View source for Oak wilt

{{short description|Plant disease}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2021}}
{{Infobox plant disease
| name             = Oak wilt
| image            = Oak wilt aerial photo.jpg
| caption          = Aerial photograph of an oak wilt center (St. Paul, MN)
| common_names     = 
| causal_agents    = ''Bretziella fagacearum''
| hosts            = [[Oak|''Quercus'' spp.]]
| vectors          = ''[[Nitidulidae]]''
| EPPO_code        = CERAFA
| second_EPPO_code = 
| distribution     = US
| symptoms         = leaf discoloration, wilt, defoliation and death
| treatment        = 
}}
{{speciesbox
 | name                = ''Bretziella fagacearum''
 | image               = Ceratocystis fagacearum endoconidia.jpg
 | image_caption       = Spores produced by the oak wilt fungus (a) Endoconidia (b) Conidiophore
 | taxon               = Bretziella fagacearum
 | authority           = (Bretz) Z.W. de Beer, Marincowitz, T.A. Duong & M.J. Wingfield<ref name = EPPO1 />
 | range_map           = OakWilt2017Counties.pdf
 | range_map_caption   = USA counties with oak wilt (2017)
 | synonyms = 
* ''Chalara quercina''<ref name = Myco1/>
* ''Endoconidiophora fagacearum''
*''Thielaviopsis quercina''
*''Ceratocystis fagacearum''<ref name = Com1/><ref name="Species Fungorum"/>
}}

'''Oak wilt''' is a [[fungal]] disease caused by the [[organism]] '''''Bretziella fagacearum''''' that threatens [[oak|''Quercus'' spp.]]<ref name = Com1 /> The disease is limited to the eastern half of the United States, Central Texas, and Southern Ontario. First described in the 1940s in the [[Upper Mississippi River| Upper Mississippi River Valley]]. The [[Plant pathology|pathogen]] penetrates [[xylem]] tissue, preventing water transport and causing disease symptoms.<ref name = mort1 /> Symptoms generally consist of leaf [[Chlorosis|discoloration]], [[Wilting|wilt]], [[Defoliant|defoliation]], and death. The disease is dispersed by insect vectors and to adjacent trees through underground root networks.  However, human spread is the most consequential dispersal method.<ref name = SAF2/> Moving firewood long distances can potentially transport diseases and invasive species.

== Disease ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300
| image1 = Oak wilt symptoms.jpg
| image2 = Oak_Wilt_Dropped_Leaves_Polk_County_WI_Noon_July_14,_2016.png
| caption1 =  Oak wilt symptoms
| caption2 = Sudden leaf drop
| alt1 = Photograph of leaf and whole tree symptoms of oak wilt in a red oak tree
| alt2 = Photograph of red oak leaves on the ground in July
| image3 = Root Graft.png
| image4 = SpMatClose.jpg
| caption3 =  Excavated root graft
| caption4 = Spore mat
| alt3 = Root graft of hardwood tree after excavation following vibratory plowing
| alt4 = Close up of spore mat stage III
| footer = 
}}
Oak wilt is a devastating exotic disease, killing some trees rapidly in a single season.<ref name = YT1/> Oak wilt is an important disease in [[urban areas]] where trees are highly valued. The disease reduces [[Real estate appraisal|property value]]s because of the loss of trees and is economically costly to the [[Title (property)|property owner]] since they or the local government must pay for [[Arboriculture|tree removal]]. Additionally, preventing the spread of the disease to [[Tree care|healthy trees]] is costly and requires vigilance. Oak wilt is also an important disease in a forest setting, as entire [[forest stand]]s can die within a few years.<ref name = PNAS2/> There is a narrow window to [[Salvage logging|salvage]] diseased trees for [[hardwood]] [[lumber]] and often the disease is not discovered within that logging window.<ref name = Eco2/> The [[Forest ecology|ecological]] impacts to forests is also a concern. The disease is currently restricted to North America, but is potentially a serious threat to oaks worldwide.<ref name = UK1/>

