View source for Nutmeg

{{needs more sources|date=October 2024}}
{{short description|Spice from Myristica fragrans}}
{{about|the spice}}
{{Infobox food
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| image = File:Biji Pala Bubuk.jpg
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| type = Seed and ground spice
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| serving_size = 100 g
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'''Nutmeg''' is the [[seed]], or the ground [[spice]] derived from the seed, of several tree species of the genus ''[[Myristica]]'';<ref name="fao1994">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4084e/v4084e00.htm#Contents|title=Nutmeg and derivatives (Review)|date=September 1994|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030035405/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4084e/v4084e00.htm#Contents|archive-date=30 October 2018|access-date=29 October 2018}}</ref> '''fragrant nutmeg''' or '''true nutmeg''' (''[[Myristica fragrans|M. fragrans]]'') is a dark-leaved [[evergreen]] tree cultivated for two [[spice]]s derived from its [[fruit]]: nutmeg, from its seed, and '''mace''', from the seed covering. It is also a commercial source of nutmeg [[essential oil]] and nutmeg butter. The [[Banda Islands]], in [[Maluku (province)|Maluku]], [[Indonesia]], are the main producer of nutmeg and mace, and the true nutmeg tree is native to the islands.<ref>{{cite book |author-last1=Monk|author-first1=Kathryn |author-last2=De Fretes |author-first2=Yance |author-last3=Reksodiharjo-Lilley |author-first3=Gayatri |title=Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluka|publisher=Tuttle Pub|volume=4 |page=10:3 (Changes in Agriculture) |date=2012|location=New York |oclc=795120066 |isbn=9781462905065 |quote=The islands of [[Banda Besar|Lontor]], [[Banda Neira]] and Ai have supported extensive nutmeg and kenari (Canarium indicum) plantations since the 1600s.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Zumbroich |first=Thomas J. |title=The Introduction of Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) and Cinnamon (Cinnamomumverum J. Presl)) to America / La introducción de la nuez moscada (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) y de la canela (Cinnamomum verum J.S. Presl) en América|journal=Acta Botanica Venezuelica |volume=28 |issue=1 |page=156 |date=2005}}</ref>

Nutmeg and mace, commonly used as food spices, have been traditionally employed for their [[psychoactive]] and aphrodisiac effects, though clinical evidence is lacking.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |date=2009 |title=Nutmeg |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/nutmeg.html |access-date=2017-05-04 |publisher=Drugs.com |archive-date=2020-12-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216165111/https://www.drugs.com/npp/nutmeg.html |url-status=live }}</ref> High doses can cause serious toxic effects including acute [[psychosis]], with risks heightened during [[pregnancy]] and with [[psychiatric condition]]s.<ref name="drugs" />

[[Conifer]]s of the genus ''[[Torreya]]'', commonly known as the nutmeg yews, have edible seeds of similar appearance, but are not closely related to ''M. fragrans'', and are not used as a spice.

== Common nutmeg ==
Nutmeg is the spice made by grinding the seed of the fragrant nutmeg tree (''[[Myristica fragrans]]'') into powder. The spice has a distinctive pungent fragrance and a warm, slightly sweet taste; it is used to flavor many kinds of baked goods, confections, [[pudding]]s, potatoes, meats, sausages, sauces, and vegetables, and beverages such as [[eggnog]].<ref name="ebo">{{cite encyclopedia | url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/422816/nutmeg | title = Nutmeg spice| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online| date = 12 August 2024}}</ref>

The seeds are dried gradually in the sun over a period of 15 to 30 weeks. During this time, the nutmeg shrinks away from its hard seed coat until the kernels rattle in their shells when shaken. The shell is then broken with a wooden club and the nutmegs are picked out. Dried nutmegs are greenish brown ovoids with furrowed surfaces.<ref name=ebo/> The nutmegs are roughly egg-shaped, about {{Convert|20.5-30|mm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{Convert|15-18|mm|in|abbr=on}} wide, weighing {{Convert|5-10|g|oz|abbr=on}} dried.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Myristica |url=https://floracostaricensis.myspecies.info/taxonomy/term/19576/descriptions |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=floracostaricensis.myspecies.info |language=en}}</ref>

