View source for Objectivism

{{Short description|Philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand}}
{{Redirect|Objectivist philosophy|objectivity in philosophy|Objectivity (philosophy)|other uses|Objectivism (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Update|date=September 2025}}
{{Objectivist movement}}
'''Objectivism''' is a [[philosophical system]] named and developed by [[Russian Americans|Russian-American]] writer and philosopher [[Ayn Rand]]. She described it as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute".<ref name="auto">"About the Author" in {{harvnb|Rand|1992|pp=1170–1171}}</ref>

Rand first expressed Objectivism in her fiction, most notably ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957), and later in non-fiction essays and books.<ref name="Badhwar 2010">{{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2020}}</ref> [[Leonard Peikoff]], a professional philosopher and Rand's designated intellectual heir,<ref>''Contemporary Authors Online'', s.v. "Leonard Peikoff". Accessed March 2, 2008.</ref><ref name="McLemee">{{cite journal |last=McLemee |first=Scott |url=http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html |title=The Heirs Of Ayn Rand: Has Objectivism Gone Subjective? |journal=[[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]] |date=September 1999 |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=45–55}}</ref> later gave it a more formal structure. Peikoff characterizes Objectivism as a "closed system" insofar as its "fundamental principles" were set out by Rand and are not subject to change. However, he stated that "new implications, applications and integrations can always be discovered".<ref name="Fact and Value" />

Objectivism's main tenets are that [[reality]] exists independently of [[consciousness]], that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception (see [[direct and indirect realism]]), that one can attain objective knowledge from perception through the process of [[concept]] formation and [[inductive logic]], that the proper [[Morality|moral]] purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness (see [[rational egoism]]), that the only [[social system]] consistent with this morality is one that displays full respect for [[Individual and group rights|individual rights]] embodied in ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]], and that the role of [[art]] in human life is to transform humans' [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form—a work of art—that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally.

Academic philosophers have mostly ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy.<ref name="academic">{{harvnb|Sciabarra|2013|p=[https://archive.org/details/aynrandrussianra0000scia_q9g2/page/1 1]}}; {{harvnb|Badhwar|Long|2020}}; {{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/onaynrand0000gott/page/1 1]}}; {{harvnb|Machan|2000|p=[https://archive.org/details/aynrand0005mach/page/9 9]}}; {{harvnb|Heyl|1995|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2020|p=259}}; {{harvnb|Cocks|2020|p=11}}</ref> Nonetheless, Objectivism has been a persistent influence among [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarians]] and [[Conservatism in the United States|American conservatives]].<ref name="politicalinfluence">{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}; {{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=107–108, 124}}</ref> The [[Objectivist movement]], which Rand founded, attempts to spread her ideas to the public and in academic settings.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|pp=1–2}}</ref>

== Philosophy ==
[[File:Ayn Rand (1957 Phyllis Cerf portrait).jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=Photo of Rand|Ayn Rand in 1957]]
Rand originally expressed her ideas in her novels—most notably, in both ''The Fountainhead'' and ''Atlas Shrugged''. She further elaborated on them in her periodicals ''[[The Objectivist Newsletter]]'', ''[[The Objectivist]]'', and ''[[Objectivist periodicals#The Ayn Rand Letter|The Ayn Rand Letter]]'', and in non-fiction books such as ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' and ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''.<ref name="Rubin">{{cite news |first=Harriet |last=Rubin |title=Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 15, 2007 |access-date=September 18, 2007}}</ref>

The name "Objectivism" derives from the idea that human knowledge and values are [[objectivity (philosophy)|objective]]: they exist and are determined by the nature of reality, to be discovered by one's mind, and are not created by the thoughts one has.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1967|p=23}}</ref> Rand stated that she chose the name because her preferred term for a philosophy based on the primacy of [[existence]]—"[[existentialism]]"—had already been taken.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=36}}</ref>

Rand characterized Objectivism as "a philosophy for living on earth", based on reality, and intended as a method of defining human nature and the nature of the world in which we live.<ref name="Rubin"/>
{{Blockquote|text=My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute.|sign=[[Ayn Rand]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''<ref name="auto"/>}}

=== Metaphysics: objective reality ===
Rand's philosophy begins with three [[axiom]]s: existence, consciousness, and [[Law of identity|identity]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=4–11}}</ref> Rand defined an axiom as "a statement that identifies the base of knowledge and of any further statement pertaining to that knowledge, a statement necessarily contained in all others whether any particular speaker chooses to identify it or not. An axiom is a proposition that defeats its opponents by the fact that they have to accept it and use it in the process of any attempt to deny it."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1040}}.</ref> As Objectivist philosopher [[Leonard Peikoff]] argued, Rand's argument for axioms "is not a proof that the axioms of existence, consciousness, and identity are true. It is proof that they are ''axioms'', that they are at the base of knowledge and thus inescapable."<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=11}}</ref>

Rand said that ''existence'' is the perceptually self-evident fact at the base of all other knowledge, i.e., that "existence exists". She further said that to be is to be ''something'', that "existence ''is'' identity". That is, to be is to be "an entity of a specific nature made of specific attributes".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rand|first=Ayn|title=For the New Intellectual: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand|date=1996 |orig-date=1961|publisher=Signet|isbn=0-451-16308-7|location=New York}}</ref> That which has no nature or attributes does not and cannot exist. The axiom of existence is conceptualized as differentiating something from nothing, while the law of identity is conceptualized as differentiating one thing from another, i.e., one's first awareness of the law of non-contradiction, another crucial base for the rest of knowledge. As Rand wrote, "A leaf ... cannot be all red and green at the same time, it cannot freeze and burn at the same time... [[A is A]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1016}}.</ref> Objectivism rejects belief in anything alleged to transcend existence.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=31–33}}</ref>

Rand argued that consciousness is "the faculty of perceiving that which exists". As she put it, "to be conscious is to be conscious of ''something''", that is consciousness itself cannot be distinguished or conceptualized except in relation to an independent reality.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=5}}</ref> "It cannot be aware only of itself—there is no 'itself' until it is aware of something."<ref name="Gotthelf">{{harvnb|Gotthelf|2000}}</ref> Thus, Objectivism posits that the mind does not create reality, but rather, it is a means of discovering reality.<ref name="ITOE">{{harvnb|Rand|1990}}</ref> Expressed differently, existence has "primacy" over consciousness, which must conform to it. Any other type of argument Rand termed "the primacy of consciousness", including any variant of metaphysical subjectivism or theism.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=24–28}}</ref>

Objectivist philosophy derives its explanations of action and [[Causality|causation]] from the axiom of identity, referring to causation as "the law of identity applied to action".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1037}}</ref> According to Rand, it is entities that act, and every action is the action of an entity. The way entities act is caused by the specific nature (or "identity") of those entities; if they were different, they would act differently. As with the other axioms, an implicit understanding of causation is derived from one's primary observations of causal connections among entities even before it is verbally identified and serves as the basis of further knowledge.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=14}}</ref>

=== Epistemology: reason ===
According to Rand, attaining knowledge beyond what is given by perception requires both [[volition (psychology)|volition]] (or the exercise of [[free will]]) and performing a specific method of validation by observation, concept-formation, and the application of [[inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[deductive reasoning]]. For example, a belief in dragons, however sincere, does not mean that reality includes dragons. A process of proof identifying the basis in reality of a claimed item of knowledge is necessary to establish its truth.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=116–121}}</ref>

Objectivist [[epistemology]] begins with the principle that "consciousness is identification". This is understood to be a direct consequence of the metaphysical principle that "existence is identity".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1961|p=124}}</ref> Rand defined "reason" as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=22}}</ref> Rand wrote "The fundamental concept of method, the one on which all the others depend, is [[logic]]. The distinguishing characteristic of logic (the art of non-contradictory identification) indicates the nature of the actions (actions of consciousness required to achieve a correct identification) and their goal (knowledge)—while omitting the length, complexity or specific steps of the process of logical inference, as well as the nature of the particular cognitive problem involved in any given instance of using logic."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=36}}</ref>

According to Rand, [[consciousness]] possesses a specific and finite identity, just like everything else that exists; therefore, it must operate by a specific method of validation. An item of knowledge cannot be "disqualified" by being arrived at by a specific process in a particular form. Thus, for Rand, the fact that consciousness must itself possess identity implies the rejection of both universal skepticism based on the "limits" of consciousness, as well as any claim to revelation, emotion or faith-based belief.