All [[oak|''Quercus'' spp.]] appear susceptible to the disease, with 33 oak species confirmed to be susceptible; including three species of '' [[Chestnut|Castanea]]'', one species of ''[[Castanopsis]]'', one species of ''[[Lithocarpus]]'', and some oaks native to Europe ([[Quercus petraea|''Q. petraea'']], [[Quercus pubescens|''Q. pubescens'']], & [[Quercus robur|''Q. robur'']]).<ref name = urban2/><ref name = IOS1/> Generally, red oaks ([[List of Quercus species#Section Lobatae|subsection ''Lobatae'']]) display more severe symptoms with rapid and frequent [[Mortality rate|mortality]] (particularly [[Quercus velutina|''Q. velutina'']], [[Quercus rubra|''Q. rubra'']], [[Quercus ellipsoidalis|''Q. ellipsoidalis'']] & [[Quercus coccinea|''Q. coccinea'']]). White oaks ([[List of Quercus species#Section Quercus|subsection ''Quercus'']]) develop symptoms more slowly, rarely die, and can recover from the pathogen with damage limited to a few branches (particularly [[Quercus alba|''Q. alba'']], & [[Quercus macrocarpa|''Q. macrocarpa'']]). [[Live oaks]] ([[Quercus fusiformis|''Q. fusiformis'']] & [[Quercus virginiana|''Q. virginiana'']]) display intermediate symptoms compared to red or white oaks. However, live oaks are semi-evergreen, can propagate vegetatively by root [[Basal shoot|suckering]], and cohabitate with other live oaks in dense [[forest stand|stands]] enabling interconnected root systems. These traits are favorable for local spread of the disease in an [[Central forest–grasslands transition|oak-grassland savanna]].<ref name = path2/>

=== History ===
Oak wilt is one of [[Forest disturbance by invasive insects and diseases in the United States|three devastating North American]] vascular [[wilt disease]]s that appeared in the early 20th century. The other two vascular wilts are [[chestnut blight]] (1900–1950) and [[Dutch elm disease]] (1928–1980). Each of these diseases have depopulated their respective host tree populations. [[Chestnut]] trees were the dominant [[Canopy (biology)|overstory]] tree species before chestnut blight and [[elm]]s were an iconic [[Urban forestry|landscape]] tree that bordered streets before Dutch elm disease. Oak wilt and the newly emerging [[emerald ash borer]] have the potential to devastate other important North American tree species with large geographical and cultural significance. Range expansion of oak wilt to the Western United States (or to other [[continents]]) is a major concern.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

The asexual stage of oak wilt was first described in 1942 in Wisconsin.<ref name = henry/><ref name = bretz/> Soon thereafter the disease was reported throughout the [[Upper Midwest forest–savanna transition|Upper Midwest]] and [[Central forest–grasslands transition|Central]] forests. The early [[History of the lumber industry in the United States#Twentieth century|20th Century]] coincided with oak regeneration after significant logging in the [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] and [[Great Lakes region]]. [[Deforestation in the United States|Deforestation]] and fire suppression in this region altered the ecology to favor [[oak–hickory forest]]s, instead of coniferous forests and [[grasslands]].<ref name = NRS1/><ref name = GTR234/><ref name = NRS2/> Subsequently, the host for the disease became more prevalent and promoted oak wilt infections. Moving timber during the late 19th Century and early 20th Century, in the [[Rail transportation in the United States#1851–1900|period of railroad expansion]], coincides with the discovery of the oak wilt disease in the United States.{{cn|date=August 2025}}

The origin of the disease is unknown, but probably emerged from Mexico, Central America, or South America.<ref name = AnnRev1/> Mexico is the global center of oak diversity, supporting it as the [[Endemism|endemic range]] of oak wilt.<ref name = NewPHY1/><ref name = TreePHY2/> Any [[Biological pest control|biocontrol]] or [[Plant disease resistance|disease resistance]] for this pathogen will likely come from Mexico. The disease currently affects much of the eastern and central US, from northern New York to [[Central Texas]].<ref name = NYS1 /> It is particularly common in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]] where conditions are usually favorable for spore production and beetle activity during spring and early summer. Oak wilt is a major problem in [[Illinois]], [[Iowa]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Texas]], and [[Wisconsin]].<ref name = Minn1 /><ref name = WIDNR2/><ref name = WIDNR1/>

