View source for Occitan language

{{Short description|Romance language of Western Europe}}
{{Distinguish|Ossetian language}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Occitan
| nativename       = {{lang|oc|occitan}}, {{Lang|oc|lenga d'òc}}, {{lang|oc|provençal / provençau}}
| states           = France, Spain, Italy, Monaco
| ethnicity        = [[Occitans]]
| speakers         = {{circa|200,000}}
| date             = 1990&ndash;2012
| ref              = e25
| speakers2        = Estimates range from {{sigfig|110,000|1}} to {{sigfig|789,000|1}} total speakers (2007–2012),<ref name="bernissan">{{Cite journal |last=Bernissan |first=Fabrice  |year=2012 |title=Combien l'occitan compte de locuteurs en 2012? |journal=Revue de Linguistique Romane |volume=76 |pages=467–512 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="martel">{{Cite magazine |last=Martel |first=Philippe |date=December 2007 |title=Qui parle occitan ? |url=http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Observation-des-pratiques-linguistiques/Langues-et-cite/Langues-et-cite-n-10-l-occitan |magazine=Langues et cité |language=fr |publisher=Observation des pratiques linguistiques |issue=10 |page=3 |quote=De fait, le nombre des locuteurs de l'occitan a pu être estimé par l'INED dans un premier temps à 526 000 personnes, puis à 789 000 ("In fact, the number of Occitan speakers was estimated by the French Demographics Institute at 526,000 people, then 789,000") |access-date=14 September 2018 |archive-date=14 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914165442/http://www.culture.gouv.fr/Thematiques/Langue-francaise-et-langues-de-France/Observation-des-pratiques-linguistiques/Langues-et-cite/Langues-et-cite-n-10-l-occitan |url-status=live }}</ref> with 68,000 in Italy (2005 survey),<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=Enrico Allasino|author2=Consuelo Ferrier|author3=Sergio Scamuzzi|author4=Tullio Telmon|date=2005|title=Le Lingue del Piemonte|url=https://www.gioventurapiemonteisa.net/wp-content/uploads/docs/ires_quaderno_113.pdf|journal=IRES|volume=113|page=71|via=Gioventura Piemontèisa|access-date=4 March 2020|archive-date=16 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220216080051/http://www.gioventurapiemonteisa.net/wp-content/uploads/docs/ires_quaderno_113.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> 4,000 in Spain ([[Val d'Aran]])<ref>{{Citation |title=Enquesta d'usos lingüístics de la població 2008 |date=2009 |url=https://llengua.gencat.cat/permalink/ef6f907d-5381-11e4-8f3f-000c29cdf219 |trans-title=Survey of Language Use of the Population 2008 |publisher=Statistical Institute of Catalonia |language=ca |access-date=4 March 2020 |archive-date=17 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201017075739/https://llengua.gencat.cat/permalink/ef6f907d-5381-11e4-8f3f-000c29cdf219 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3             = [[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]
| fam4             = [[Latin]]
| fam5             = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam6             = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam7             = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam8             = Gallo-Iberian?
| fam9             = (disputed)
| fam10            = [[Occitano-Romance languages|Occitano-Romance]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Latin]]
| ancestor2        = [[Vulgar Latin]]
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Romance language|Proto-Romance]]
| ancestor4        = [[Old Occitan]]
| script           = [[Latin alphabet]] ([[Occitan alphabet]])
| nation           = Spain
*[[Catalonia]] (as [[Aranese dialect|Aranese]])
| minority         = France
*[[Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes]]
*[[Centre-Val de Loire]]
*[[Nouvelle-Aquitaine]]
*[[Occitania (administrative region)|Occitania]]
*[[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
Italy
*[[Guardia Piemontese]]
*[[Occitan Valleys]] (Law number 482 of 15 December 1999)<ref name="parl">{{citation |url=http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm |title=Norme in materia di tutela delle minoranze linguistiche storiche |publisher=Italian parliament |access-date=18 June 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502202046/http://www.parlamento.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[Monaco]]
| agency           = [[Conselh de la Lenga Occitana]];<ref>CLO's statements in Lingüistica Occitana (online review of Occitan linguistics).{{Citation |title=Lingüistica Occitana: Preconizacions del Conselh de la Lenga Occitana |date=2007 |url=http://linguistica-oc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Linguistica-occitana-6-CLO.pdf |issue=6 |access-date=17 March 2020 |archive-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216031117/http://linguistica-oc.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Linguistica-occitana-6-CLO.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Congrès Permanent de la Lenga Occitana;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aquitaine.fr/salle-de-presse/communiques-de-presse/congres-permanent-de-la-langue-occitane/congres-permanent-de-la-lenga-occitana-un-nouvel-organisme-de-regulation-de-l-occitan-au-service-des-usagers-et-des-locuteurs.html|title=Page d'accueil|website=Région Nouvelle-Aquitaine – Aquitaine Limousin Poitou-Charentes|access-date=25 December 2011|archive-date=27 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127053323/http://aquitaine.fr/salle-de-presse/communiques-de-presse/congres-permanent-de-la-langue-occitane/congres-permanent-de-la-lenga-occitana-un-nouvel-organisme-de-regulation-de-l-occitan-au-service-des-usagers-et-des-locuteurs.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Institut d'Estudis Aranesi<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.conselharan.org/reconeishenca-der-institut-destudis-aranesi-coma-academia-e-autoritat-linguistica-der-occitan-aranes-en-aran/ |title=Reconeishença der Institut d'Estudis Aranesi coma academia e autoritat lingüistica der occitan, aranés en Aran |date=2 April 2014 |website=Conselh Generau d'Aran |language=oc |trans-title=Recognition of the Institute of Aranese Studies as an academy and linguistic authority of Occitan, Aranese in Aran |access-date=5 May 2015 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226222419/https://www.conselharan.org/reconeishenca-der-institut-destudis-aranesi-coma-academia-e-autoritat-linguistica-der-occitan-aranes-en-aran/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| iso1             = oc
| iso2             = oci
| iso3             = oci
| lc1              = sdt
| ld1              = [[Judeo-Occitan]]
| glotto           = occi1239
| glottorefname    = Occitan
| lingua           = 51-AAA-g & 51-AAA-f
| dia1             = [[Auvergnat dialect|Auvergnat]]
| dia2             = [[Gascon dialect|Gascon]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Aranese dialect|Aranese]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Judeo-Gascon]] {{†}}
| dia3             = [[Languedocien dialect|Languedocien]]
| dia4             = [[Limousin dialect|Limousin]]
| dia5             = [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Judeo-Provençal]] {{†}}{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Niçard dialect|Niçard]]{{Indent|2}}{{*}}[[Judeo-Niçard]] {{†}}
| dia6             = [[Vivaro-Alpine dialect|Vivaro-Alpine]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Gardiol language|Gardiol]]
| dia8             = [[Croissant (linguistic zone)|Croissant]]{{Indent|1}}{{*}}[[Marchois (dialect)|Marchois]]
| notice           = IPA
| image            = 
| imagecaption     = 
| region           = [[Occitania]]
| stand1           = [[Aranese dialect|Aranese]] in Spain
| map              = Occitan_language_map_1900_(Europe_only).svg
| mapcaption       = Geographic range of the Occitan language around 1900
| map2             = {{multiple image
 | direction = vertical
 | image1 = Lang Status 40-SE.svg
 | class1 = bg-transparent
 | alt1 = 
 | image2 = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
 | class2 = bg-transparent
 | alt2 = 
 | footer = {{center|Provençal, Auvergnat, Limousin, Gardiol, and Languedocien Occitan are classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref>18</ref>}}<br />{{center|Gascon and Vivaro-Alpine Occitan are classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.<ref>18</ref>}}
}}
| mapcaption2      = 
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|oc|leŋɡɒ ˈðɔ(k)||Oc-Lenga d'òc.ogg|}}
}}