Two other species of genus ''Myristica'' with different flavors, ''[[Myristica malabarica|M. malabarica]]'' and ''[[Myristica argentea|M. argentea]]'', are sometimes used to adulterate nutmeg as a spice.<ref name=clovegarden>{{cite web |url=http://www.clovegarden.com/ingred/sp_nutmegz.html |title=Nutmeg |website=www.clovegarden.com |access-date=2017-07-22 |archive-date=2017-02-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170218033425/http://www.clovegarden.com/ingred/sp_nutmegz.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Mace ===
[[File:Mace (জয়িত্রি).JPG|thumb|upright|Mace]]
Mace is the spice made from the reddish seed covering ([[aril]]) of the nutmeg seed. Its flavour is similar to that of nutmeg but more delicate; it is used to flavour baked goods, meat, fish, and vegetables, and in preserving and pickling.<ref>{{cite book|first=Ernest|last=Small|date=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Au3RBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA420|title=Top 100 Exotic Food Plants|page=420|isbn=978-1439856864|publisher=CRC Press|access-date=2019-08-27|archive-date=2023-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Au3RBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA420|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the processing of mace, the crimson-colored aril is removed from the nutmeg seed that it envelops and is flattened out and dried for 10 to 14 days. Its color changes to pale yellow, orange, or tan. Whole dry mace consists of flat pieces—smooth, horn-like, and brittle—about {{convert|40|mm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url = https://www.britannica.com/topic/mace-spice | title = Mace spice| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica Online}}</ref>

== Botany and cultivation ==
[[File:Myristica Fragrans - ജാതിമരം.JPG|thumb|right|upright|Nutmeg tree (''Myristica fragrans'').]]
The most important commercial species is the common, true or fragrant nutmeg, ''M. fragrans'' ([[Myristicaceae]]), native to the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia.<ref name=nafta>{{cite news |author=Amitav Ghosh |title=What Nutmeg Can Tell Us About Nafta |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/30/opinion/sunday/clove-trees-the-color-of-ash.html |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=December 30, 2016 |author-link=Amitav Ghosh |access-date=April 13, 2017 |archive-date=September 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190911120831/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/30/opinion/sunday/clove-trees-the-color-of-ash.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Dotschkal |first1=Janna |title=The Spice Trade's Forgotten Island |url=http://proof.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/22/the-spice-trades-forgotten-island/ |website=National Geographic |access-date=2017-04-13 |ref=forgot |date=2015-06-22 |archive-date=2016-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213171658/http://proof.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/22/the-spice-trades-forgotten-island/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is also cultivated on [[Penang]] Island in Malaysia, in the [[Caribbean]], especially in [[Grenada]], and in [[Kerala]], a state formerly known as Malabar in ancient writings as the hub of spice trading, in southern India. In the 17th-century work ''[[Hortus Malabaricus|Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus]]'', [[Hendrik van Rheede]] records that [[Indian people|Indians]] learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

Nutmeg trees are [[dioecious plant]]s (individual plants are either male or female), which are propagated sexually from [[seed]]s and asexually from [[Cutting (plant)|cuttings]] or [[grafting]]. Sexual propagation yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive. Because no reliable method has been found for determining plant sex before flowering in the sixth to eighth year, and sexual reproduction bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting (a variation of [[Grafting#Cleft|cleft grafting]] using seedlings), [[Grafting#Approach|approach grafting]], and [[Grafting#Budding|patch budding]] have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. [[Air layering]] is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low (35–40%) success rate.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, and the trees reach full production after 20 years.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