=== Disease cycle ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=300|align=left
| title = Oak wilt disease cycle
| image1 = Oak Wilt cycle.gif
| caption1 = Top cycle. Overland Spread (Initiation of new infection center).<ref name = IOS1/>
* Spores germinate and infect oak tree.
* Infection spreads throughout the tree and leaf symptoms develop. Discoloration develops in the vacular tissue.
* Tree dies.
* Fungal pressure pads and spore-bearing mats form under bark.
* Nitidulids feed in pads and emerge with spores in and on their bodies.
* Nitidulids visit fresh wounds on healthy oak and deposit spores.
Bottom cycle. Root graft Spread (Expansion of infection center).
* Fungal spore move through grafted roots into adjacent uninfected trees.
* Healthy tree becomes infected.
| alt1 = Illustration of the oak wilt disease cycle by Julie Martinez
| footer = 
}}
[[File:OakWiltLineDrawings2.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Illustration of ''Bretziella fagacearum'']]
[[File:OakWiltHerbarium2.png|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Photograph of ''Bretziella fagacearum'']]
The fungus overwinters on dead tissue from diseased trees. Symptoms first appear in spring and summer. Highly susceptible species typically die within one year (often within six weeks) after symptoms appear. Symptoms begin in the tops of trees and can be difficult to notice. The disease progresses inward and downward from the [[Canopy (biology)|tree top]]. Leaves become [[Chlorosis|chlorotic]] beginning at the [[Leaf#Apex (tip)|leaf tip]] and [[Leaf#Edge (margin)|leaf edges]]. An abrupt demarcation of chlorotic [[Leaf#Veins|veins]] and green tissue is often a distinguishing characteristic in live oak infections.<ref name = TXOW1 /> The foliage may droop, curl lengthwise, wilt, and begin to [[Abscission|fall]]. Leaves drop from the tree in the middle of summer, however less susceptible trees may retain leaves longer and resemble seasonal [[Leaf#Seasonal leaf loss|autumn foliage]]. Highly susceptible species will exhibit rapid [[Crown (botany)|crown]] dieback, while less susceptible species may only lose a few scattered branches. Live oaks may survive several years with progressive dieback, but often die within six months. Following [[Defoliant|defoliation]], fungal [[Sporocarp (fungi)|fruiting bodies]] develop from [[mycelium]] under the [[Bark (botany)|bark]] of the tree. The mats grow to 10 – 20&nbsp;cm in size, elliptical in shape, and grey in color with white margins that darken with age. These mats are not found on live oaks and rarely on white oaks. Trees capable of producing mats are called potential spore-producing trees (PSPT). Brown streaks in the [[Wood#Heartwood and sapwood|sapwood]] is also observed in the oak wilt disease. However, this symptom is not always associated with the disease.{{cn|date=November 2025}}

The oak wilt fungus can spread from diseased trees to healthy trees in several ways. The disease can spread long distances (overland) by [[Airborne transmission|airborne]] spores in open [[Wound response in plants|wounds]] caused by [[Ecophysiology#Wind damage|wind damage]], [[pruning]], or other mechanical damage. Alternatively, under ideal conditions (temperature, moisture content, wood pH) spore mats form under the bark of the dead tree. Spore mats develop in the spring or fall for 2–3 weeks. The center of spore mats produce chains of barrel shaped spores, called endoconidia. [[Conidia]] are asexual spores dispersed by air, rain, and insects.<ref name = EU1 /> If compatible mating types are present, these mats will also produce sexual spores called ascospores in fruiting structures called [[perithecia]]. [[Ascospores]] are spread by water and insects.<ref name = EU1 /> These spore mats (or pressure pads) increase in size, eventually breaking through the bark and releasing a fruity odor that attracts wildlife, including [[Nitidulidae|sap beetles]], [[bark beetles]], other insects, birds and animals, such as squirrels. Insect [[Vector (epidemiology)|vectors]] transmit the disease in spring to early summer in the Mid-West and late Winter in Texas. Insect transmission is the primary way new [[Focus of infection|infection foci]] originate.{{cn|date=November 2025}}