'''Occitan''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|pron|ˈ|ɒ|k|s|ᵻ|t|ən|,_|-|t|æ|n|,_|-|t|ɑː|n}};<ref name=":1">{{OED|Occitan}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite encyclopedia |year=2005 |encyclopedia=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary |edition=7th|title=Occitan}}</ref> {{IPA|oc|utsiˈta, uksiˈta}}),{{efn|Regional pronunciations: {{IPA|oc|uksiˈtã(n), uwsiˈtã(n), ukʃiˈtɔ, uksiˈtɔ|}}.}} also known by its native speakers as '''{{Lang|oc|lenga d'òc}}''' ({{IPA|oc|ˈleŋɡɒ ˈðɔ(k)|lang|Oc-Lenga_d'òc.ogg}}; {{langx|fr|langue d'oc}}), sometimes also referred to as '''Provençal''', is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] spoken in southern France, [[Monaco]], Italy's [[Occitan Valleys]], as well as in the [[Catalonia|Catalonian]] [[Val d'Aran]]; collectively, these regions are sometimes referred to as [[Occitania]]. It is also spoken in the southern Italian province of [[Province of Cosenza|Cosenza]] (mostly in [[Guardia Piemontese]]). There it is referred to as [[Gardiol language|Gardiol]], which is considered a separate Occitanic language.<ref>{{Glottolog|gard1245|Gardiol}}</ref> Some include [[Catalan language|Catalan]] as a dialect of Occitan, as the [[linguistic distance]] between this language and some Occitan dialects (such as the [[Gascon language]]) is similar to the distance between different Occitan dialects. Catalan was considered a dialect of Occitan until the end of the 19th century<ref>{{cite book|last1=Friend|first1=Julius W.|title=Stateless Nations: Western European Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations|date=2012|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0-230-36179-9|page=80|url=https://books.google.co.in/books?id=qnM7xFCej5cC&pg=PA80&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false|access-date=3 October 2025}}</ref> and still today remains its closest relative.<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Bergin|1984|p=9}}</ref> Occitan has a particularly rich lexicon. ''Lo Panoccinari'', considered the most comprehensive dictionary ever published in this language, records over 250,000 unique words<ref>Mica GBM (2025), ''Lo Panoccinari (Volume Four)'', p. 789.</ref> (more than 310,000 including dialectal variations).

Occitan is an official language of Catalonia, Spain, where a subdialect of Gascon known as [[Aranese dialect|Aranese]] is spoken (in the [[Val d'Aran]]).<ref>As stated in its [[Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia|Statute of Autonomy]] approved. See Article 6.5 in the [http://www.parlament-cat.net/porteso/estatut/estatut_angles_100506.pdf Parlament-cat.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826045656/http://www.parlament-cat.net/porteso/estatut/estatut_angles_100506.pdf |date=26 August 2013 }}, text of the 2006 Statute of Catalonia (PDF)</ref> Since September 2010, the [[Parliament of Catalonia]] has considered Aranese Occitan to be the officially preferred language for use in the Val d'Aran.

Across history, the terms [[Limousin dialect|Limousin]] (''Lemosin''), [[Languedocien dialect|Languedocien]] (''Lengadocian''), [[Gascon dialect|Gascon]], in addition to [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]] (''Provençal'', ''Provençau'' or ''Prouvençau'') later have been used as synonyms for the whole of Occitan; nowadays, the term "Provençal" is understood mainly as the Occitan dialect spoken in [[Provence]], in southeast France.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalby |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Dalby |title=Dictionary of Languages |chapter-url=http://www.bloomsbury.com/ |edition=1st |year=1998 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing plc |isbn=0-7475-3117-X |page=468 |chapter=Occitan |access-date=8 November 2006 |archive-date=25 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725193152/http://www.bloomsbury.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Unlike other Romance languages such as French or Spanish, Occitan does not have a single written standard form, nor does it have official status in France, home to most of its speakers. Instead, there are competing norms for writing Occitan, some of which attempt to be pan-dialectal, whereas others are based on a particular dialect. These efforts are hindered by the rapidly declining use of Occitan as a spoken language in much of southern France, as well as by the significant differences in phonology and vocabulary among different Occitan dialects.

According to the [[UNESCO]] [[Red Book of Endangered Languages]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php|title=UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger|website=UNESCO|access-date=18 July 2011|archive-date=27 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627041634/http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php|url-status=dead }}</ref> four of the six major dialects of Occitan (Provençal, [[Auvergnat dialect|Auvergnat]], Limousin and Languedocien) are considered [[Endangered language#Defining and measuring endangerment|severely endangered]], whereas the remaining two ([[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Vivaro-Alpine dialect|Vivaro-Alpine]]) are considered [[Endangered language#Defining and measuring endangerment|definitely endangered]].