Objectivist epistemology maintains that all knowledge is ultimately based on perception. "Percepts, not sensations, are the given, the self-evident."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=5}}</ref> Rand considered the validity of the senses to be axiomatic and said that purported arguments to the contrary all commit the fallacy of the "stolen concept"<ref>{{cite journal |last=Branden |first=Nathaniel |author-link=Nathaniel Branden |date=January 1963 |title=The Stolen Concept |journal=The Objectivist Newsletter |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=2, 4}}</ref> by presupposing the validity of concepts that, in turn, presuppose the validity of the senses.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=3}}</ref> She said that perception, being determined physiologically, is incapable of error. For example, [[optical illusion]]s are errors in the conceptual identification of what is seen, not errors of sight itself.<ref name="Kelley 1986">{{harvnb|Kelley|1986}}</ref> The validity of sense perception, therefore, is not susceptible to proof (because it is presupposed by all proof as proof is only a matter of adducing sensory evidence) nor should its validity be denied (since the conceptual tools one would have to use to do this are derived from sensory data). Perceptual error, therefore, is not possible. Rand consequently rejected [[philosophical skepticism|epistemological skepticism]], as she said that the skeptics' claim to knowledge "distorted" by the form or the means of perception is impossible.<ref name="Kelley 1986"/>

The Objectivist theory of perception distinguishes between the ''form'' and ''object.'' The form in which an organism perceives is determined by the physiology of its sensory systems. Whatever form the organism perceives it in, what it perceives—the object of perception—is reality.<ref>{{harvnb|Kelley|1986}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=44–48}}</ref> Rand consequently rejected the [[Kantianism|Kantian]] dichotomy between "things as we perceive them" and "things as they are in themselves". Rand wrote:

{{Blockquote|The attack on man's consciousness and particularly on his conceptual faculty has rested on the unchallenged premise that any knowledge acquired by a ''process'' of consciousness is necessarily subjective and cannot correspond to the facts of reality, since it is ''processed'' knowledge … [but] all knowledge ''is'' processed knowledge—whether on the sensory, perceptual or conceptual level. An "unprocessed" knowledge would be a knowledge acquired without means of cognition.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=81}}</ref>}}

[[File:Rand - ITOE.jpg|thumb|right|upright|alt=book cover|Rand's ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' explains her theory of concept formation.]]
The aspect of epistemology given the most elaboration by Rand is the theory of concept-formation, which she presented in ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]''. She argued that concepts are formed by a process of measurement omission. Peikoff described this as follows:
{{Blockquote|To form a concept, one mentally ''isolates'' a group of concretes (of distinct perceptual units), on the basis of observed similarities which distinguish them from all other known concretes (similarity is 'the relationship between two or more existents which possess the same characteristic(s), but in different measure or degree'); then, by a process of omitting the particular measurements of these concretes, one ''integrates'' them into a single new mental unit: the concept, which subsumes all concretes of this kind (a potentially unlimited number). The integration is completed and retained by the selection of a perceptual symbol (a word) to designate it.
"A concept is a mental integration of two or more units possessing the same distinguishing characteristic(s), with their particular measurements omitted."<ref>Peikoff, Leonard. "The Analytic-Synthetic Dichotomy". In {{harvnb|Rand|1990|pp=97–98}}. The quotes within this passage are of Rand's material elsewhere in the same book.</ref>}}

According to Rand, "the term 'measurements omitted' does not mean, in this context, that measurements are regarded as non-existent; it means that ''measurements exist, but are not specified''. That measurements ''must'' exist is an essential part of the process. The principle is: the relevant measurements must exist in ''some'' quantity, but may exist in ''any'' quantity."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=12}}; for more on Rand's theory of concepts see also Kelley, David "A Theory of Abstraction" and "The Psychology of Abstraction", ''Cognition and Brain Theory'' vol. vii, no. 3 and 4 (Summer/Fall 1984), and [[Douglas B. Rasmussen|Rasmussen, Douglas B.]], "Quine and Aristotelian Essentialism", ''The New Scholasticism'' 58 (Summer, 1984)</ref>

Rand argued that concepts are organized hierarchically. Concepts such as 'dog,' which bring together "concretes" available in perception, can be differentiated (into the concepts of 'dachshund,' 'poodle,' etc.) or integrated (along with 'cat,' etc., into the concept of 'animal'). Abstract concepts such as 'animal' can be further integrated, via "abstraction from abstractions", into such concepts as 'living thing.' Concepts are formed in the context of knowledge available. A young child differentiates dogs from cats and chickens but need not explicitly differentiate them from deep-sea tube worms, or from other types of animals not yet known to him, to form a concept 'dog'.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1990|pp=15–28}}</ref>

Because of its characterization of concepts as "open-ended" classifications that go well beyond the characteristics included in their past or current definitions, Objectivist epistemology rejects the [[analytic-synthetic distinction]] as a [[false dichotomy]]<ref>Peikoff, Leonard. "The Analytic-Synthetic Dichotomy". In {{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=94}}</ref> and denies the possibility of ''[[a priori (philosophy)|a priori]]'' knowledge.<ref>Peikoff, Leonard. "The Analytic-Synthetic Dichotomy". In {{harvnb|Rand|1990|pp=116–118}}</ref>

Rand rejected "feeling" as sources of knowledge. Rand acknowledged the importance of emotion for human beings, but she maintained that emotions are a consequence of the conscious or subconscious ideas that a person already accepts, not a means of achieving awareness of reality. "Emotions are not tools of cognition."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1961|p=64}}</ref> Rand also rejected all forms of [[faith]] or mysticism, terms that she used synonymously. She defined faith as "the acceptance of allegations without evidence or proof, either apart from or ''against'' the evidence of one's senses and reason... Mysticism is the claim to some non-sensory, non-rational, non-definable, non-identifiable means of knowledge, such as 'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing.{{'"}}<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=62–63}}</ref> Reliance on revelation is like reliance on a [[Ouija|Ouija board]]; it bypasses the need to show how it connects its results to reality. Faith, for Rand, is not a "short-cut" to knowledge, but a "short-circuit" destroying it.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1961|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=182–185}}</ref>

Objectivism acknowledges the facts that human beings have limited knowledge, are vulnerable to error, and do not instantly understand all of the implications of their knowledge.<ref>Lecture by Leonard Peikoff, cited in {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995}}.</ref> According to Peikoff, one can be certain of a proposition if all of the available evidence verifies it, i.e., it can be logically integrated with the rest of one's knowledge; one is then certain within the context of the evidence.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=171–181}}</ref>

Rand rejected the traditional [[rationalism|rationalist]]/[[empiricism|empiricist]] dichotomy, arguing that it embodies a false alternative: conceptually based knowledge independent of perception (rationalism) versus perceptually based knowledge independent of concepts (empiricism). Rand argued that neither is possible because the senses provide the material of knowledge while conceptual processing is also needed to establish knowable propositions.