In the [[Banda Islands]] to which the nutmeg is native, there is a [[symbiotic relationship]] between the Kenari nut tree (''[[Canarium indicum]]'') and the nutmeg (''Myristica fragrans''), the former providing the nutmeg with shade and serving as a wind-break from the strong winds.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Tan|author-first=Kim H. |title=Soils in the Humid Tropics and Monsoon Region of Indonesia|publisher=CRC Press|page=[https://www.google.co.il/books/edition/Soils_in_the_Humid_Tropics_and_Monsoon_R/2b7HpNuTHpMC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Banda+Islands+nutmeg+and+kenari&pg=PA329&printsec=frontcover 329] |date=2008|location=Boca Raton |oclc=184924770 |isbn=9781420069075 |quote=In the past it was customary to also plant wind breakers for controlling premature fruit falls by the frequent storms occurring during the change of wet to slightly dry seasons, especially on the Banda islands. The Dutch scientists suggested the use of the tall-growing Canarium trees (Canarium commune or indicum), known locally as ''pohon kenari'', because albiza trees, used in tea estates, provide too much shade, which should be avoided in nutmeg farms. Some shade is still necessary, which is provided by the kenari trees that grow 40 to 50 m tall.}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|width=200 | height=130
|align=center
|File:Nutmeg on Tree.jpg|Nutmeg fruit
|File:Nutmeg fruit seed and aril.jpg|Red [[aril]] and seed within fruit
|File:Nutmeg mace.JPG|Aril surrounding nutmeg seed
}}

== Uses ==
[[File:Sweet and spicy nutmeg.JPG|thumb|Indonesian ''manisan pala'' (nutmeg sweets).]]

=== Spice ===
Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, [[saffron]]-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes. Whole nutmeg can also be ground at home using [[Nutmeg grater|a grater specifically designed for nutmeg]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Oulton, Randal|title=Nutmeg Graters|publisher=CooksInfo.com|date=18 February 2007|url=http://www.cooksinfo.com/nutmeg-graters|access-date=8 April 2018|archive-date=10 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110114712/http://www.cooksinfo.com/nutmeg-graters|url-status=live}}</ref> or a [[Grater|multi-purpose grating tool]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Barber, Casey|title=Do you really need a Microplane for your kitchen? Yes, and here's why|publisher=today.com|date=18 February 2007|url=https://www.today.com/food/why-microplane-worth-it-investment-your-kitchen-t103644|access-date=8 November 2019|archive-date=8 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108150932/https://www.today.com/food/why-microplane-worth-it-investment-your-kitchen-t103644|url-status=live}}</ref>

In [[Indonesian cuisine]], nutmeg is used in dishes<ref name="MeyerVann2008">{{cite book|author1=Arthur L. Meyer|author2=Jon M. Vann|title=The Appetizer Atlas: A World of Small Bites|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qUOcpdtYIFwC|year=2008|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=978-0-544-17738-3|page=196}}</ref> such as spicy soups including variants of [[Soto (food)|''soto'']], ''[[konro]]'', [[oxtail soup]], ''sup iga'' (ribs soup), ''[[bakso]]'', and ''[[Sup Kambing|sup kambing]]''. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as ''[[Semur (Indonesian stew)|semur]]'', beef stew, ribs with tomato, and European derived dishes such as ''bistik'' (beef steak), ''rolade'' (minced meat roll), and ''bistik lidah'' (beef tongue steak).{{cn|date=October 2024}}

In [[Indian cuisine]], nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. In Kerala [[Malabar region]], grated nutmeg is used in meat preparations and also sparingly added to desserts for the flavour. It may also be used in small quantities in ''[[garam masala]]''.<ref name="Chapman2007">{{cite book|author=Pat Chapman|title=India Food and Cooking: The Ultimate Book on Indian Cuisine|year=2007|publisher=New Holland Publishers|isbn=978-1-84537-619-2|page=16}}</ref>

In traditional [[European cuisine]], nutmeg and mace are used especially in [[potato]] and spinach dishes and in processed meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. It is also commonly used in [[rice pudding]]. In [[Dutch cuisine]], nutmeg is added to vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans. Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient in [[mulled cider]], [[mulled wine]], [[junket (dessert)|junket]] and [[eggnog]]. In Scotland, mace and nutmeg are usually both ingredients in [[haggis]]. In [[Italian cuisine]], nutmeg is used as part of the stuffing for many regional meat-filled dumplings like [[tortellini]], as well as for the traditional [[meatloaf]].{{cn|date=October 2024}} 
Nutmeg is a common spice for [[pumpkin pie]] and in recipes for other [[winter squash]]es, such as baked [[acorn squash]]. In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks, such as the [[Bushwacker (cocktail)|Bushwacker]], [[Painkiller (cocktail)|Painkiller]], and Barbados [[rum]] punch. Typically, it is a sprinkle on top of the drink.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

=== Fruit ===
[[File:Fresh nutmeg in Zanzibar (Tanzania).JPG|thumb|Fresh nutmeg in Zanzibar (Tanzania).]]