The fungus can spread short distances through naturally occurring [[root]] grafts. Root [[grafting|grafts]] form when two or more underground roots merge from adjacent trees.  Typically, [[root]]s from the same, or similar species, can form root grafts as their [[Vascular cambium|cambia]] are pressed together and combine.<ref name = phys4/><ref name = SITN1/> Fungal spores in the [[xylem]] travel to nearby trees through these root grafts and can rapidly kill many trees simultaneously. This transmission method accounts for the vast majority of infections and is particularly devastating as groups of trees are killed. The disease can extend 10 – 20m per year (40m per year in Texas) from the [[Focus of infection|infection foci]] to surrounding trees. Diseased trees can continue to harbor and transmit the disease for several years through the root network.{{cn|date=November 2025}}

The disease results from fungal spores clogging [[xylem]] vessels and preventing water and nutrient flow. [[Mycelia]] growth between and through [[Vessel element|vessels]] end up blocking [[Pit (botany)|xylem pits]] in the vessel endwalls. [[Tylose]] protrusion and the accumulation of 'gums' will further obstruct vessels. Tylose is an outgrowth of [[Ground tissue#Parenchyma|parenchyma]] cells created as a plant defense against pathogens, water deficiency, wounding, and [[Wood#Heartwood and sapwood|heartwood]] formation. Tylose formation signals senescence of adjacent parenchyma cells and secretion of [[secondary metabolites]] (called gums), which may include phenolics.<ref name = path3/> The interruption of the xylem vessels precedes tylose formation. Tylose and secreted gums act as a barrier to slow the colonization of the pathogen and play an important part in [[Plant use of endophytic fungi in defense|plant defenses]]. However, the action to [[Compartmentalization of decay in trees|compartmentalize]] the oak wilt fungus ultimately obstructs all water conductance, leading to death. The fungus can survive in the xylem for multiple years, if the tree is not killed. 
{{Quote box
 |title= Oak Wilt Management Quick Guide
 |quote  = Early detection and prompt action are essential for successful management of oak wilt.
The specific measures taken depend on several circumstances but should include appropriate combinations of the following:
* '''Prevent New Infections'''
** Remove and dispose of oak wilt-infected red oaks immediately.
** Avoid wounding oak trees, including pruning from,
*** February through June in Texas.
*** April through October in the Mid-West.
** Sterilize/sanitize all pruning equipment between trees.
** Paint all wounds and fresh stumps immediately regardless of season.
** Handle oak firewood cautiously, burn all firewood before spring, and never store unseasoned oak wood from infected trees near healthy oaks.
** Cover unseasoned firewood (from infection centers and unknown origins) with clear plastic and bury the edges of the plastic.
* '''Diversify Your Landscape'''
** Plant trees that are native and/or adapted to your area.
** Favor a diversity of tree species.
** Avoid wounding oaks during planting.
* '''Stop Spread through Root Connections'''
** Install a trench at least 4 ft deep and 100 ft beyond the perimeter of infection centers (last symptomatic tree) to break up root connections.
** Cut or uproot all trees within the 100-ft barrier (except those injected with fungicide).
* '''Inject High-Value Oaks with Fungicide'''
** Identify susceptible, high-value oak trees in proximity to expanding oak wilt infection centers.
** Consult a trained and licensed arborist (with certified applicator's license) for treatment of susceptible trees with injections of propiconazole.
 |align  = center
 |width  = 60%
 |border = 5px
 |source = [https://texasoakwilt.org/ Texas Oak Wilt]
}}