==== Criticism on epistemology ====
The philosopher [[John Hospers]], who was influenced by Rand and shared her moral and political opinions, disagreed with her concerning issues of epistemology.<ref>{{harvnb|Branden|1987|p=323}}</ref> Some philosophers, such as [[Tibor Machan]], have argued that the Objectivist epistemology is incomplete.<ref name="tiborneedwork">For example, {{harvnb|Machan|2000|pp=134–151}}</ref>

Psychology professor [[Robert L. Campbell]] writes that the relationship between Objectivist epistemology and cognitive science remains unclear because Rand made claims about human cognition and its development which belong to psychology, yet Rand also argued that philosophy is logically prior to psychology and in no way dependent on it.<ref name="itoephilpsych">{{harvnb|Rand|1990|p=289}}</ref><ref name="cogrev">{{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=R. L. |date=Fall 1999 |title=Ayn Rand and the Cognitive Revolution in Psychology |journal=Journal of Ayn Rand Studies |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=107–134 |url=http://campber.people.clemson.edu/randcogrev.html}}</ref>

The philosophers [[Randall Dipert]] and {{ill|Roderick Long|ar|رودريك تي لونغ|arz|رودريك تى لونج|es|Roderick Long|ru|Лонг, Родерик Трейси|zh|罗德里克·T·朗}} have argued that Objectivist epistemology conflates the perceptual process by which judgments are formed with the way in which they are to be justified, thereby leaving it unclear how sensory data can validate judgments structured propositionally.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dipert |first=Randall R. |author-link=Randall Dipert |date=Spring 1987 |title=Review Essay: David Kelley's ''Evidence of the Senses: A Realist Theory of Perception'' |journal=Reason Papers |issue=12 |pages=57–70 |url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/12/rp_12_7.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Reason and Value: Rand versus Aristotle |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |location=Poughkeepsie, NY |publisher=The Objectivist Center |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-57724-045-7 |oclc=49875339 |series=Objectivist Studies Monographs}}</ref>

=== {{anchor|Ethics: rational self-interest}} Ethics: self-interest ===
<!-- This Anchor tag serves to provide a permanent target for incoming section links. Please do not move it out of the section heading, even though it disrupts edit summary generation (you can manually fix the edit summary before saving your changes). Please do not modify it, even if you modify the section title. It is always best to anchor an old section header that has been changed so that links to it won't be broken. See [[Template:Anchor]] for details. This text: [[Template:Anchor comment]]. -->
Objectivism includes an extensive treatment of ethical concerns. Rand wrote on morality in her works ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) and ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]'' (1964). Rand defines morality as "a code of values to guide man's choices and actions—the choices and actions that determine the purpose and the course of his life".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=13}}.</ref> Rand maintained that the first question is not what should the code of values be, the first question is "Does man need values at all—and why?" According to Rand, "it is only the concept of 'Life' that makes the concept of 'Value' possible", and "the fact that a living entity ''is'', determines what it ''ought'' to do".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=18}}; for more on Rand's metaethics see {{harvnb|Binswanger|1990|pp=58–66}}, {{harvnb|Smith|2000}} and {{harvnb|Gotthelf|Lennox|2010}}</ref> Rand writes: "there is only one fundamental alternative in the universe: existence or non-existence—and it pertains to a single class of entities: to living organisms. The existence of inanimate matter is unconditional, the existence of life is not: it depends on a specific course of action. [...] It is only a living organism that faces a constant alternative: the issue of life or death".

Rand argued that the primary emphasis of man's [[free will]] is the choice: 'to think or not to think'. "Thinking is not an automatic function. In any hour and issue of his life, man is free to think or to evade that effort. Thinking requires a state of full, focused awareness. The act of focusing one's consciousness is volitional. Man can focus his mind to a full, active, purposefully directed awareness of reality—or he can unfocus it and let himself drift in a semiconscious daze, merely reacting to any chance stimulus of the immediate moment, at the mercy of his undirected sensory-perceptual mechanism and of any random, associational connections it might happen to make."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=22}}; for more on Rand's theory of volition, see {{harvnb|Binswanger|1991}}; {{harvnb|Branden|1969}}; and {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=55–72}}.</ref> According to Rand, therefore, possessing free will, human beings must ''choose'' their values: one does not ''automatically'' have one's own life as his ultimate value. Whether in fact a person's actions promote and fulfill his own life or not is a question of fact, as it is with all other organisms, but whether a person will act to promote his well-being is up to him, not hard-wired into his physiology. "Man has the power to act as his own destroyer—and that is the way he has acted through most of his history."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1013}}</ref>

In ''Atlas Shrugged'', Rand wrote "Man's mind is his basic tool of survival. Life is given to him, survival is not. His body is given to him, its sustenance is not. His mind is given to him, its content is not. To remain alive he must act and before he can act he must know the nature and purpose of his action. He cannot obtain his food without knowledge of food and of the way to obtain it. He cannot dig a ditch—or build a cyclotron—without a knowledge of his aim and the means to achieve it. To remain alive, he must think."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=1012}}</ref> In her novels, ''The Fountainhead'' and ''Atlas Shrugged'', she also emphasizes the importance of productive work, romantic love and art to human happiness, and dramatizes the ethical character of their pursuit. The primary virtue in Objectivist ethics is [[rationality]], as Rand meant it "the recognition and acceptance of reason as one's only source of knowledge, one's only judge of values and one's only guide to action".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Smith|2006|p=7}}</ref>

The purpose of a moral code, Rand said, is to provide the principles by reference to which man can achieve the values his survival requires.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1989a}}</ref> Rand summarizes:
{{Blockquote|If [man] chooses to live, a rational ethics will tell him what principles of action are required to implement his choice. If he does not choose to live, nature will take its course. Reality confronts a man with a great many "must's", but all of them are conditional: the formula of realistic necessity is: "you must, if&nbsp;–" and the if stands for man's choice: "if you want to achieve a certain goal".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=118–119}}</ref>}}

Rand's explanation of values presents the proposition that an individual's primary moral obligation is to achieve his own well-being—it is for his life and his self-interest that an individual ought to obey a moral code.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2006|pp=23–24}}</ref> [[Ethical egoism]] is a corollary of setting man's life as the moral standard.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=230}}</ref> Rand believed that rational egoism is the [[logical consequence]] of humans following evidence to its logical conclusion. The only alternative would be that they live without orientation to reality.

