dü#Waigali|dü]] || [[wikt:du#Tregami|du]]
|-
| three || [[wikt:ćši#Prasuni|ćši]] || [[wikt:tre#Kamkata-viri|tre]] || [[wikt:trë#Ashkun|trë]] || [[wikt:tre#Waigali|tre]] || [[wikt:tre#Tregami|tre]]
|-
| four || [[wikt:čpu#Prasuni|čpu]] || [[wikt:štëvo#Kamkata-viri|štëvo]], [[wikt:što#Kamkata-viri|što]] || [[wikt:ćatā#Ashkun|ćatā]] || [[wikt:čatā#Waigali|čatā]] || [[wikt:čātā#Tregami|čātā]]
|-
| five || [[wikt:vuču#Prasuni|vuču]] || [[wikt:puč#Kamkata-viri|puč]] || [[wikt:põć#Ashkun|põć]] || [[wikt:pũč#Waigali|pũč]] || [[wikt:põč#Tregami|põč]]
|-
| six || [[wikt:vuṣ#Prasuni|vuṣ]] || [[wikt:ṣu#Kamkata-viri|ṣu]] || [[wikt:ṣo#Ashkun|ṣo]] || [[wikt:ṣu#Waigali|ṣu]] || [[wikt:ṣu#Tregami|ṣu]]
|-
| seven || [[wikt:sëtë#Prasuni|sëtë]] || [[wikt:sut#Kamkata-viri|sut]] || [[wikt:sōt#Ashkun|sōt]] || [[wikt:sot#Waigali|sot]] || [[wikt:sut#Tregami|sut]]
|-
| eight || [[wikt:astë#Prasuni|astë]] || [[wikt:uṣṭ#Kamkata-viri|uṣṭ]] || [[wikt:ōṣṭ#Ashkun|ōṣṭ]] || [[wikt:oṣṭ#Waigali|oṣṭ]] || [[wikt:voṣṭ#Tregami|voṣṭ]]
|-
| nine || [[wikt:nu#Prasuni|nu]] || [[wikt:nu#Kamkata-viri|nu]] || [[wikt:no#Ashkun|no]] || [[wikt:nu#Waigali|nu]] || [[wikt:nũ#Tregami|nũ]]
|-
| ten || [[wikt:lezë#Prasuni|lezë]] || [[wikt:duć#Kamkata-viri|duć]] || [[wikt:dos#Ashkun|dos]] || [[wikt:doš#Waigali|doš]] || [[wikt:dåš#Tregami|dåš]]
|-
| eye || [[wikt:ižĩ#Prasuni|ižĩ]] || [[wikt:ačẽ#Kamkata-viri|ačẽ]] || [[wikt:aćĩ#Ashkun|aćĩ]] || [[wikt:ačẽ#Waigali|ačẽ]] || [[wikt:ac̣ĩ#Tregami|ac̣ĩ]]
|-
| tongue || [[wikt:luzuk#Prasuni|luzuk]] || [[wikt:diz#Kamkata-viri|diz]] || [[wikt:žū#Ashkun|žū]] || [[wikt:jip#Waigali|jip]] || [[wikt:jip#Tregami|jip]]
|-
| gut || [[wikt:vu#Prasuni|vu]] || [[wikt:řu#Kamkata-viri|řu]] || [[wikt:ẓo#Ashkun|ẓo]] || [[wikt:vřu#Waigali|vřu]] || 
|-
| name || [[wikt:nom#Prasuni|nom]] || [[wikt:num#Kamkata-viri|num]] || [[wikt:nām#Ashkun|nām]] || [[wikt:nām#Waigali|nām]] || 
|-
|}

== Syntax ==

Many Nuristani languages have [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) word order, like most of the other Indo-Iranian languages, and unlike the nearby [[Dardic languages|Dardic]] [[Kashmiri language]], which has [[V2 word order|verb-second word order]].

=== Sample sentences ===

====Katë====
{{Interlinear|Vyé-r-p-amuř-e përdík vú-gayé||"The old woman from the bottom floor went upstairs. (Western dialect of Kulem)"<ref name="Halfmann 2024">{{cite thesis |last=Halfmann |first=Jakob |date=2024 |title=A Grammatical Description of the Katë Language (Nuristani) |type=PhD thesis |publisher=Universität zu Köln |url=https://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/73732/}}</ref>}}
{{Interlinear|Kaṛv-ó ō či-pëlëŋé-di é-lë-ay||"Strong waters even go up the valley. (Northeastern dialect of Mumret)"<ref name="Halfmann 2024">{{cite thesis |last=Halfmann |first=Jakob |date=2024 |title=A Grammatical Description of the Katë Language (Nuristani) |type=PhD thesis |publisher=Universität zu Köln |url=https://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/73732/}}</ref>}}
{{Interlinear|Tǘ ask-ḗ náčō-loš||"You should leave him alone. (Southeastern dialect of Kamdesh)"<ref name="Halfmann 2024">{{cite thesis |last=Halfmann |first=Jakob |date=2024 |title=A Grammatical Description of the Katë Language (Nuristani) |type=PhD thesis |publisher=Universität zu Köln |url=https://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/73732/}}</ref>}}