==Name==
===History of the modern term===
The name Occitan comes from the term {{lang|oc|lenga d'òc}} ("language of {{lang|oc|italic=no|òc}}"), {{lang|oc|òc}} being the Occitan word for ''yes.'' While the term would have been in use orally for some time after the decline of Latin, as far as historical records show, the Italian medieval poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] was the first to have recorded the term {{lang|oc|lingua d'oc}} in writing. In his {{lang|la|[[De vulgari eloquentia]]}}, he wrote in Latin, {{lang|la|"nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil"}} ("for some say {{lang|oc|òc}}, others {{lang|it|sì}}, yet others say {{lang|fro|oïl}}"), thereby highlighting three major [[Romance languages|Romance literary languages]] that were well known in Italy, based on each language's word for "yes", the ''{{lang|oc|òc}} language'' (Occitan), the ''{{lang|fro|oïl}} language'' (French), and the ''{{lang|it|sì}} language'' (Italian).

The word {{lang|oc|òc}} came from [[Vulgar Latin]] {{lang|la|hoc}} ("this"), while {{lang|fro|oïl}} originated from Latin {{lang|la|hoc illud}} ("this [is] it"). [[Old Catalan]] and now the Catalan of Northern Catalonia also have {{lang|ca|hoc}} ({{lang|ca|òc}}). Other Romance languages derive their word for "yes" from the Latin {{lang|la|sic}}, "thus [it is], [it was done], etc.", such as Spanish {{lang|es|sí}}, [[Eastern Lombard dialect|Eastern Lombard]] {{lang|lmo|sé}}, Italian {{lang|it|sì}}, or Portuguese {{lang|pt|sim}}. In modern Catalan, as in modern Spanish, {{lang|ca|sí}} is usually used as a response, although the language retains the word {{lang|ca|oi}}, akin to {{lang|oc|òc}}, which is sometimes used at the end of [[yes–no question]]s and also in higher register as a positive response.<ref>{{cite book|first=Antoni M.|last=Badia i Margarit|title=Gramàtica de la llengua catalana: Descriptiva, normativa, diatòpica, diastràtica|publisher=Proa|location=Barcelona|year=1995}}, 253.1 {{in lang|ca}}</ref> French uses {{lang|fr|si}} to answer "yes" in response to questions that are asked in the negative sense: for example, {{lang|fr|"Vous n'avez pas de frères?" "Si, j'en ai sept."}} ("You don't have any brothers, do you ?" "Yes I do, I have seven.").

The name "Occitan" was attested around 1300 as {{lang|la|occitanus}}, a crossing of {{lang|la|oc}} and {{lang|la|aquitanus}} ([[Aquitania]]n).<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|Bergin|1984|p=2}}</ref>

===Other names for Occitan===
For many centuries, the Occitan dialects (together with [[Catalan language|Catalan]])<ref>[http://www.lapobladelduc.org/valencia/nom.htm Lapobladelduc.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806200731/http://www.lapobladelduc.org/valencia/nom.htm |date=6 August 2007 }}, {{lang|ca|italic=no|"El nom de la llengua"}}. ''The name of the language'', in Catalan</ref> were referred to as ''Limousin'' or ''Provençal'', after the names of two regions lying within the modern Occitan-speaking area. After [[Frédéric Mistral]]'s [[Félibrige]] movement in the 19th century, Provençal achieved the greatest literary recognition and so became the most popular term for Occitan.

According to [[Joseph Anglade]], a [[philology|philologist]] and specialist of [[Middle Ages|medieval]] literature who helped impose the then [[archaism|archaic]] term ''Occitan'' as the standard name,<ref>{{harvnb|Anglade|1921|p=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j/f46.image 10]}}: {{lang|fr|Sur Occitania ont été formés les adjectifs latins occitanus, occitanicus et les adjectifs français occitanique, occitanien, occitan (ce dernier terme plus récent), qui seraient excellents et qui ne prêteraient pas à la même confusion que provençal.}}</ref> the word ''Lemosin'' was first used to designate the language at the beginning of the 13th century by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[troubadour]] [[Raimon Vidal de Bezaudun|Raimon Vidal de Besalú(n)]] in his {{lang|ca|Razós de trobar}}:
<blockquote>
{{lang|oc|La parladura Francesca val mais et [es] plus avinenz a far romanz e pasturellas; mas cella de Lemozin val mais per far vers et cansons et serventés; et per totas las terras de nostre lengage son de major autoritat li cantar de la lenga Lemosina que de negun'autra parladura, per qu'ieu vos en parlarai primeramen.}}{{sfn|Anglade|1921|p=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j/f43.image 7]}}

The French language is worthier and better suited for romances and [[pastourelle]]s; but [the language] from [[History of Limousin|Limousin]] is of greater value for writing poems and [[canso (song)|cançons]] and [[sirventes|sirventés]]; and across the whole of the lands where our tongue is spoken, the literature in the Limousin language has more authority than any other dialect, wherefore I shall use this name in priority.
</blockquote>

The term ''Provençal'', though implying a reference to the region of [[Provence]], historically was used for Occitan as a whole, for "in the eleventh, the twelfth, and sometimes also the thirteenth centuries, one would understand under the name of Provence the whole territory of the old [[Gallia Narbonensis|Provincia romana Gallia Narbonensis]] and even [[Gallia Aquitania|Aquitaine]]".<ref>Camille Chabaneau et al, {{lang|fr|Histoire générale de Languedoc}}, 1872, p. 170: {{lang|fr|Au onzième, douzième et encore parfois au XIIIe siècle, on comprenait sous le nom de Provence tout le territoire de l'ancienne Provincia Romana et même de l'Aquitaine.}}</ref> The term first came into fashion in [[Italy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Anglade|1921|p=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j/f43.image 7]}}: {{lang|oc|Ce terme fut surtout employé en Italie}}.</ref>

Currently, [[linguist]]s use the terms ''Provençal'' and ''Limousin'' strictly to refer to specific varieties within Occitan, using ''Occitan'' for the language as a whole. Many non-specialists, however, continue to refer to the language as ''Provençal''.