A corollary to Rand's endorsement of self-interest is her rejection of the [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical doctrine of altruism]]—which she defined in the sense of [[Auguste Comte]]'s altruism (he popularized the term<ref>{{cite web |title=altruism (n .) |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=altruism |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper |access-date=27 May 2021}}</ref>), as a moral obligation to live for the sake of others. Rand also rejected subjectivism. A "whim-worshiper" or "hedonist", according to Rand, is not motivated by a desire to live his own human life, but by a wish to live on a sub-human level. Instead of using "that which promotes my (human) life" as his standard of value, he mistakes "that which I (mindlessly happen to) value" for a standard of value, in contradiction of the fact that, existentially, he is a human and therefore rational organism. The "I value" in whim-worship or hedonism can be replaced with "we value", "he values", "they value", or "God values", and still, it would remain dissociated from reality. Rand repudiated the equation of rational selfishness with hedonistic or whim-worshiping "selfishness-without-a-self". She said that the former is good, and the latter bad, and that there is a fundamental difference between them.<ref name="vos">{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=18}}</ref>

For Rand, all of the principal [[virtue]]s are applications of the role of reason as man's basic tool of survival: rationality, honesty, justice, independence, integrity, productiveness, and pride—each of which she explains in some detail in "The Objectivist Ethics".<ref>See also {{harvnb|Smith|2006}}</ref> The essence of Objectivist ethics is summarized by the oath her ''Atlas Shrugged'' character John Galt adhered to: "I swear—by my life and my love of it—that I will never live for the sake of another man, nor ask another man to live for mine."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1992|p=731}}</ref>

==== Criticism on ethics ====
Some philosophers have criticized Objectivist ethics. The philosopher [[Robert Nozick]] argues that Rand's foundational argument in ethics is unsound because it does not explain why someone could not rationally prefer dying and having no values, in order to further some particular value. He argues that her attempt to defend the morality of selfishness is, therefore, an instance of [[begging the question]]. Nozick also argues that Rand's solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. In response, the philosophers [[Douglas B. Rasmussen]] and [[Douglas Den Uyl]] have argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Ayn Rand and the Is-Ought Problem |last=O'Neil |first=Patrick M. |journal=Journal of Libertarian Studies |date=Spring 1983 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=81–99 |url=https://www.mises.org/sites/default/files/7_1_4_0.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Nozick On the Randian Argument |last1=Den Uyl |first1=Douglas |author-link1=Douglas Den Uyl |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Douglas |author-link2=Douglas B. Rasmussen |journal=The Personalist |date=April 1978 |volume=59 |pages=184–205}} Reprinted along with Nozick's article in ''Reading Nozick'', J. Paul, ed., 1981, [[Rowman & Littlefield]].</ref>

Charles King criticized Rand's example of an indestructible robot to demonstrate the value of life as incorrect and confusing.<ref>King, J. Charles. "Life and the Theory of Value: The Randian Argument Reconsidered" in {{harvnb|Den Uyl|Rasmussen|1984}}.</ref> In response, Paul St. F. Blair defended Rand's ethical conclusions, while maintaining that his arguments might not have been approved by Rand.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/10/rp_10_7.pdf |title=The Randian Argument Reconsidered: A Reply to Charles King |first=Paul |last=St. F. Blair |journal=Reason Papers |date=Spring 1985 |issue=10 |access-date=September 14, 2011}}</ref>

=== Politics: individual rights and capitalism ===
{{Capitalism sidebar}}
Rand's defense of individual liberty integrates elements from her entire philosophy.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=354}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=274}}</ref> Since reason is the means of human knowledge, it is therefore each person's most fundamental means of survival and is necessary to the achievement of values.<ref>{{harvnb|Bernstein|2009|pp=25–31}}</ref> The use or threat of [[Force (law)|force]] neutralizes the practical effect of an individual's reason, whether the force originates from the state or from a criminal. According to Rand, "man's mind will not function at the point of a gun".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1967|p=141}}</ref> Therefore, the only type of organized human behavior consistent with the operation of reason is that of voluntary cooperation. Persuasion is the method of reason. By its nature, the overtly irrational cannot rely on the use of persuasion and must ultimately resort to force to prevail.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=310–313}}</ref> Thus, Rand argued that reason and freedom are correlates, just as she argued that mysticism and force are corollaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|p=66}}</ref> Based on this understanding of the role of reason, Objectivists claim that the initiation of physical force against the will of another is immoral,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=36}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=310}}; {{harvnb|Smith|1997|pp=143–147}}</ref> as are indirect initiations of force through threats,<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1997|pp=150–155}}</ref> fraud,<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=319}}</ref> or breach of contract.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|pp=129–130}}</ref> The use of defensive or retaliatory force, on the other hand, is appropriate.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=126}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=320}}</ref>

Objectivism claims that because the opportunity to use reason without the initiation of force is necessary to achieve moral values, each individual has an inalienable moral [[natural and legal rights|right]] to act as his own judgment directs and to keep the product of his effort. Peikoff, explaining the basis of rights, stated, "In content, as the founding fathers recognized, there is one fundamental right, which has several major derivatives. The fundamental right is the right to life. Its major derivatives are the right to liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness."<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=351–352}}. The Objectivist understanding of rights is explored at length in {{harvnb|Smith|1997}}.</ref> "A 'right' is a moral principle defining and sanctioning a man's freedom of action in a social context."<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=110}}</ref> These rights are specifically understood to be rights to action, not to specific results or objects, and the obligations created by rights are negative in nature: each individual must refrain from violating the rights of others.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=355}}</ref> Objectivists reject alternative notions of rights, such as [[positive rights]],<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1997|pp=165–182}}; {{harvnb|Touchstone|2006|p=108}}</ref> [[collective rights]], or [[animal rights]].<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=356–358}}; {{harvnb|Rand|1964|pp=120}}</ref> Objectivism claims that the only social system which fully recognizes individual rights is capitalism,<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1967|p=19}}</ref> specifically what Rand described as "full, pure, uncontrolled, unregulated laissez-faire capitalism".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=37}}</ref> Objectivism regards capitalism as the social system which is most beneficial to the poor, but does not consider this its primary justification.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=392–395}}; {{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=284}}</ref> Rather, it is the only moral social system. Objectivism maintains that only societies seeking to establish freedom (or free nations) have a right to [[self-determination]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=103}}</ref>

Objectivism describes government as "the means of placing the retaliatory use of physical force under objective control—i.e., under objectively defined laws"; thus, government is both legitimate and critically important<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=364}}</ref> in order to protect individual rights.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|pp=125–128}}</ref> Rand opposed [[anarchism]] because she considered that putting police and courts on the market is an inherent miscarriage of [[justice]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=112}}</ref> Objectivism claims that the proper functions of a government are "''the police'', to protect men from criminals—''[[military|the armed services]]'', to protect men from foreign invaders—''[[courts|the law courts]]'', to settle disputes among men according to objective laws", the [[Executive (government)|executive]], and [[legislatures]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=131}}</ref> Furthermore, in protecting individual rights, the government is acting as an agent of its citizens and "has no rights except the rights ''delegated'' to it by the citizens"<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=129}}</ref> and it must act in an impartial manner according to specific, objectively defined laws.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|p=128}}; {{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|pp=364–365}}</ref>

Rand argued that limited [[intellectual property rights|intellectual property]] monopolies being granted to certain inventors and artists on a first-to-file basis are moral because she considered all property as fundamentally intellectual. Furthermore, the value of a commercial product derives in part from the necessary work of its inventors. However, Rand considered limits on patents and copyrights as important and said that if they were granted in perpetuity, it would necessarily result in ''de facto'' collectivism.