== Management ==
{{multiple image|perrow = 2|total_width=400
| image1 = The Real Dr Spore Mat.jpg
| image2 = Spore_Mats_Stage_IV-V.jpg
| caption1 =  Wood caramel colored, spore mats stage III is infectious
| caption2 = Spore mats (dark patches) stage IV – V are no longer infectious
| alt1 = Photograph of person pointing to spore mat
| alt2 = Photograph of dead tree trunk
| footer = 
}}
Elimination of the disease is not possible; therefore, managing the disease is essential to prevent economic and ecological losses.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Management of the oak wilt disease includes [[forest integrated pest management]]; such as sanitation, chemical application, and cultural control. Ideally, several methods are used in conjunction to enhance disease control. Any chosen method relies on specific landowner objectives; such as protecting high value trees, treating individual trees, halting or slowing the spread of an infection center, and reducing the number of new infection foci. All methods depend on timely [[Crop scouting|detection]] and accurate diagnosis of the disease to be beneficial. [[Aerial photography|Aerial observation]] (or [[remote sensing]]) is able to identify infected forest stands by observing the dead [[Crown (botany)|crowns]] of trees in summer. The use of [[spectroscopy]] is being developed for large scale detection and monitoring of oak wilt.<ref name = TreePHY1 />

=== Chemical control ===
Chemical control can be preventative or therapeutic, depending on risk and resources available. [[Propiconazole]] is the principle [[fungicide]] for treatment against oak wilt. Propiconazole is a [[Broad-spectrum antibiotic|broad-spectrum]] [[Pesticide|systemic fungicide]] that interferes with the [[biosynthesis]] of [[ergosterol]] in [[cell membranes]] by binding to [[Lanosterol 14 alpha-demethylase|14 alpha-demethylase]]. [[Tree injection]] is the preferred application method to deliver targeted control. Tree injections involve intravascular injections with [[positive pressure]] to force the chemical throughout the vascular system of the tree. This method is relatively expensive and requires a trained [[arborist]] to perform .<ref name = YT2/><ref name = YT3/> Propiconazole injection does not offer protection to neighboring trees and must be applied to all target trees.

Preventative propiconazole application does not prevent infection, rather it delays symptoms and reduces mortality. All oak species studied have benefited from preventative propiconazole treatment.<ref name = urban2/> This method is often applied to high value trees in an urban area, specifically Northern red oaks and live oaks. White oaks are more disease resistant, thus preventative treatment is unnecessary. Likewise, therapeutic propiconazole application does not eradicate the fungal infection, rather it delays symptoms and reduces mortality. Highly susceptible red oaks rarely benefit from therapeutic treatment, but symptomatic white oaks improve with treatment. Asymptomatic live oaks will respond better to propiconazole treatment than symptomatic trees.

Spring application is the most effective time for chemical treatment. Multiple applications, every two years, may be necessary for long-term disease control.

=== Cultural control ===
==== Mechanical ====
Mechanical separation of the underground root connections will not allow the disease to transfer to adjacent trees. However, ensuring all root connections are severed is difficult and impractical to verify. Notwithstanding, digging a trench (or plowline) four feet deep around infected trees is an effective cultural control strategy. The plowline should encompass any infected tree. In practice this consists of all trees expected to be connected by a root graft with an infected tree, in addition to all symptomatic trees. In the Mid-West, a plowline 50 feet away from infected trees is recommended. In [[Central Texas]], [[live oak]] [[lateral roots]] grow at a shallow depth in rocky soil, allowing an extensive root network with neighboring trees. For this reason, a plowline 100 feet away from infected trees is recommended.<ref name = path2/> A second plowline between all symptomatic trees and visibly healthy trees will reinforce this control strategy.

The plowline can be created with [[agricultural machinery]], such as an [[excavator]], rock saw, vibratory plow, and bulldozer with [[Bulldozer#Ripper|ripper]] or [[subsoiler]]. Equipment costs and availability will vary.

The placement of a root barrier can offer additional protection to trenching, but increases [[total costs]]. A [[geomembrane]] is a [[Semipermeable membrane|semipermeable]] textile (similar to [[landscape fabric]]) that physically blocks roots from coming into contact. It is essential that trenching and geomembrane installation occur before removing infected trees.