==History==
{{further|Old Occitan|Occitan literature}}

One of the oldest written fragments of the language found dates back to 960, shown here in italics mixed with non-italicized Latin:
<blockquote>{{lang|la|italic=no|De ista hora in antea non {{lang|pro|cat=no|decebrà}} Ermengaus filius Eldiarda Froterio episcopo filio Girberga {{lang|pro|cat=no|ne}} Raimundo filio Bernardo vicecomite de castello de Cornone&nbsp;... {{lang|pro|cat=no|no·l li tolrà ni no·l li devedarà ni no l'en decebrà}}&nbsp;... nec societatem non {{lang|pro|cat=no|aurà}}, si per castellum recuperare {{lang|pro|cat=no|non o fa}}, et si recuperare potuerit in potestate Froterio et Raimundo {{lang|pro|cat=no|lo tornarà}}, per ipsas horas quæ Froterius et Raimundus {{lang|pro|cat=no|l'en comonrà}}.}}<ref>{{cite book | last=Raynouard | first=François Juste Marie | author-link=François Juste Marie Raynouard | year=1817 | title=Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (Volume 2) | publisher=F. Didot | place=Paris | page=40 | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784124w/f217.image | language=fr | access-date=22 February 2013 | archive-date=11 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911183059/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784124w/f217.image | url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

[[Charlemagne|Carolingian]] [[litany|litanies]] ({{Circa|780}}), though the leader sang in [[Latin]], were [[Response (liturgy)|answered]] to in Old Occitan by the people ({{lang|pro|Ora pro nos}}; {{lang|pro|Tu lo juva}}).<ref>{{cite book | last=Raynouard | first=François Juste Marie | year=1816 | title=Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (Volume 1) | publisher=F. Didot | place=Paris | page=vij | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784042g/f16.image | language=fr | access-date=22 February 2013 | archive-date=13 February 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213060659/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784042g/f16.image | url-status=live }}</ref>

Other famous pieces include the ''[[Boecis]]'', a 258-line-long poem written entirely in the Limousin dialect of Occitan between the year 1000 and 1030 and inspired by [[Boethius]]'s ''[[The Consolation of Philosophy]]''; the [[Waldensians|Waldensian]] {{lang|pro|[[La nobla leyczon]]}} (dated 1100),<ref>{{cite book | last=Raynouard | first=François Juste Marie | year=1817 | title=Choix des poésies originales des troubadours (Volume 2) | publisher=F. Didot | place=Paris | page=cxxxvij | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784124w/f150.image | language=fr | access-date=22 February 2013 | archive-date=28 July 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728025132/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5784124w/f150.image | url-status=live }}: {{lang|oc|"Ben ha mil e cent (1100) ancs complí entierament / Que fo scripta l'ora car sen al derier temps."}}</ref> {{lang|pro|{{Lang|oc|[[Cançó de Santa Fe]]}}}} ({{Circa|1054}}–1076), the ''[[Romance of Flamenca]]'' (13th century), the ''[[Song of the Albigensian Crusade]]'' (1213–1219?), {{lang|pro|[[Daurel e Betó]]}} (12th or 13th century), {{lang|pro|[[Las, qu'i non-sun sparvir, astur]]}} (11th century) and {{lang|pro|[[Tomida femina]]}} (9th or 10th century).

Occitan was the vehicle for the influential [[poetry]] of the medieval [[troubadours]] ({{lang|pro|trobadors}}) and {{lang|pro|[[trobairitz]]}}: At that time, the language was understood and celebrated throughout most of educated Europe.<ref>Charles Knight, ''Penny Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge'', Vol. XXV, 1843, p. 308: "At one time the language and poetry of the troubadours were in fashion in most of the courts of Europe."</ref> It was the maternal language of the English queen [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] and kings [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] (who wrote troubadour poetry) and [[John, King of England|John]].

With the gradual imposition of French royal power over its territory, Occitan declined in status from the 14th century on. The [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]] (1539) decreed that the {{lang|fr|langue d'oïl}} (French – though at the time referring to the [[Francien language]] and not the larger collection of dialects grouped under the name {{lang|fr|italic=no|[[langues d'oïl]]}}) should be used for all French administration. Occitan's greatest decline occurred during the [[French Revolution]], in which diversity of language was considered a threat.

In 1903, the four Gospels ({{lang|oc|italic= no|"Lis Evangèli"}}, i.e. Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) were translated into Provençal as spoken in Cannes and Grasse. The translation was given the official Roman Catholic Imprimatur by vicar general A. Estellon.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

The literary renaissance of the late 19th century (in which the 1904 [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] winner, [[Frédéric Mistral]], among others, was involved) was attenuated by [[World War I]], when (in addition to the disruption caused by any major war) many Occitan speakers spent extended periods of time alongside French-speaking comrades.

===Origins===
Because the geographical territory in which Occitan is spoken is surrounded by regions in which other [[Romance languages]] are used, external influences may have influenced its origin and development. Many factors favored its development as its own language.
* Mountains and seas: The range of Occitan is naturally bounded by the [[Mediterranean]], [[Atlantic]], [[Massif Central]], [[Alps]], and [[Pyrenees]], respectively.
* Buffer zones: [[arid]] land, [[marsh]]es, and areas otherwise impractical for farming and resistant of colonization provide further separation (territory between [[Loire]] and [[Garonne]], the [[Aragon]] desert plateau).
* Constant populations: Some Occitan-speaking peoples are descended from people living in the region since prehistoric times.{{sfn|Bec|1963}}
* Deeper [[Roman people|Roman]] influence: The Romans had established an earlier presence in Southern France in 121 BC beginning with [[Gallia Narbonensis]], where the seeds of the Occitan language were first sown. According to Müller, "France's linguistic separation began with Roman influence"{{sfn|Bec|1963|pp=20–21}}
* A separate [[lexicon]]: Although Occitan is midway between the [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] and [[Iberian Romance languages]], it has "around 550 words inherited from Latin that no longer exist in the langues d'oïl or in [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]]"{{sfn|Bec|1963|pp=20–21}}
* Lack of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] influence: "The [[Frankish language|Frankish]] lexicon and its phonetic influence often end above the {{lang|oc|oc}}/{{lang|fr|oïl}} line"{{sfn|Bec|1963|pp=20–21}}

===Occitan in the Iberian Peninsula===
Catalan in Spain's northern and central Mediterranean coastal regions and the [[Balearic Islands]] is closely related to Occitan, sharing many linguistic features and a common origin (see [[Occitano-Romance languages]]). The language was one of the first to gain prestige as a medium for literature among Romance languages in the Middle Ages. Indeed, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Catalan troubadours such as [[Guerau III de Cabrera|Guerau de Cabrera]], Guilhem de Bergadan, Guilhem de Cabestany, [[Huguet de Mataplana]], Raimon Vidal de Besalú, [[Cerverí de Girona]], Formit de Perpinhan, and [[Jofre de Foixà]] wrote in Occitan.