Rand opposed [[racism]] and any legal application of racism. She considered [[affirmative action]] to be an example of legal racism.<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|pp=173–84}}; ''cf''. {{cite book |title=The Other Side of Racism |last=Wortham |first=Anne |location=Columbus |publisher=[[Ohio State University Press]] |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-8142-0318-7}}</ref> Rand advocated the right to legal [[abortion]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Rand |first=Ayn |chapter=Of Living Death |editor=Leonard Peikoff |title=The Voice of Reason |location=New York |publisher=New American Library |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-453-00634-7|title-link=The Voice of Reason (book) }}</ref> Rand believed [[capital punishment]] is morally justified as retribution against a murderer, but dangerous due to the risk of mistakenly executing innocent people and facilitating state murder. She therefore said she opposed capital punishment "on epistemological, not moral, grounds".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|2005|pp=45–46}}</ref> She opposed involuntary [[military conscription]].<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1967|pp=226–28}}</ref> She opposed any form of [[censorship]], including legal restrictions on [[pornography]], [[freedom of opinion|opinion]] or [[freedom to worship|worship]], famously quipping; "In the transition to statism, every infringement of human rights has begun with a given right's least attractive practitioners".<ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1982|pp=173–84}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/free_speech.html|title=Free Speech|website=Ayn Rand Lexicon}}</ref>

Objectivists have also opposed a number of government activities commonly endorsed by both liberals and conservatives, including [[antitrust]] laws,<ref>Greenspan, Alan. "Antitrust" in {{harvnb|Rand|1967|pp=63–71}}</ref> the [[minimum wage]], [[public education]],<ref>[[Nathaniel Branden|Branden, Nathaniel]]. "Common Fallacies about Capitalism" in {{harvnb|Rand|1967|pp=89–92}}</ref> and existing [[child labor]] laws.<ref>[[Robert Hessen|Hessen, Robert]]. "The Effects of the Industrial Revolution on Women and Children" in {{harvnb|Rand|1967|pp=110–113}}</ref> Objectivists have argued against [[faith-based initiatives]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=7475 |title=Faith-Based Initiatives Are an Assault on Secular Government |last=Epstein |first=Alex |date=February 4, 2003 |publisher=Ayn Rand Institute |access-date=June 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085647/http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=7475 |archive-date=March 24, 2012 }}</ref> displaying religious symbols in government facilities,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=10889 |title=The Ten Commandments vs. America |first=Harry |last=Binswanger |author-link=Harry Binswanger |date=March 3, 2005 |publisher=Ayn Rand Institute |access-date=June 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085654/http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=10889 |archive-date=March 24, 2012 }}</ref> and the teaching of "[[intelligent design]]" in public schools.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=11555 |title='Intelligent Design' Is about Religion versus Reason |newspaper=Orange County Register |first=Keith |last=Lockitch |date=December 11, 2005 |access-date=June 19, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324085705/http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?&id=11555 |archive-date=March 24, 2012 }}</ref> Rand opposed involuntary [[taxation]] and believed government could be financed voluntarily, although she thought this could only happen after other reforms of government were implemented.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=368}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Rand|1964|pp=135–137}}</ref>

==== Criticism on politics ====
Some critics, including economists and political philosophers such as [[Murray Rothbard]], [[David D. Friedman]], [[Roy Childs]], [[Norman P. Barry]], and [[Chandran Kukathas]], have argued that Objectivist ethics are consistent with [[anarcho-capitalism]] instead of [[minarchism]].<ref>Childs, Roy (1969). "[http://www.isil.org/ayn-rand/childs-open-letter.html Objectivism and the State: An Open Letter to Ayn Rand]"</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Barry|1987|pp=128–129}}</ref><ref name="Kukathas"/><ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|pp=250–251}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://mises.org/easaran/chap3.asp |last=Rothbard |first=Murray N. |author-link=Murray Rothbard |title=Anatomy of the State: What the State Is Not |website=Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays |year=1974}}</ref>

=== Aesthetics: metaphysical value-judgments ===
{{See also|Romantic realism}}
The Objectivist theory of [[art]] derives from its epistemology, by way of "psycho-epistemology" (Rand's term for an individual's characteristic mode of functioning in acquiring knowledge). Art, according to Objectivism, serves a human cognitive need: it allows human beings to understand concepts as though they were [[percept]]s. Objectivism defines "art" as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments"—that is, according to what the artist believes to be ultimately true and important about the nature of reality and humanity. In this respect Objectivism regards art as a way of presenting abstractions concretely, in perceptual form.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=417}}</ref>

The human need for art, according to this idea, derives from the need for cognitive economy. A concept is already a sort of mental shorthand standing for a large number of concretes, allowing a human being to think indirectly or implicitly of many more such concretes than can be kept explicitly in mind. But a human being cannot keep indefinitely many concepts explicitly in mind either—and yet, according to Objectivism, they need a comprehensive conceptual framework to provide guidance in life. Art offers a way out of this dilemma by providing a perceptual, easily grasped means of communicating and thinking about a wide range of abstractions, including one's metaphysical value-judgments. Objectivism regards art as an effective way to communicate a moral or ethical ideal.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=422}}</ref> Objectivism does not, however, regard art as propagandistic: even though art involves moral values and ideals, its purpose is not to educate, only to show or project. Moreover, art need not be, and usually is not, the outcome of a full-blown, explicit philosophy. Usually, it stems from an artist's ''sense of life'' (which is preconceptual and largely emotional).<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=426}}</ref>

The end goal of Rand's own artistic endeavors was to portray the ideal man. ''The Fountainhead'' is the best example of this effort.<ref>{{harvnb|Barr|2012}}</ref> Rand uses the character of Roark to embody the concept of the higher man which she believes is what great art should do—embody the characteristics of the best of humanity. This symbolism should be represented in all art; artistic expression should be an extension of the greatness in humanity.

Rand said that [[Romanticism]] was the highest school of literary art, noting that Romanticism was "based on the recognition of the principle that man possesses the faculty of volition", absent which, Rand believed, literature is robbed of dramatic power, adding:
{{Blockquote|What the Romanticists brought to art was the ''primacy of values''... Values are the source of emotions: a great deal of emotional intensity was projected in the work of the Romanticists and in the reactions of their audiences, as well as a great deal of color, imagination, originality, excitement, and all the other consequences of a value-oriented view of life.<ref>"What is Romanticism?" in {{harvnb|Rand|1971}}</ref>}}

The term "romanticism", however, is often affiliated with emotionalism, to which Objectivism is completely opposed. Historically, many romantic artists were philosophically [[subjectivist]]. Most Objectivists who are also artists subscribe to what they term [[romantic realism]], which is how Rand described her own work.<ref>{{harvnb|Torres|Kamhi|2000|pp=31–32}}; {{harvnb|Holzer|2005|pp=115–125}}</ref>

== Development by other authors ==
{{See also|Objectivist movement}}
{{multiple image
| perrow            = 2
| total_width       = 300
| image1            = Leonard Peikoff.tiff
| width1            = 319
| height1           = 425
| image2            = TiborMachan Italy06.jpg
| width2            = 319
| height2           = 425
| image3            = Tara Smith.jpg
| width3            = 319
| height3           = 425
| image4            = Harry Binswanger.jpg
| width4            = 319
| height4           = 425
| footer            = Philosophers such as [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Tibor Machan]], [[Harry Binswanger]] and [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]] (clockwise from upper left) have worked on Objectivism since Rand's death.
}}
Several authors have developed and applied Rand's ideas in their own work. Rand described Peikoff's ''[[The Ominous Parallels]]'' (1982), as "the first book by an Objectivist philosopher other than myself".<ref>Rand, Ayn. "Introduction". In {{harvnb|Peikoff|1982|p=vii}}</ref> During 1991, Peikoff published ''[[Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand]]'', a comprehensive exposition of Rand's philosophy.<ref>{{harvnb|Peikoff|1991|p=iv}}</ref> [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra]] discusses Rand's ideas and theorizes about their intellectual origins in ''[[Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical]]'' (1995). Surveys such as ''[[On Ayn Rand]]'' by [[Allan Gotthelf]] (1999), ''Ayn Rand'' by [[Tibor R. Machan]] (2000), and ''Objectivism in One Lesson'' by [[Andrew Bernstein (philosopher)|Andrew Bernstein]] (2009) provide briefer introductions to Rand's ideas.