====Prasun====
{{Interlinear|Lust lēnjǝwógnī oyinī́g naḍǝm rē-s||"Eating (a ritual dish) without having raised the hands (in pre-Islamic prayer) was unlawful/improper."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Materialien zur Prasun-Sprache des afghanischen Hindukusch. Vol. 2: Grammatik|last=Buddruss|first=G.|last2=Degener|first2=A.|publisher=Harvard Oriental Series 80. Harvard University Press. Cambridge, MA.|year=2017|pages=437–438}}</ref>}}

== See also ==
* [[wikt:Appendix:Nuristani_Swadesh_lists|Nuristani Swadesh lists]]
* [[Indo-Iranian languages]]
* [[Nuristanis]]
* [[Nuristan]]
* [[Chitral District]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Decker, Kendall D. (1992). ''Languages of Chitral''. In: ''Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan 5''. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics. {{ISBN|4-87187-520-2}}.
* Grjunberg, A. L. (1971). ''K dialektologii dardskich jazykov (glangali i zemiaki). Indijskaja i iranskaja filologija: Voprosy dialektologii.'' Moscow.
* Jakob Halfmann (2023). ''Lād "law": a Bactrian loanword in the Nuristani languages'', in ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', London, United Kingdom.
* Morgenstierne, Georg (1926). ''Report on a Linguistic Mission to Afghanistan''. [[Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture|Instituttet for Sammenlignende Kulturforskning]], Serie C I-2. Oslo. {{ISBN|0-923891-09-9}}.
* Jettmar, Karl (1985). Religions of the Hindu Kush {{ISBN|0-85668-163-6}}
* [[J. P. Mallory|Mallory, J. P.]] ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth''. Thames and Hudson, 1989.
* Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas Q. "Indo-Iranian Languages". In: ''[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]''. Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.
* Strand, Richard F. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20161106105936/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nurestani-languages NURESTÂNI LANGUAGES]" in [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]
* Strand, Richard F. "[https://nuristan.info/PDFs/Strand - Kâmboǰâs and Sakas in the Holly-Oak Mountains.pdf]"
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Degener |first=Almuth |date=2002 |chapter=The Nuristani Languages |editor-first=Nicholas |editor-last=Sims-Williams |title=Indo-Iranian Languages and Peoples |series=Proceedings of the British Academy |volume=116 |pages=103–117 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Fries |first1=Simon |last2=Halfmann |first2=Jakob |last3=Hill |first3=Eugen |last4=Hübner |first4=Denise |title=From noun to future tense: The functional diachrony of the l-future in the Nuristani languages and its typological background |journal=STUF – Language Typology and Universals |volume=76 |issue=1 |date=2023 |pages=53–85 |doi=10.1515/stuf-2023-2002}}
* Hegedűs, Irén; [[Václav Blažek|Blažek, Václav]] (2010). "[https://www.academia.edu/2417635/On_the_position_of_Nuristani_within_Indo_Iranian On the position of Nuristani within Indo-Iranian]". Paper presented at the conference Sound of Indo-European 2 (Opava, Oct 2010).
* {{cite journal |last=Hegedűs |first=Irén |title=Two plant-based numeral classifiers in Nuristani languages: grain and branch |journal=Journal of South Asian Languages and Linguistics |volume=9 |issue=1–2 |date=2022 |pages=69–95 |doi=10.1515/jsall-2023-1001|doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |last1=Kuz’Mina |first1=E.E. |last2=Mallory |first2=J.P. |date=2007 |chapter=The genesis of the dards and nuristani |title=The Origin of the Indo-Iranians |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |publisher=Brill|pages=307–320|doi=10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.90}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rybatzki |first=V. |date=2013 |title=Vocabularies from the middle of the 20th century from Afghanistan Part one: Iranian, Nuristani and Dardic materials I. |journal=Acta Orientalia |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=297–348 |doi=10.1556/aorient.66.2013.3.4 |jstor=43282518}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rybatzki |first=Volker |title=Vocabularies from the middle of the 20th century from Afghanistan Part one: Iranian, Nuristani and Dardic materials II |journal=Acta Orientalia |volume=66 |issue=4 |date=2013 |pages=443–469 |doi=10.1556/aorient.66.2013.4.6 |jstor=43282530}}
* {{cite journal |last=Strand |first=Richard F. |title=Ethnolinguistic and Genetic Clues to Nûristânî Origins |journal=International Journal of Diachronic Linguistics and Linguistic Reconstruction |volume=19 |issue= |date=2022 |pages=267–353}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Halfmann |first=Jakob |date=2024 |title=A Grammatical Description of the Katë Language (Nuristani) |type=PhD thesis |publisher=Universität zu Köln |url=https://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/73732/}}
* {{cite book |last=Kümmel |first=Martin Joachim|date=2022 |section=Indo-Iranian, 14.3.3: The special case of Nuristanic |title=The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective |editor=Olander, Thomas |publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=246–268|doi=10.1017/9781108758666.014|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/indoeuropean-language-family/indoiranian/C01D66B2DA24680E0808EFEC10E389C9?utm_campaign=shareaholic&utm_medium=copy_link&utm_source=bookmark}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.site-shara.net/ Reiko and Jun's Kalash Page]
* [http://www.lexicool.com/dlink.asp?ID=0FW3HU5663&L1=34&L2=44 Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List]
* [http://nuristan.info/index.html Richard Strand's Nuristân Site] This site is the primary source on the linguistics and ethnography of Nuristân and neighboring regions, collected and analyzed over the last forty years by the leading scholar on Nuristân.

{{Nuristani languages}}
{{Indo-Iranian languages}}
{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Nuristani languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]