At the end of the 11th century, the ''[[Franks]]'', as they were called at the time, started to penetrate the [[Iberian Peninsula]] through the [[Way of St. James|Ways of St. James]] via [[Somport]] and [[Roncesvalles]], settling in various locations in the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] enticed by the privileges granted them by the [[List of Navarrese monarchs|Navarrese kings]]. They settled in large groups, forming ethnic [[borough]]s where Occitan was used for everyday life, in [[Pamplona]], [[Sangüesa]], and [[Estella-Lizarra]], among others.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cierbide Martinena | first1 = Ricardo | title = Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra | journal = Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología | issue = 20 | page = 247 | publisher = València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana; Abadia de Montserrat | year = 1996 | url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | issn = 0214-8188 | language = es | access-date = 20 April 2010 | archive-date = 8 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120108030828/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | url-status = live }}</ref> These boroughs in Navarre may have been close-knit communities that tended not to assimilate with the predominantly [[Basque language|Basque]]-speaking general population. Their language became the status language chosen by the Navarrese kings, nobility, and upper classes for official and trade purposes in the period stretching from the early 13th century to the late 14th century.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cierbide Martinena | first1 = Ricardo | title = Notas gráfico-fonéticas sobre la documentación medieval navarra | journal = Príncipe de Viana | volume = 59 | issue = 214 | page = 524 | year = 1998 | url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=16134 | issn = 0032-8472 | language = es | access-date = 9 April 2011 | archive-date = 28 September 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120928150531/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=16134 | url-status = live }}</ref> 

Written administrative records were in a ''[[koiné language|koiné]]'' based on the Languedocien dialect from Toulouse with fairly archaic linguistic features, evidence survives of a written account in Occitan from Pamplona centered on the [[Death by burning|burning]] of borough San Nicolas from 1258, while the ''History of the War of Navarre'' by Guilhem Anelier (1276), albeit written in Pamplona, shows a linguistic variant from [[History of Toulouse#13th to 14th century|Toulouse]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cierbide Martinena | first1 = Ricardo | title = Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra | journal = Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología | issue = 20 | pages = 247–249 | publisher = València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana; Abadia de Montserrat | year = 1996 | url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | issn = 0214-8188 | language = es | access-date = 20 April 2010 | archive-date = 8 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120108030828/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Things turned out slightly otherwise in Aragon, where the sociolinguistic situation was different, with a clearer Basque-Romance bilingual situation (cf. Basques from the {{lang|ca|italic=no|Val d'Aran}} cited {{Circa|1000}}), but a receding Basque language (Basque banned in the marketplace of Huesca, 1349).<ref>{{cite book | author = Jurio, Jimeno | year = 1997 | title = ''Navarra: Historia del Euskera'' | publisher = Txalaparta | location= Tafalla | isbn = 978-84-8136-062-2 | pages = 59–60}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.euskomedia.org/aunamendi/118353 | title = Licenciado Andrés de Poza y Yarza | publisher = EuskoMedia Fundazioa | access-date = 17 February 2010 | archive-date = 3 July 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100703115650/http://www.euskomedia.org/aunamendi/118353 | url-status = live }} Poza quotes the Basques inhabiting lands as far east as the River Gallego in the 16th century.</ref> While the language was chosen as a medium of prestige in records and official statements along with Latin in the early 13th century, Occitan faced competition from the rising local Romance vernacular, the [[Navarro-Aragonese]], both orally and in writing, especially after Aragon's territorial conquests south to [[Zaragoza]], [[Huesca]] and [[Tudela, Navarre|Tudela]] between 1118 and 1134. It resulted that a second Occitan immigration of this period was assimilated by the similar [[Navarro-Aragonese|Navarro-Aragonese language]], which at the same time was fostered and chosen by the kings of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]]. In the 14th century, Occitan across the whole southern Pyrenean area fell into decay and became largely absorbed into [[Navarro-Aragonese]] first and [[Castilian Spanish|Castilian]] later in the 15th century, after their exclusive boroughs broke up (1423, [[Pamplona#Three boroughs and one city|Pamplona]]'s boroughs unified).<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Cierbide Martinena | first1 = Ricardo | title = Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra | journal = Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología | issue = 20 | page = 249 | publisher = València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana; Abadia de Montserrat | year = 1996 | url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | issn = 0214-8188 | language = es | access-date = 20 April 2010 | archive-date = 8 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120108030828/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | url-status = live }}</ref>

Gascon-speaking communities were called to move in for trading purposes by Navarrese kings in the early 12th century to the coastal fringe extending from [[San Sebastián|San Sebastian]] to the river [[Bidasoa]], where they settled down. The language variant they used was different from the ones in Navarre, i.e. a [[Béarnese dialect]] of Gascon.<ref name="dialnet.unirioja.es">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cierbide Martinena | first1 = Ricardo | title = Convivencia histórica de lenguas y culturas en Navarra | journal = Caplletra: Revista Internacional de Filología | issue = 20 | page = 248 | publisher = València (etc) : Institut Interuniversitari de Filologia Valenciana; Abadia de Montserrat | year = 1996 | url = http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | issn = 0214-8188 | language = es | access-date = 20 April 2010 | archive-date = 8 January 2012 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120108030828/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2274080 | url-status = live }}</ref> Gascon remained in use in this area far longer than in Navarre and Aragon, until the 19th century, thanks mainly to the fact that Donostia and [[Pasaia]] maintained close ties with [[Bayonne]].