Some scholars have emphasized applying Objectivism to more specific areas. Machan has developed Rand's contextual conception of human knowledge (while also drawing on the insights of [[J. L. Austin]] and [[Gilbert Harman]]) in works such as ''Objectivity'' (2004), and [[David Kelley (philosopher)|David Kelley]] has explicated Rand's epistemological ideas in works such as ''The Evidence of the Senses'' (1986) and ''A Theory of Abstraction'' (2001). Regarding the topic of ethics, Kelley has argued in works such as ''Unrugged Individualism'' (1996) and ''The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand'' (2000) that Objectivists should pay more attention to the virtue of benevolence and place less emphasis on issues of moral sanction. Kelley's claims have been controversial, and critics Peikoff and [[Peter Schwartz (writer)|Peter Schwartz]] have argued that he contradicts important principles of Objectivism.<ref name="Fact and Value">{{harvnb|Peikoff|1989b}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|1989}}</ref> Kelley has used the term "Open Objectivism" for a version of Objectivism that involves "a commitment to reasoned, non-dogmatic discussion and debate", "the recognition that Objectivism is open to expansion, refinement, and revision", and "a policy of benevolence toward others, including fellow-travelers and critics".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.atlassociety.org/open_objectivism_david_kelley|website=Atlas Society|title=A Note to Our Members About Open Objectivism|date=October 17, 2008|last=Kelley|first=David}}</ref> Arguing against Kelley, Peikoff characterized Objectivism as a "closed system" that is not subject to change.<ref name="Fact and Value"/>

An author who emphasizes Rand's ethics, [[Tara Smith (philosopher)|Tara Smith]], retains more of Rand's original ideas in such works as ''Moral Rights and Political Freedom'' (1995), ''Viable Values'' (2000), and ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics'' (2006).<ref>{{cite web |title=Comments on Tara Smith's ''Viable Values'' |access-date=May 29, 2009 |date=December 2000 |url=http://enlightenment.supersaturated.com/essays/text/irfankhawaja/viablevaluescomment.html |first=Irfan |last=Khawaja }}; {{cite journal |title=Egoism Explained: A Review of Tara Smith's ''Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist'' |journal=The Objective Standard |date=Spring 2007 |volume=2 |issue=1 |url=http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2007-spring/egoism-explained.asp |first=Diana |last=Hsieh|access-date=May 29, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328111053/http://www.theobjectivestandard.com/issues/2007-spring/egoism-explained.asp |archive-date=March 28, 2014 }}</ref> In collaboration with Peikoff, David Harriman has developed a theory of [[scientific method|scientific]] [[Inductive reasoning|induction]] based upon Rand's theory of concepts in ''The Logical Leap: Induction in Physics'' (2010).<ref>Harriman, David, ''The Logical Leap'', 2010, New American Library.</ref>

The [[Political philosophy|political]] aspects of Rand's philosophy are discussed by Bernstein in ''The Capitalist Manifesto'' (2005). In ''Capitalism: A Treatise on Economics'' (1996), [[George Reisman]] attempts to integrate Objectivist methodology and insights with both [[Classical Economics|Classical]] and [[Austrian Economics|Austrian economics]]. In psychology, Professor [[Edwin Locke|Edwin A. Locke]] and Ellen Kenner have explored Rand's ideas in the publication ''The Selfish Path to Romance: How to Love with Passion & Reason''.<ref>[[Edwin Locke|Locke, Edwin]] and Kenner, Ellen, Platform, 2011</ref> Other writers have explored the application of Objectivism to fields ranging from [[aesthetics|art]], as in ''What Art Is'' (2000) by Louis Torres and [[Michelle Marder Kamhi]], to [[teleology]], as in ''The Biological Basis of Teleological Concepts'' (1990) by [[Harry Binswanger]].

== Impact ==
One Rand biographer says most people who read Rand's works for the first time do it in their "formative years".<ref>{{cite book |title=Ayn Rand and the World She Made |last=Heller |first=Anne C. |location=New York |publisher=Doubleday |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-385-51399-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/aynrandworldshem0000hell/page/ xii] |title-link=Ayn Rand and the World She Made }}</ref> Rand's former protégé [[Nathaniel Branden]] referred to Rand's "especially powerful appeal to the young",<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Benefits and Hazards of the Philosophy of Ayn Rand: A Personal Statement |first=Nathaniel |last=Branden |author-link=Nathaniel Branden |journal=[[Journal of Humanistic Psychology]] |date=Fall 1984 |volume=24 |issue=4 |url=http://mol.redbarn.org/objectivism/Writing/NathanielBranden/BenefitsAndHazards.html |pages=29–64 |doi=10.1177/0022167884244004 |s2cid=144772216 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717195811/http://mol.redbarn.org/objectivism/Writing/NathanielBranden/BenefitsAndHazards.html |archive-date=July 17, 2011  |url-access=subscription }}</ref> while {{interlanguage link|Onkar Ghate|eo||sq}} of the [[Ayn Rand Institute]] said Rand "appeals to the idealism of youth".<ref name="Ghate">{{cite web|last=Ghate|first=Onkar|date=February 2, 2008|title=The Appeal of Ayn Rand|url=http://capitalismmagazine.com/2008/02/the-appeal-of-ayn-rand/|access-date=April 22, 2014|website=Capitalism Magazine|archive-date=April 22, 2014|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140422194643/http://capitalismmagazine.com/2008/02/the-appeal-of-ayn-rand/}}</ref> This appeal has alarmed a number of critics of the philosophy.<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|1999|p=111}}</ref> Many of these young people later abandon their positive opinion of Rand and are often said to have "outgrown" her ideas.<ref name="Doherty544">{{cite book |title=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement |last=Doherty |first=Brian |author-link=Brian Doherty (journalist) |location=New York |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58648-350-0 |page=544|title-link=Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement }}</ref> Endorsers of Rand's work recognize the phenomenon, but attribute it to the loss of youthful idealism and inability to resist [[social pressure]]s for intellectual [[conformity]].<ref name="Ghate"/><ref name="Doherty544"/> In contrast, historian [[Jennifer Burns (historian)|Jennifer Burns]], writing in ''[[Goddess of the Market]]'' (2009), writes some critics "dismiss Rand as a shallow thinker appealing only to adolescents", although she thinks the critics "miss her significance" as a "[[gateway drug]]" to [[right-wing politics]].<ref>{{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=4}}</ref>