==== Sanitation ====
[[File:Kost_Oak_Savanna_OW_cleanup_autumn_2007.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Oak wilt and buckthorn cleanup on oak savanna in Chisago County, Minnesota autumn/after leaf drop 2007| Cultural control (sanitation) of oak wilt infection area]]
Sanitation entails removing [[Infection|infectious material]] to reduce [[Inoculation|inoculum]] before new infections can develop. Red oaks are the only group capable of forming spore mats, designated as PSPTs. Therefore, removing any PSPTs that become infected is essential to minimize new infection foci. Furthermore, removing all PSPTs, regardless of symptoms, within an infected area reinforces the process. In practice this consists of removing all PSPTs within the plowline (see [[Oak wilt#Mechanical|Mechanical]]). Trees will need to be removed annually to sustain control over the years. Tree removal involves [[felling]] and burying or burning the [[Logging|logs]], ensuring all inoculum is discarded. Alternatively, logs and [[Slash (logging)|slash]] can be [[Woodchips|chipped]] or [[mulch]]ed on site. Tree stumps can also be removed to increase sanitation.

[[Girdling]] infected trees is another method to reduce the spread of oak wilt; although, not as effective as whole tree removal. Girdling requires the complete detachment of the [[cambium]] from the PSPTs. Moreover, [[Debarking (lumber)|debarking]] the trunk of the tree (up to 4 feet) is essential. Oak wilt does not produce fruiting bodies on dead or dry wood. Debarking speeds the drying process and assists [[Hypoxylon]] coccineum in colonizing the wood.

[[Nitidulidae|Sap beetles]] are opportunistic insects, incapable of penetrating a tree without an open wound. Therefore, avoid [[pruning]] or felling oak trees when fungal spores and beetles are active. In the Mid-West avoid injuring oaks from April to October and prune limbs after the first hard frost, or from November until April. In Texas avoid pruning oaks from February through June. Moreover, clean pruning equipment between each tree and apply [[tree paint]] to any injury or open [[Wound response in plants|wound]]. Injuries often occur during construction and [[severe weather]].

==== Silviculture ====
[[Silviculture]] involves keeping a forest healthy. Typically, a healthy forest with healthy trees will be more resistant to pests and diseases. [[Thinning]] is the process of removing unwanted trees to promote the growth of the desired trees. Oaks are shade intolerant species. Releasing (or thinning) oaks from competition provides more light, moisture, and nutrients to the remaining oaks. Overall the oaks become stronger, more healthy, and more capable to resist pests and disease.

Increasing tree [[Measurement of biodiversity|species diversity]] (i.e. [[species evenness]]) in a forest is another method to lessen the impact of the disease. Evidence shows increasing [[Diversity index|diversity]] in a landscape can increase forest resilience to pests and disease.<ref name = Plant1/><ref name = EE1/><ref name = EL1/><ref name = ForEnto1/> Moreover, increasing diversity can increase soil microbial communities and [[ecosystem service]]s.<ref name = NatCom1/><ref name = ComBio1/><ref name = Oikos1/><ref name = PRSB1/><ref name = PNAS1/>