The [[pericarp]] (fruit covering) is used to make jam, or is finely sliced, cooked with sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh is made as ''manisan'' (sweets), either wet, which is seasoned in sugary syrup liquid, or dry coated with sugar, a dessert called ''manisan pala'' in Indonesia. In [[Penang cuisine]], dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ''[[ais kacang]]''. The flesh of the nutmeg fruit is also blended, in the fresh state, into a type of [[smoothie]] (white in colour and having a fresh, ‘green’, tangy taste); or boiled, resulting in a brown liquid, much sweeter in taste, which is used in the preparation of iced drinks. In Kerala [[Malabar region]] of India, it is used for juice, pickles and chutney.<ref name="Chapman2007"/>

=== Essential oil ===
The essential oil obtained by [[steam distillation]] of ground nutmeg<ref name="fao">{{cite web|title=Description of components of nutmeg|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4084e/v4084e04.htm|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|date=September 1994|access-date=2017-04-13|archive-date=2017-05-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170529061404/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v4084e/v4084e04.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> is used in the [[perfumery]] and [[pharmaceutical]] industries. The [[Volatile organic compound|volatile]] fraction contains dozens of [[terpene]]s and [[phenylpropanoid]]s, including {{sc|D}}-[[pinene]], [[limonene]], {{sc|D}}-[[borneol]], {{sc|L}}-[[terpineol]], [[geraniol]], [[safrole]], and [[myristicin]].<ref name=fao/><ref>{{cite journal|pmc=5222521|year=2016|last1=Abourashed|first1=E. A.|title=Chemical diversity and pharmacological significance of the secondary metabolites of nutmeg (''Myristica fragrans'' Houtt.)|journal=Phytochemistry Reviews|volume=15|issue=6|pages=1035–1056|last2=El-Alfy|first2=A. T.|pmid=28082856|doi=10.1007/s11101-016-9469-x|bibcode=2016PChRv..15.1035A }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22429024|year=2012|last1=Piras|first1=A.|title=Extraction and separation of volatile and fixed oils from seeds of ''Myristica fragrans'' by supercritical CO<sub>2</sub>: Chemical composition and cytotoxic activity on Caco-2 cancer cells|journal=Journal of Food Science|volume=77|issue=4|pages=C448–53|last2=Rosa|first2=A.|last3=Marongiu|first3=B.|last4=Atzeri|first4=A.|last5=Dessì|first5=M. A.|last6=Falconieri|first6=D.|last7=Porcedda|first7=S.|doi=10.1111/j.1750-3841.2012.02618.x}}</ref> In its pure form, myristicin is a [[toxicity|toxin]], and consumption of excessive amounts of nutmeg can result in myristicin poisoning.<ref name=jmt/>

The oil is colorless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It is used as a natural food flavoring in [[baked goods]], syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the manufacturing of [[toothpaste]] and [[cough syrup]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKA5DwAAQBAJ&q=nutmeg+essential+oil+toothpaste+cough+syrup&pg=PA21|title=Grenada: Carriacou and Petite Martinique|last=Crask|first=Paul|date=2017-11-05|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=9781784770624|language=en|access-date=2020-10-06|archive-date=2023-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115035/https://books.google.com/books?id=dKA5DwAAQBAJ&q=nutmeg+essential+oil+toothpaste+cough+syrup&pg=PA21|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Nutmeg butter ===
Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by [[Ram press (food)|expression]], yielding a semisolid, reddish-brown oil having the taste and aroma of nutmeg itself.<ref name=fao/> About 77% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is [[trimyristin]], which can be manufactured into [[myristic acid]], a 14-carbon [[fatty acid]], with possible uses as a replacement for [[cocoa butter]]; it can be mixed with other fats like [[cottonseed oil]] or [[palm oil]], and has applications as a [[lubricant]].<ref name=fao/>

== History ==
[[File:Banda Islands en.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of the [[Banda Islands]].]]