==Geographic distribution==
===Number of speakers===
The area where Occitan was historically dominant has approximately 16&nbsp;million inhabitants. Recent research has shown it may be spoken as a first language by approximately 789,000 people<ref name="bernissan" /><ref name="martel" /> in [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]] and [[Monaco]]. In Monaco, Occitan coexists with [[monégasque language|Monégasque]] [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]], which is the other native language.<ref>Pierre, Bec. (1995) ''La langue occitane, coll. Que sais-je?'' n° 1059, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.</ref><ref>Arveiller, Raymond. (1967) ''Étude sur le parler de Monaco'', Monaco: Comité National des Traditions Monégasques, p. ix.</ref> Up to seven million people in France understand the language,<ref>Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie. ''Des langues romanes'', Duculot, 1994, 1999, p. 228: "The amount of speakers is an estimated 10 to 12 millions... in any case never less than 6 millions."</ref><ref>Baker, Colin; and Sylvia Prys Jones. ''Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education'', 1997, p. 402: "Of the 13 million inhabitants of the area where Occitan is spoken (comprising 31 ''départements'') it is estimated that about half have a knowledge of one of the Occitan varieties."</ref><ref>Barbour, Stephen and Cathie Carmichael. ''Language and nationalism in Europe'', 2000, p. 62: "Occitan is spoken in 31 ''départements'', but even the [[European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages|EBLUL]] (1993: 15–16) is wary of statistics: 'There are no official data on the number of speakers. Of some 12 to 13 million inhabitants in the area, it is estimated 48 per cent understand Occitan, 28 per cent can speak it, about 9 per cent of the population use it on a daily basis, 13 per cent can read and 6 per cent can write the language.{{'"}}</ref> whereas twelve to fourteen million fully spoke it in 1921.<ref>{{harvnb|Anglade|1921}}: ''La Langue d'Oc est parlée actuellement par douze ou quatorze millions de Français'' ("Occitan is now spoken by twelve or fourteen million French citizens").</ref> In 1860, Occitan speakers represented more than 39%<ref>{{harvnb|Backer|1860|pp=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5846989r.f61 52, 54]}}: ''parlée dans le Midi de la France par quatorze millions d'habitants'' ("spoken in the South of France by fourteen million inhabitants").</ref> of the whole French population (52% for [[francophone]]s proper); they were still 26% to 36% in the 1920s,<ref>{{harvnb|Gaussen |1927|p=[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57104841.image.langEN.f6.pagination 4]}}: ''...défendre une langue, qui est aujourd'hui la mère de la nôtre, parlée encore par plus de dix millions d'individus...'' ("protect a language, which is today the mother of ours, still spoken by more than ten million individuals")</ref> but less than 7% in 1993.

===Usage in France===
[[File:Place Mage (Toulouse) - plaques.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|right|This bilingual street sign in [[Toulouse]], like many such signs found in Toulouse's historical districts, is maintained primarily for its antique charm, and is typical of what little remains of the {{Lang|oc|lenga d'òc}} in southern French cities.]]

Though it was still an everyday language for most of the rural population of southern France well into the 20th century, the language is now declining in every region where it was spoken.

A 2020 study<ref>{{Cite web |title=LANGUE OCCITANE: ÉTAT DES LIEUX 2020 |url=https://www.ofici-occitan.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/OPLO_Enquete-sociolingusitique-occitan-2020_Resultats.pdf |website=ofici-occitan.eu |access-date=5 March 2025 |archive-date=26 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126163811/https://www.ofici-occitan.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/OPLO_Enquete-sociolingusitique-occitan-2020_Resultats.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> conducted by the Office Public de la Langue Occitane on the territories of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine and Occitanie regions estimated around 540,000 speakers in these two regions. It is worth noting that the survey was conducted in the Occitan language for respondents who declared they were proficient in it. However, the regions including Auvergne and Provence were effectively excluded from this census, as the Office in question does not currently have a partnership with these territories.

According to the 1999 census, there were 610,000 native speakers (almost all of whom were also native French speakers) and perhaps another million people with some exposure to the language. Following the pattern of [[language shift]], most of this remainder is to be found among the eldest populations. Occitan activists (called ''Occitanists'') have attempted, in particular with the advent of Occitan-language preschools (the ''[[Calandreta]]s''), to reintroduce the language to the young.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bahrami |title=The language the French forbade |agency=BBC |publisher=BBC}}</ref>

Nonetheless, the number of proficient speakers of Occitan is thought to be dropping precipitously. A tourist in the cities in southern France is unlikely to hear a single Occitan word spoken on the street (or, for that matter, in a home), and is likely to only find the occasional vestige, such as street signs (and, of those, most will have French equivalents more prominently displayed), to remind them of the traditional language of the area.<ref>{{Cite web |last=@NatGeoUK |date=2013-01-15 |title=Toulouse: Occitan |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2013/01/toulouse-occitan |access-date=2022-07-02 |website=National Geographic |language=en-gb |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702060342/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2013/01/toulouse-occitan |url-status=live }}</ref>