=== Education ===
Education is the most valuable tool to combat the spread of pests and diseases. In this context, warning the [[public]] about the spread of oak wilt by humans. Specifically, people take [[fuelwood]] from one location to another location, often long distances. This action is responsible for moving pathogens in those [[Logging|logs]] to places they are not currently present. Spreading oak wilt to new locations through firewood is a major problem. Moreover, covering [[firewood]] with clear plastic can [[Soil solarization|solarize]] the wood pile and eradicate any pathogens.
{{Quote box
 |quote  = '''Prevent the spread of invasive species and diseases'''
* Don't take firewood with you on your camping trip, RV adventure, or to your hunting camp.
* Don't bring firewood back from your second home to your place in the suburbs. 
* Buy firewood near where you will burn it, or gather firewood on site when permitted.
** A good rule of thumb is only using wood that was cut within 50 miles of where you'll have your fire.
* Certified heat-treated firewood is safe to move long distances.
* Aged or seasoned wood is still not safe.
** Just because it is dry doesn't mean that bugs can't crawl onto it- and some insects can take several years to mature inside the wood.
** Wood that looks clean and healthy can still have tiny insect eggs, or microscopic fungi spores, that will start a new and deadly infestation. 
 |align  = center
 |width  = 55%
 |border = 5px
 |source = [https://www.dontmovefirewood.org/ Don't Move Firewood]
}}
{{Gallery
| File: Kerrick_Oak_Wilt_8-19-16_Spawned-_from_7-1-2011_Infection_Centers.png
| alt1 = North Flank of 7 January 2011 Windstorm went thru northern Pine and Carlton Counties Minnesota. Photo shows hilltop infections from 24–25 May 2016 wind & hailstorms; spores came from 7-1-11 storm-created infection center near Kerrick, Minnesota
| Infected trees
| File: East_Farmington_3_Infection_Centers_photo_taken_8-8-16.png
| alt2 = South Flank of 7 January 2011 Windstorm went thru St. Croix County, Wisconsin. Photo shows one of five 7-1-11 infection centers on hilltop near East Farmington, Wisconsin
| Infection foci on hilltop
| File: White_Oak_on_Nymore_soils_Chisago_County_2012.jpg
| alt3 = Healthy white oak (Q. alba) remaining after cleaning up 7-1-11 storm damage & oak wilt infections, 13 months after storm, 2012, Chisago County Minnesota
| White oak after storm damage
| File:West of Grasston Oak Wilt Pic 8-20-12 SE Sec10 T38-R23.jpg
| alt4 =  Northern Pin Oak overland Infection on field edge from 1 July 2011 Windstorm, West of Grasston, Kanabec County, Minnesota
| Northern pin oak overland infection
| footer = Photos from [[c: File:24 - 25 May 2016 NOAA NWS Storm Maps.pdf|Far left – 24–25 May 2016 wind & hailstorms, next three 1 July 2011 windstorm]]<ref name = NWS1 />
}}

=== See also ===
* [[Japanese oak wilt]] – caused by ''Raffaelea quercivora'' in Japan
* [[Sudden oak death]] – caused by ''Phytophthora ramorum''