The earliest evidence of use of nutmeg comes in the form of 3,500-year-old [[sherd|potsherd]] residues from the island of Pulau Ai, one of the [[Banda Islands]] in eastern Indonesia.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Peter Lape|author2=Emily Peterson|author3=Daud Tanudirjo|author4=Chung-Ching Shiung|author5=Gyoung-Ah Lee|author6=Judith Field|author7=Adelle Coster|title=New Data from an Open Neolithic Site in Eastern Indonesia|journal=Asian Perspectives|year=2018|volume=57|issue=2|pages=222–243|doi=10.1353/asi.2018.0015|s2cid=165484454|hdl=10125/72091|url=https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/bitstreams/8daa59ca-7467-4daf-9db8-dce962e0b8e8/download |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The Banda Islands consist of eleven small volcanic islands, and are part of the larger [[Maluku Islands]] group. These islands were the only source of nutmeg and mace production until the mid-19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mryristicin - - Molecule of the Month - August 2014 (HTML version) |url=http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/myristicin/myristicinh.htm |access-date=2022-04-28 |website=www.chm.bris.ac.uk |archive-date=2022-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006162355/http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/myristicin/myristicinh.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It was one of the spices traded over the [[Austronesian maritime trade network|Austronesian maritime]] [[spice trade]] network since at least 1500 BCE.<ref name="Zumbroich2007">{{cite journal |last1=Zumbroich |first1=Thomas J. |title=The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond |journal=eJournal of Indian Medicine |date=2007–2008 |volume=1 |pages=87–140 |url=https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162}}</ref>

In the sixth century AD, nutmeg use spread to India, then further west to [[Constantinople]].<ref name="pickersgill">{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=166 |isbn=0415927463}}</ref> By the 13th century, Arab traders had pinpointed the origin of nutmeg to the Banda Islands, but kept this location a secret from European traders.<ref name="pickersgill" />

=== Colonial era ===
The Banda Islands became the scene of the earliest European ventures in Asia, to get a grip on the spice trade. In August 1511, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] conquered [[Malacca City|Malacca]], which at the time was the hub of Asian trade, on behalf of the king of [[Portugal]]. In November of the same year, after having secured Malacca and learning of Banda's location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friend [[António de Abreu]] to find it. Malay pilots guided them via [[Java]], the [[Lesser Sunda Islands|Lesser Sundas]], and [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] to the Banda Islands, arriving in early 1512. The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained for about a month, buying and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg and mace, and with [[clove]]s in which Banda had a thriving [[Entrepot Trade|''entrepôt'' trade]]. An early account of Banda is in ''Suma Oriental'', a book written by the Portuguese apothecary [[Tomé Pires]], based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants without a foothold in the islands.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

In order to obtain a [[monopoly]] on the production and trade of nutmeg, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) waged a bloody battle with the Bandanese in 1621. Historian [[Willard A. Hanna|Willard Hanna]] estimated that before this struggle the islands were populated by approximately 15,000 people, and only 1,000 were left (the Bandanese were killed, starved while fleeing, exiled, or sold as slaves).<ref>{{Cite book|title=Indonesian Banda: Colonialism and Its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands|last=Hanna|first=Willard|publisher=Yayasan Warisan dan Budaya Banda Neira.|year=1991|location=Moluccas, East Indonesia}}</ref> The Company constructed a comprehensive nutmeg plantation system on the islands during the 17th century.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