Academic philosophers have generally dismissed Objectivism since Rand first presented it.<ref name="academic"/> Objectivism has been termed "fiercely anti-academic" because of Rand's criticism of contemporary intellectuals.<ref name="McLemee"/> [[David Sidorsky]], a professor of moral and political philosophy at Columbia University, writes that Rand's work is "outside the mainstream" and is more of an [[ideology]] than a comprehensive philosophy.<ref>{{cite news |last=Harvey |first=Benjamin |url=http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050515/NEWS/505150346/1014 |title=Ayn Rand at 100: An 'ism' struts its stuff |newspaper=[[Rutland Herald]] |date=May 15, 2005 |access-date=July 20, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226153815/http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F20050515%2FNEWS%2F505150346%2F1014 |archive-date=December 26, 2007 }}</ref> British philosopher [[Ted Honderich]] notes that he deliberately excluded an article on Rand from ''[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'' (Rand is, however, mentioned in the article on popular philosophy by [[Anthony Quinton, Baron Quinton|Anthony Quinton]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Honderich|2005|pp=x, 740}}</ref> Rand is the subject of entries in the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'',<ref name="Badhwar 2010"/> ''The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers'',<ref name=dmap>{{harvnb|Salmieri|Gotthelf|2005}}</ref> the ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'',<ref>{{harvnb|Hicks|2005}}</ref> ''The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Political Thinkers'',<ref>{{harvnb|Stevens|1998}}</ref> and ''The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy''.<ref>Mautner, Thomas. ''The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy''. Penguin Books, 2000, p. 469.</ref> Chandran Kukathas writes in an entry about Rand in the ''[[Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', "The influence of Rand's ideas was strongest among college students in the USA but attracted little attention from academic philosophers." Kukathas also writes that her defenses of capitalism and selfishness "kept her out of the intellectual mainstream".<ref name="Kukathas">{{harvnb|Kukathas|1998}}</ref>