Occitan speakers, as a result of generations of systematic suppression and humiliation (see [[Vergonha]]), seldom use the language in the presence of strangers, whether they are from abroad or from outside Occitania (in this case, often merely and abusively referred to as ''Parisiens'' or ''Nordistes'', which means ''northerners''). Occitan is still spoken by many elderly people in rural areas, but they generally switch to French when dealing with outsiders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Field |first=Thomas T. |date=1980 |title=The Sociolinguistic Situation of Modern Occitan |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/391694 |journal=The French Review |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=37–46 |jstor=391694 |issn=0016-111X |access-date=4 May 2022 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504101147/https://www.jstor.org/stable/391694 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Occitan's decline is somewhat less pronounced in [[Béarn]] because of the province's history (a late addition to the Kingdom of France), though even there the language is little spoken outside the homes of the rural elderly. The village of [[Artix, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Artix]] is notable for having elected to post street signs in the local language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klingebiel |first1=Kathryn |title=LANGUAGE |journal=The Year's Work in Modern Language Studies |date=2001 |volume=63 |pages=208–220 |jstor=25833682 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25833682 |issn=0084-4152 |access-date=12 February 2023 |archive-date=15 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230215005058/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25833682 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Usage outside France===
[[File:Europe2005 bossost-aranes1.jpg|thumb|Aranese signage in [[Bossòst]], [[Val d'Aran]], Spain]]
* In the Val d'Aran, in the northwest corner of [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]], Aranese (a variety of Gascon) is spoken. It is an official language of [[Catalonia]] together with Catalan and Spanish.
* In [[Italy]], Occitan is also spoken in the [[Occitan Valleys]] ([[Alps]]) in [[Piedmont]]. Gardiol also has existed at [[Guardia Piemontese]] ([[Calabria]]) since the 14th century. Italy adopted in 1999 a ''Linguistic Minorities Protection Law'', or "Law 482", which includes Occitan; however, [[Italian language|Italian]] is the dominant language. The [[Piedmontese language]] is extremely close to Occitan.
* In [[Monaco]], some Occitan speakers coexist with remaining native speakers of [[Monégasque dialect|Monégasque]] ([[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]]). French is the dominant language.
* Scattered Occitan-speaking communities have existed in different countries:
** There were Occitan-speaking colonies in [[Württemberg]] (Germany) since the 18th century, as a consequence of the [[Camisard]] war. The last Occitan speakers were heard in the 1930s.
** In the Spanish [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque country]], Gascon was spoken in [[San Sebastián]], perhaps as late as the early 20th century.<ref>[http://www.osoa.net/Articles/Desaparicion_del_Euskara_por_el_este_y_norte.pdf Desparicion del Euskara por el norte y el este] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327223934/http://www.osoa.net/Articles/Desaparicion_del_Euskara_por_el_este_y_norte.pdf |date=27 March 2012 }} (in Spanish): ''En San Sebastián [...] se habla gascón desde el siglo XIV hasta el 1919''</ref>
** In the Americas, Occitan speakers exist:
*** in the United States, in [[Valdese, North Carolina]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghigo |first=F. |year=1980 |title=The Provençal speech of the Waldensian colonists of Valdese, North Carolina |location=Valdese |publisher=Historic Valdese Foundation }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Holmes |first=U. T. |year=1934 |title=Waldensian speech in North Carolina |journal=Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie |volume=54 |pages=500–513 }}</ref>
*** in Canada, in [[Quebec]] where there are Occitan associations such as ''Association Occitane du Québec'' and ''Association des Occitans''.<ref>[http://www.expatries-france.com/resultVille.php?co=0&mots=24&mot2=14 Expatries-france.com<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414130217/http://www.expatries-france.com/resultVille.php?co=0&mots=24&mot2=14 |date=14 April 2021 }}, Selection Villes</ref>
*** [[Pigüé|Pigüé, Argentina]] – Community settled by 165 Occitans from the Rodez-Aveyron area of Cantal in the late 19th century.
*** [[Guanajuato|Guanajuato, Mexico]] – A sparse number of Occitan settlers are known to have settled in that state in the 19th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mexicofrancia.org/articulos/p17.pdf |title=De mitos y realidades: la emigracíon barcelonette a México 1845–1891 |last=Siller |first=Javier Pérez |language=es |publisher=México–Francia |access-date=31 August 2021 |archive-date=3 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140403221359/http://www.mexicofrancia.org/articulos/p17.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Traditionally Occitan-speaking areas===
* [[Aquitaine]] – excluding the Basque-speaking part of the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] in the western part of the department and a small part of [[Gironde]] where the ''langue d'oïl'' [[Saintongeais dialect]] is spoken.
* [[Midi-Pyrénées]] – including one of France's largest cities, [[Toulouse]]. There are a few street signs in Toulouse in Occitan, and since late 2009 the [[Toulouse Metro]] announcements are bilingual French-Occitan,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2009/08/03/648785-on-va-parler-occitan-dans-le-metro-des-la-rentree.html|title=Toulouse. On va parler occitan dans le métro dès la rentrée|website=ladepeche.fr|access-date=22 September 2019|archive-date=22 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922215320/https://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2009/08/03/648785-on-va-parler-occitan-dans-le-metro-des-la-rentree.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but otherwise the language is almost never heard spoken on the street.
* [[Languedoc-Roussillon]] (from "Lenga d'òc") – including the areas around the medieval city of [[Carcassonne]], excluding the large part of the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] where Catalan is spoken ([[Fenolheda]] is the only Occitan-speaking area of the Pyrénées-Orientales).
* [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]] – except for the Roya and Bévéra valleys, where there is a transitional dialect between Ligurian and Occitan, (''Roiasc'', including the [[Brigasc dialect]] of Ligurian). In the [[Departments of France|department]] of [[Alpes-Maritimes]] there were once isolated towns that spoke [[Ligurian (Romance language)|Ligurian]] called Figún,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ronjat |first=Jules (1864–1925) Auteur du texte |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58339580 |title=Grammaire istorique des parlers provençaux modernes.... Partie 1, Tome 1 / Jules Ronjat |date=1930–1941 |language=EN}}</ref> but those varieties are now extinct. The [[Mentonasc dialect]] of Ligurian, spoken in [[Menton]], is a Ligurian transition dialect with a strong Occitan influence. French is the dominant language of the Alpes-Maritimes, [[Dauphiné]] and [[French Riviera]] areas.
* In [[Monaco]], Occitan, imported by immigrants coexisted in the 19th and 20th centuries with the [[Monégasque dialect]] of Ligurian. [[French language|French]] is the dominant language.
* [[Poitou-Charentes]] – Use of Occitan has declined here in the few parts it used to be spoken, replaced by French. Only Charente Limousine, the eastern part of the region, has resisted. The natural and historical languages of most of the region are the ''langues d'oïl'' [[Poitevin dialect|Poitevin]] and Saintongeais.
* [[Limousin]] – A rural region (about 710,000 inhabitants) where Limousin is still spoken among the oldest residents. French is the dominant language.
* [[Auvergne (region)|Auvergne]] – The language's use has declined in some urban areas. French is the dominant language. The department of [[Allier]] is divided between a southern, Occitan-speaking area and a northern, French-speaking area.
* [[Centre-Val de Loire]] – Some villages in the extreme South speak Occitan.
* [[Rhône-Alpes]] – While the south of the region is clearly Occitan-speaking, the central and northern [[Lyonnais]], [[Forez]] and [[Dauphiné]] parts belong to the [[Franco-Provençal language]] area. French is the dominant language.
* [[Occitan Valleys]] ([[Piedmont]]) – Italian region where Occitan is spoken only in the southern and central Alpine valleys.
* [[Val d'Aran]] – part of Catalonia that speaks a mountain dialect of Gascon.

== Pronunciation ==
The following section describes the pronunciation of the [[Languedocien dialect|Languedocian dialect]] which is central geographically and the most conservative among Occitan dialects.<ref name = Languedoc>{{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan|quote = It is already essential to point out the fact that there is no dominant dialect. Each dialect is Occitan and the intercomprehension between each dialect is good (even with Catalan). The dialect we will learn here is Languedocian. This dialect is the most conservative among Occitan dialects and is thus the best bridge to the other dialects|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html|access-date = 23 March 2025|archive-date = 10 April 2025|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250410161845/https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html|url-status = live}}</ref>  For that reason it serves as a basis for standardization of Occitan.<ref name = Standard>{{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html#pronunciation|quote =Lengadocian: It is the most conservative dialect and that's the reason why it became the root of standard normalized Occitan.}} </ref> 