As a result of the Dutch [[interregnum]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British [[Invasion of the Spice Islands|invaded and temporarily took control of the Banda Islands]] from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees, complete with soil, to [[Sri Lanka]], Penang, [[Bencoolen (city)|Bencoolen]], and [[Singapore]].<ref>Giles Milton, ''Nathaniel's Nutmeg'', 1999, London: Hodder and Stoughton; {{ISBN|0-340-69675-3}}</ref> From these locations they were transplanted to their other colonial holdings elsewhere, notably [[Zanzibar]] and Grenada. The national [[flag of Grenada]], adopted in 1974, shows a stylised split-open nutmeg fruit. The Dutch retained control of the Spice Islands until [[World War II]].{{cn|date=October 2024}}

[[Connecticut]] may have received its nickname ("the Nutmeg State", "[[Nutmegger]]") from the claim that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle "nutmeg" out of wood, creating a "wooden nutmeg", a term which later came to mean any type of fraud.<ref name="furer">{{cite web |author1=Rebecca Furer |title=What is a Nutmegger? |url=http://www.wnpr.org/post/what-nutmegger |publisher=Connecticut Public Radio |access-date=29 October 2018 |date=12 August 2011 |archive-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181029232653/http://www.wnpr.org/post/what-nutmegger |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ctstatelibrary.org/CT-nicknames|title=Nicknames for Connecticut|publisher=Connecticut State Library|date=2018|access-date=29 October 2018|archive-date=1 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150901150137/http://ctstatelibrary.org/CT-nicknames|url-status=live}}</ref> This narrative may have to do with the issue that one has to [[Grater|grate]] to obtain the spice powder, not crack a nutmeg, and this may not have been widely known by some purchasers of the product.<ref name=furer/>

== Production ==
In 2023, world production of nutmeg was 219,223 [[tonne]]s, led by [[Guatemala]] with 95,211 tonnes and [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] as secondary producers; combined, the three countries accounted for 89% of the world total.<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|title=World production of nutmeg, mace and cardamoms in 2023; Crops/Regions/World/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|date=2025|access-date=22 July 2025}}</ref>

== Psychoactivity and toxicity ==
Although used as a [[Traditional medicine|folk treatment]] for some ailments, nutmeg has no proven medicinal value.<ref name=drugs/>

=== Effects ===
Ingested in small amounts as a spice, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, both raw nutmeg freshly ground from kernels and [[nutmeg oil]] have [[psychoactive]] effects.<ref name=drugs/><ref name = locost/><ref name="jmt">{{cite journal|pmc=4057546|year=2014|last1=Ehrenpreis|first1=J. E.|title=Nutmeg Poisonings: A Retrospective Review of 10&nbsp;Years Experience from the Illinois Poison Center, 2001–2011|journal=Journal of Medical Toxicology|volume=10|issue=2|pages=148–151|last2=Deslauriers|first2=C|last3=Lank|first3=P|last4=Armstrong|first4=P. K.|last5=Leikin|first5=J. B.|doi=10.1007/s13181-013-0379-7|pmid=24452991}}</ref> Such effects appear to derive from [[anticholinergic]]-like [[hallucinogen]]ic mechanisms attributed to [[myristicin]] and [[elemicin]].<ref name=jmt/><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = McKenna | first1 = A. | last2 = Nordt | first2 = S. P. | last3 = Ryan | first3 = J. | title = Acute Nutmeg Poisoning | journal = European Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 240–241 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15249817 | doi=10.1097/01.mej.0000127649.69328.a5 | s2cid = 21133983 }}</ref> Myristicin—a [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] and psychoactive substance<ref name=drugs/><ref name=jmt/>—can cause [[convulsions]], [[palpitations]], [[nausea]], eventual [[dehydration]], and generalized body pain when consumed in large amounts.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=locost/> Nutmeg may interact with [[anxiolytic]] drugs, produce [[allergic reaction]]s, cause [[contact dermatitis]], and evoke acute episodes of [[psychosis]].<ref name=drugs/>