=== References ===
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name = mort1>{{cite web |url=https://www.mortonarb.org/trees-plants/tree-and-plant-advice/help-diseases/oak-wilt |title=Oak Wilt |website=mortonarb.org |publisher=The Morton Arboretum  |access-date= 5 November 2020 }}</ref>
<ref name = EPPO1>{{cite web |url=https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/CERAFA|title=Bretziella fagacearum(CERAFA) |website=gd.eppo.int |publisher=Secretariat of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization  |access-date= 5 November 2020 }}</ref>
<ref name = Minn1>{{cite book |last=Nelson |first=Steven Floyd |date=2011 |title=Savanna Soils of Minnesota: A Comprehensive Inventory by County and Soil Series |pages=21–22, 29–30 |publisher=Steven Floyd Nelson |isbn=978-0-615-50320-2}}</ref>
<ref name = TXOW1>{{cite web |url=http://www.texasoakwilt.org/Documents/Stewardship/OakWilt_English.pdf |title=How to identify and manage oak wilt in Texas |date=June 2003 |website=Texasokwilt.org |publisher=Texas A&M Forest Service |access-date=12 June 2017 |archive-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408170101/http://www.texasoakwilt.org/Documents/Stewardship/OakWilt_English.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name = NWS1>{{cite web |url=https://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/satellite-blog/archives/8395 |title=Large hail and damaging wind event across the Upper Midwest region |last=Bachmeier |first=Scott |date=1 July 2011 |website=cimss.ssec.wisc.edu }}</ref>
<ref name = EU1>{{cite book |last=Käärik |first=A. |editor1-first=Siwert |editor1-last=Nilsson |date=1983 |title=Atlas of Airborne Fungal Spores in Europe |url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642688034 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg, New York  |publisher=Springer-Verlag |page= 7 |isbn=978-3-642-68803-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-68803-4|s2cid=12449840 }}</ref>
<ref name = TreePHY1>{{cite journal |vauthors= Fallon B, Yang A, Lapadat C, Armour I, Juzwik J, Montgomery RA, and Cavender-Bares J |date=2020 |title=Spectral differentiation of oak wilt from foliar fungal disease and drought is correlated with physiological changes |journal=Tree Physiology |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=377–390 |publisher= Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/treephys/tpaa005 |pmid=32031662 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<ref name = AnnRev1>{{cite journal |vauthors=Juzwik J, Harrington TC, MacDonald WL, Appel DN |date=2008 |title=The origin of Ceratocystis fagacearum, the oak wilt fungus |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.45.062806.094406 |journal=Annual Review of Phytopathology |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages= 13–26 |doi=10.1146/annurev.phyto.45.062806.094406 |pmid=18680421 |bibcode=2008AnRvP..46...13J |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
<ref name = NYS1>{{cite web |url=https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/46919.html |title=Oak Wilt |website=dec.ny.gov |publisher=NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation }}</ref>
<ref name = WIDNR2>Wisconsin DNR Division of Forestry, Annual Report 2012 p. 6</ref>
<ref name = WIDNR1>{{cite web |url=https://forestrynews.blogs.govdelivery.com/2018/12/03/new-northern-oak-wilt-detections/ |title=New northern oak wilt detections |last1=Cigan |first1=Paul |last2=Williams |first2=Linda|date=3 December 2008 |website=forestrynews.blogs.govdelivery.com }}</ref>
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<ref name="Species Fungorum">According to [[Species Fungorum]], the current name is ''Ceratocystis fagacearum'': {{cite web |url=http://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/GSDSpecies.asp?RecordID=294206 |title=the ''Ceratocystis fagacearum'' page |work=Species Fungorum |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew |accessdate=16 May 2021 }}</ref>

}}

=== External links ===
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 How to Identify, Prevent and Control Oak Wilt]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110522191708/http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresources/DD3174.html Oak Wilt in Minnesota]
* [https://texasoakwilt.org/ Texas Oak Wilt]
* [https://oakwilt.org/ Oak Wilt - Identify Common Oak Wilt Symptoms]
* [https://tfsweb.tamu.edu/oakwiltfaqs/ Texas A&M Forest Service FAQ]
* [https://forestinvasives.ca/Meet-the-Species/Pathogens/Oak-Wilt#70334-distribution Canadian Forest Invasives – Oak Wilt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111202225/https://forestinvasives.ca/Meet-the-Species/Pathogens/Oak-Wilt#70334-distribution |date=11 November 2020 }}
<!--
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180722184116/https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/sites/default/files/final-oakwiilt_us_2017.pdf Counties with Oak Wilt (2017)]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 How to Identify Common Nitidulid Beetles Associated with Oak Wilt Mats in Minnesota]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 Pest Alert Oak Wilt in the Northeastern United States NA-PR-02-17]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 HOW to Collect Field Samples and Identify the Oak Wilt Fungus in the Laboratory]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 A Forest Health Success Story Sharing Oak Wilt Advice across States, Provinces]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 Oak Wilt Management – What are the Options?]
* [https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/success-stories/2017/eradication-outlying-oak-wilt-infection-new-york-state Eradication of an Outlying Oak Wilt Infection in New York State]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 Oak Wilt: Disease threatens oaks in the Eastern United States]
* [http://www.fs.usda.gov/r09 Help for Halting Oak Wilt]
-->
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1991788|from2=Q99224441}}

<!-- [[Category:Sordariomycetes]] moved to species Latin name redirect-->
[[Category:Parasitic fungi]]
[[Category:Fungal tree pathogens and diseases]]
[[Category:Quercus]]
[[Category:Fungi of Central America]]
[[Category:Fungi of North America]]
[[Category:Fungi of South America]]