During the 1990s, Rand's works were more likely to be encountered in American classrooms.<ref name="McLemee"/> The Ayn Rand Society, dedicated to fostering the scholarly study of Objectivism, is affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]'s Eastern Division.<ref>{{harvnb|Sciabarra|1995|p=386n.7}}</ref> [[Aristotle]] scholar and Objectivist [[Allan Gotthelf]], late chairman of the society, and his colleagues argued for more academic study of Objectivism, considering the philosophy as a unique and intellectually interesting defense of [[classical liberalism]] that is worth debating.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Den Uyl |first=Douglas J. |author-link=Douglas Den Uyl |url=http://www.reasonpapers.com/pdf/23/rp_23_5.pdf |title=On Rand as Philosopher |journal=Reason Papers |volume=23 |pages=70–71 |year=1998 |access-date=August 8, 2011}}</ref> In 1999, a refereed ''[[Journal of Ayn Rand Studies]]'' began.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jeff |last=Sharlet |title=Ayn Rand has finally caught the attention of scholars: New books and research projects involve philosophy, political theory, literary criticism, and feminism |journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education |volume=45 |issue=31 |date=April 9, 1999 |pages=17–18}}</ref> Programs and fellowships for the study of Objectivism have been supported at the University of Pittsburgh, [[University of Texas at Austin]] and [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]].<ref>{{harvnb|Gladstein|2009|pp=116–117}}; {{harvnb|Burns|2009|p=297}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Libertarianism}}
* [[Bibliography of Ayn Rand and Objectivism]]
* [[Objectivism and homosexuality]]
* [[Objectivism and libertarianism]]
* [[Objectivist periodicals]]
* [[Philosophical fiction]]
*[[Economic subjectivism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|25em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayn-rand/|title=Ayn Rand|last1=Badhwar|first1=Neera|author-link1=Neera K. Badhwar|last2=Long|first2=Roderick T.|editor-first=Edward N.|editor-last=Zalta|editor-link=Edward N. Zalta|date=Fall 2020|website=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]|access-date=May 20, 2021|name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite journal|last=Barr |first=Emily J. |title=Sex and the Egoist: Measuring Ayn Rand's Fiction Against Her Philosophy |journal=The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies |volume=12 |issue=2 |date=December 2012 |pages=193–206 |doi=10.2307/41717247 |jstor=41717247}}
* {{cite book|title=On Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism |last=Barry |first=Norman P. |author-link=Norman P. Barry |location=New York |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-312-00243-5 |oclc=14134854}}
* {{cite book|title=Objectivism in One Lesson: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Ayn Rand |last=Bernstein |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Bernstein (philosopher) |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Hamilton Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-7618-4359-7}}
* {{cite journal|last=Binswanger |first=Harry |author-link=Harry Binswanger |title=Volition as Cognitive Self-Regulation |journal=[[Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes]] |volume=50 |issue=2 |date=December 1991 |pages=154–178 |doi=10.1016/0749-5978(91)90019-P}}
* {{cite book|title=The Biological Basis of Teleological Concepts |last=Binswanger |first=Harry |author-link=Harry Binswanger |location=Los Angeles |publisher=[[Ayn Rand Institute]] Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-9625336-0-0}}
* {{cite book|title=The Passion of Ayn Rand |last=Branden |first=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Branden |location=New York|publisher=[[Anchor Books]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-385-24388-9}}
* {{cite book|title=The Psychology of Self-Esteem |chapter=Man: A Being of Volitional Consciousness |last=Branden |first=Nathaniel |author-link=Nathaniel Branden |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Nash Publishing |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-8402-1109-5 |title-link=The Psychology of Self-Esteem}}
* {{cite book |first=Eric |last=Burns |author-link=Eric Burns |year=2020 |title=1957: The Year that Launched the American Future |location=Lanham, Maryland |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-5381-3995-0}}
* {{cite book|title=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right |last=Burns |first=Jennifer |author-link=Jennifer Burns (historian) |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-532487-7 |oclc=313665028 |title-link=Goddess of the Market: Ayn Rand and the American Right}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Cocks |editor-first=Neil |title=Questioning Ayn Rand: Subjectivity, Political Economy, and the Arts |series=Palgrave Studies in Literature, Culture and Economics |location=Cham, Switzerland |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |edition=Kindle |date=2020 |isbn=978-3-030-53072-3}}
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Den Uyl |editor1-first=Douglas |editor1-link=Douglas Den Uyl |editor2-last=Rasmussen |editor2-first=Douglas B. |editor2-link=Douglas B. Rasmussen |title=The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-252-01407-9 |title-link=The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand  |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book|title=The New Ayn Rand Companion |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |author-link=Mimi Reisel Gladstein |location=Westport, CN|publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-313-30321-0 |oclc=40359365}}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand |last=Gladstein |first=Mimi Reisel |location=New York |publisher=Continuum |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8264-4513-1 |oclc=319595162 |series=Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series}}
* {{cite book|title=On Ayn Rand |last=Gotthelf |first=Allan |author-link=Allan Gotthelf |publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-534-57625-7 |title-link=On Ayn Rand}}
* {{cite book |title=A Companion to Ayn Rand |editor1-last=Gotthelf |editor1-first=Allan |editor-link1=Allan Gotthelf |editor2-last=Salmieri |editor2-first=Gregory |location=Chichester, United Kingdom |publisher=[[Wiley Blackwell]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4051-8684-1 |series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy |name-list-style=amp |url=https://archive.org/details/a-companion-to-ayn-rand}}
* {{cite book|title=Metaethics, Egoism, and Virtue: Studies in Ayn Rand's Normative Theory |editor1-last=Gotthelf |editor1-first=Allan |editor2-last=Lennox |editor2-first=James G. |location=Pittsburgh |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8229-4400-3 |oclc=617508678 |series=Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book|first=Jenny A. |last=Heyl |chapter=Ayn Rand (1905–1982) |editor-first=Mary Ellen |editor-last=Waithe |title=Contemporary Women Philosophers: 1900–today |series=A History of Women Philosophers series |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |location=Boston |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7923-2808-7 |oclc=30029022 |pages=207–224}}
* {{cite web|last=Hicks |first=Stephen R. C. |author-link=Stephen Hicks |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/r/rand.htm |title=Ayn Rand (1905-1982) |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=July 7, 2005 |access-date=March 15, 2011}}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand: My Fiction Writing Teacher |last=Holzer |first=Erika |author-link=Erika Holzer |location=Indio, CA |publisher=Madison Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-615-13041-5 |oclc=70662150}}
* {{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |last=Honderich |first=Ted |author-link=Ted Honderich |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-926479-7}}
* {{cite book|title=The Evidence of the Senses: A Realist Theory of Perception |last=Kelley |first=David |author-link=David Kelley (philosopher)|location=Baton Rouge|publisher=[[Louisiana State University]] Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8071-1268-7}}
* {{cite book|last=Kukathas |first=Chandran |author-link=Chandran Kukathas |year=1998 |chapter=Rand, Ayn (1905–82) |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |volume=8 |pages=55–56 |isbn=978-0-415-07310-3 |oclc=318280731 |title-link=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand |last=Machan |first=Tibor R. |author-link=Tibor R. Machan |location=New York |publisher=Peter Lang Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8204-4144-3 |oclc=41096316 |series=Masterworks in the Western Tradition}}
* {{cite book|title=The Ominous Parallels: The End of Freedom in America |last=Peikoff |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=[[Stein and Day]] |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8128-2850-4 |title-link=The Ominous Parallels}}
* {{cite journal|last=Peikoff |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Peikoff |title=Why Should One Act on Principle? |journal=The Intellectual Activist |date=February 27, 1989a |volume=4 |issue=20 |url=https://courses.aynrand.org/works/why-should-one-act-on-principle/}}
* {{cite journal|title=Fact and Value |journal=The Intellectual Activist |date=May 18, 1989b |volume=5 |issue=1 |url=https://peikoff.com/essays_and_articles/fact-and-value/ |first=Leonard |last=Peikoff}}
* {{cite book|title=Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand |last=Peikoff |first=Leonard |author-link=Leonard Peikoff |location=New York |publisher=[[E. P. Dutton|Dutton]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-452-01101-4 |title-link=Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |author-link=Ayn Rand |title=Atlas Shrugged |location=New York |publisher=Dutton |year=1992 |orig-date=1957 |edition=35th anniversary |isbn=978-0-525-94892-6 |title-link=Atlas Shrugged}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=For the New Intellectual |location=New York |publisher=[[Random House]] |year=1961 |title-link=For the New Intellectual}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=The Virtue of Selfishness |location=New York |publisher=Signet |year=1964 |edition=paperback |isbn=978-0-451-16393-6 |title-link=The Virtue of Selfishness}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal |location=New York |publisher=Signet |year=1967 |orig-date=1966 |edition=paperback 2nd |title-link=Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=Philosophy: Who Needs It |editor-last=Peikoff |editor-first=Leonard |editor-link=Leonard Peikoff |year=1982 |location=New York |publisher=Signet |edition=paperback |isbn=978-0-451-13249-9 |title-link=Philosophy: Who Needs It}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology |editor1-last=Binswanger |editor1-first=Harry |editor-link1=Harry Binswanger |editor2-last=Peikoff |editor2-first=Leonard |editor-link2=Leonard Peikoff |edition=second |location=New York |publisher=Meridian |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-452-01030-7 |oclc=20353709 |name-list-style=amp |title-link=Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |title=The Romantic Manifesto |location=New York |publisher=Signet |year=1971 |edition=paperback |oclc=733753672 |title-link=The Romantic Manifesto}}
* {{cite book|last=Rand |first=Ayn |editor-last=Mayhew |editor-first=Robert |year=2005 |title=Ayn Rand Answers, the Best of Her Q&A |publisher=New American Library |location=New York |isbn=978-0-451-21665-6 |oclc=59148253}}
* {{cite book|editor-first=John |editor-last=Shook |first1=Gregory |last1=Salmieri |first2=Allan |last2=Gotthelf |chapter=Ayn Rand |title=The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers |publisher=Thoemmes Continuum |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84371-037-0 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite journal|title=On Moral Sanctions |journal=The Intellectual Activist |date=May 18, 1989 |volume=5 |issue=1 |url=http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_sanctions |first=Peter |last=Schwartz |access-date=May 29, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806002155/http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_sanctions |archive-date=August 6, 2013 }}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |author-link=Chris Matthew Sciabarra |location=University Park|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-271-01440-1 |oclc=31133644 |title-link=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical}}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical |last=Sciabarra |first=Chris Matthew |location=University Park|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-271-06227-3 |oclc=853618653 |title-link=Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical}}
* {{cite book|title=Viable Values: A Study of Life as the Root and Reward of Morality |last=Smith |first=Tara |author-link=Tara Smith (philosopher) |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8476-9760-1 |oclc=42397381}}
* {{cite book|title=Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist |last=Smith |first=Tara |location=New York |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn= 978-0-521-86050-5 |oclc=60971741}}
* {{cite book|title=Moral Rights and Political Freedom |last=Smith |first=Tara |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8476-8026-9 |oclc=31710378}}
* {{cite book|editor1-first=Robert |editor1-last=Benewick |editor2-first=Philip |editor2-last=Green |first=Jacqueline |last=Stevens |chapter=Ayn Rand |title=The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Political Thinkers |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=1998 |edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-415-15881-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/routledgediction0000unse_v6p4/page/263 263–264] |name-list-style=amp |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/routledgediction0000unse_v6p4/page/263 }}
* {{cite book|title=What Art Is: The Esthetic Theory of Ayn Rand |last1=Torres |first1=Louis |last2=Kamhi |first2=Michelle Marder |location=Chicago |publisher=Open Court Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8126-9372-0 |oclc=43787446 |name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book|title=Then Athena Said: Unilateral Transfers and the Transformation of Objectivist Ethics |last=Touchstone |first=Kathleen |location=Lanham, MD|publisher=University Press of America |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7618-3519-6 |oclc=70783649}}
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Kelley |first=David |author-link=David Kelley (philosopher) |editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n221 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=363–364 |chapter=Objectivism |url-access=subscription }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [https://ari.aynrand.org/about-ari/mission-and-purpose/ Ayn Rand Institute: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism]
* [http://www.atlassociety.org/ The Atlas Society: The Center for Objectivism]
* [http://capitalism.org/ Capitalism.org]&nbsp;– an Objectivist website and publishers of ''Capitalism'' on-line magazine
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216220006/http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/ The Objectivism Reference Center]

{{Ayn Rand|state=expanded}}
{{libertarianism}}
{{philosophy topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Objectivism| ]]<!-- Eponymous category first. -->
[[Category:American philosophy]]
[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Epistemological theories]]
[[Category:Egoism]]
[[Category:Individualism]]
[[Category:Libertarian theory]]
[[Category:Metaphysical theories]]
[[Category:Philosophical schools and traditions]]
[[Category:Philosophy and atheism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Theories of aesthetics]]
[[Category:Ethical theories]]