Varying considerably from person to person, nutmeg [[Substance intoxication|intoxication]] may occur with [[side effect]]s, such as [[delirium]], anxiety, confusion, headaches, nausea, dizziness, dry mouth, eye irritation, and [[amnesia]].<ref name=drugs/><ref name=jmt/> Intoxication takes several hours to reach maximum effect,<ref name=drugs/> and may last for several days.<ref name=jmt/><ref name = locost> {{Cite journal | last1 = Demetriades | first1 = A. K. | last2 = Wallman | first2 = P. D. | last3 = McGuiness | first3 = A. | last4 = Gavalas | first4 = M. C. | title = Low Cost, High Risk: Accidental Nutmeg Intoxication | doi = 10.1136/emj.2002.004168 | journal = Emergency Medicine Journal | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 223–225 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15735280 | pmc = 1726685 }}</ref> Incidents of fatal poisoning from nutmeg and myristicin individually are uncommon.<ref name=drugs/>

Nutmeg poisonings occur by accidental consumption in children and by intentional recreational use.<ref name=jmt/> It is used recreationally with the intention of achieving a low-cost high resembling psychedelics, particularly by adolescents, drug users, college students, and prisoners.<ref name="Rahman_2015">{{cite journal| vauthors = Rahman NA, Fazilah A, Effarizah ME | date=2015 |title=Toxicity of Nutmeg (Myristicin): A Review |journal=International Journal on Advanced Science, Engineering and Information Technology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=212|doi=10.18517/ijaseit.5.3.518 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Relatively large doses of nutmeg are required to produce effects; a majority of reported nutmeg intoxication cases appear to result from recreational use.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Forrester MB | title = Nutmeg intoxication in Texas, 1998–2004 | journal = Human & Experimental Toxicology | volume = 24 | issue = 11 | pages = 563–6 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16323572 | doi = 10.1191/0960327105ht567oa | bibcode = 2005HETox..24..563F | s2cid = 6839715 }}</ref>

The [[pharmacology]] of nutmeg and its constituents has been reviewed.<ref name="ShulginSargentNaranjo1967">{{cite book | author1=[[Alexander T. Shulgin]] | author2=Thornton Sargent | author3=[[Claudio Naranjo]] | chapter=The Chemistry and Psychopharmacology of Nutmeg and of Several Related Phenylisopropylamines | title=Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs | publisher=Raven Press | date=1967 | isbn=978-0-89004-047-8 | chapter-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125085801/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=a15476299fba3b3a535958d0b198e813816ce768 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvfBDethZkYC | pages=202–214}}</ref><ref name="Truitt1967">{{cite book | author=Edward B. Truitt, Jr. | chapter=The Pharmacology of Myristicin and Nutmeg | title=Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs | publisher=Raven Press | date=1967 | isbn=978-0-89004-047-8 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IvfBDethZkYC&pg=PA215 | pages=215–229}}</ref>

=== Toxicity during pregnancy ===
Nutmeg was once considered an [[abortifacient]], but may be safe during [[pregnancy]] if used only in flavoring amounts.<ref name=drugs/> If consumed in large amounts, nutmeg could cause premature labor and miscarriage. Nutmeg may also interact with pain relievers such as [[pethidine]], so avoiding it during pregnancy is recommended.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.babycentre.co.uk/pregnancy/isitsafeto/herb%26drugchart/|title=Herb and drug safety chart|publisher=BabyCentre UK|date=2018|access-date=29 October 2018|archive-date=15 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015052448/http://www.babycentre.co.uk/pregnancy/isitsafeto/herb%26drugchart|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Toxicity to pets ===
The scent of nutmeg may attract pets, but it can be [[Toxicity|poisonous]] if consumed in excess.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-safety-tips/nutmeg-cinnamon-toxicity/|title=Nutmeg Toxicity|publisher=Pet Poison Helpline|author=Charlotte Flint|date=2018|access-date=29 October 2018|archive-date=30 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030131227/https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-safety-tips/nutmeg-cinnamon-toxicity/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Spice trade]]
* [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
* [[Cloves]]
* [[Indian sandalwood]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Commons category inline|Nutmegs}}
* {{Wikispecies inline|Myristica fragrans}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Flora of the Maluku Islands]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Myristica]]
[[Category:National symbols of Grenada]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]

[[sv:muskot]]