=== Vowels === 
{| class="wikitable"
! scope = "col" | Vowel<ref name = Easy>{{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html|access-date = 23 March 2025|archive-date = 10 April 2025|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250410161845/https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html|url-status = live}}</ref>
! scope = "col" | Pronunciation
|-
| a (beginning or in a word); à
| [a] 
|-
| a (end of a word); á; ò
| [o̞~ɔ, ɛ, e] 
|-
| e, é
| [e] 
|-
| è
| [ɛ] 
|-
| o, ó
| [u~w] 
|-
| i, í
| [i] 
|-
| u, ú
| [y~ɥ, w] 
|-
|}

=== Consonants ===
{|class="wikitable"
! scope = "col" | Consonant<ref name = Easy/>
! scope = "col" | Pronunciation 
! scope = "col" | Consonant 
! scope = "col" | Pronunciation 
|-
| '''b''', '''v''' ([v] in Northern and Eastern Occitan), '''w'''
| [b~β] 
| '''p''' 
| [p] 

|-
|'''c''' before a, o, u; '''qu''' before e and i
| [k]
| '''r'''-, '''rr'''
| [r]
|-
| '''c''' before e and i; '''ç''', '''s-''', '''-s''', '''sc''', '''ss, -z'''
| [s]
| '''r''' inside words; '''rn''', '''rm'''
|[ɾ]
|-
| '''cc'''; '''ts'''
| [s, ts, ks, kʃ] 
| -'''r'''
| ''silent''
|-
| '''d'''
| [d~ð] 
| '''t'''
| [t]
|-
| '''f'''
| [f]
| '''x''' 
| [(t)s] 
|-
| '''g''' before a, o, u; '''gu''' 
| [g~ɣ] 
| '''z'''; '''s''' between vowels 
| [z]
|-
| '''g''' before e, i; '''j'''
| [dʒ] 
| '''lh'''
| [ʎ]
|-
| -'''g'''
| [k, tʃ] 
| '''nh''' 
| [ɲ]
|-
| '''l'''; -'''lh'''
| [l] 
| '''tz'''
| [ts] 
|-
| '''m'''; '''n''' and '''m''' before p, b and m 
| [m] 
| '''gn'''
| [nː] 
|-
| '''n''', '''nd''', '''nt'''; -'''m'''
| [n] 
|'''tg'''; '''tj'''; '''ch'''
|[tʃ]
|-
|'''n''' before c/qu and g/gu
|[ŋ]
|'''n''' and '''m''' before f
|[ɱ]
|-
|'''qu''' before a and o
|[kw]
|'''ll'''; '''tl'''
|[lː]
|}

=== Stress ===
Words ending with a vowel or ''s'', as well as verb forms ending with ''n'', have stress on the penultimate syllable. Words ending with a diphthong or a consonant (except ''s'' but including ''n'') have stress on the last syllable. Exceptions have marked stress.<ref name = Easy/>

Examples are:

''La mecan<u>i</u>ca''; destri<u>a</u>r; cu<u>é</u>lher; c<u>a</u>ntan; pen<u>ó</u>s; gat<u>o</u>n.

== Grammar == 
The following section describes the grammar of the [[Languedocien dialect|Languedocian dialect]] which is central geographically and most conservative among Occitan dialects.<ref name = Languedoc /> For that reason it serves as a basis for standardization of Occitan.<ref name = Standard/> 

===Pronouns===
Personal [[pronouns]] are shown in the following table.<ref name = Easy:Grammar>{{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan: Grammar|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/occitan3.html#grammar|access-date = 23 March 2025|archive-date = 10 April 2025|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250410163334/https://easy-occitan.github.io/occitan3.html#grammar|url-status = live}}</ref> 
{|class="wikitable"
! 
! scope = "col"|Singular
! scope ="col" |Plural
|-
| '''1st per.'''
| ''Ieu''
| ''Nosautres / nosautras / nos''
|- 
| '''2nd per.'''
| ''Tu''
| ''Vosautres / vosautras / vos''
|- 
| '''3rd per.'''
| ''El (=he)/ela (= she)'' 
| ''Eles (masculine), elas (feminine)''
|}

===Possessives===
[[Possessive|Possessives]] are shown in the following table.<ref name = Easy:Grammar /> 
{|class="wikitable"
! scope = "col"|
! scope = "col" colspan="2"| Possessed thing is singular...
! scope = "col" colspan ="2"|Possessed thing is plural...
|-
! scope = "row" | Possessor
! scope = "col" | and masculine
! scope = "col" | and feminine
! scope = "col" | and masculine
! scope = "col" | and feminine
|-
! scope = "row" |I
| ''Mon''
| ''Ma''
| ''Mos''
| ''Mas''
|-
! You (sin.)
| ''Ton'' 
| ''Ta'' 
| ''Tos''
| ''Tas''
|-
!He/ she/ it
| ''Son''
| ''Sa''
| ''Sos'' 
| ''Sas''
|-
! We
| ''Nòstre''
| ''Nòstra''
| ''Nòstres''
| ''Nòstras''
|-
! You (pl.)
| ''Vòstre''
| ''Vòstra''
| ''Vòstres''
| ''Vòstras''
|-
! They
| colspan = "2" | ''Lor''
| colspan = "2" | ''Lors''
|}

===Demonstratives===
[[Demonstratives]] (''this'', ''that'', ''these'', ''those'') are shown in the following table.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/> 
{|class="wikitable"
!
! Singular 
! Plural 
|-
| '''Masculine''' 
| ''Aiceste/ Aqueste/ Aquel''
| ''Aicestes/ Aquestes/ Aqueles''
|-
| '''Feminine''' 
| ''Aicesta/ Aquesta/ Aquela''
| ''Aicestas/ Aquestas/ Aquelas''
|-
| '''Neuter''' 
| ''Aquò''
| ''Aquò''
|}

===Nouns===
There are 2 genders: masculine, and feminine. Feminine nouns are usually created by adding termination ''-a''.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/> Plural is created by adding ''-s'' to nouns.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/>

===Articles===
There are two indefinite articles in singular (a/an): masculine ''un'' and feminine ''una'' and one in plural: ''de''.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/> ''de'' before vowels is shortend to ''d'''.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/> It's summarized in the following table. 
{|class="wikitable"
! colspan = 3| Indefinite articles 
|-
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Masculine'''
| ''un'' 
| ''de'', ''d'''
|-
| '''Feminine''' 
| ''una''
| ''de'', ''d'''
|}

Definite articles (the) are shown in the following table.<ref name = Easy:Grammar />  
{|class="wikitable"
! colspan = 3| Definite articles 
|-
!
! Singular
! Plural
|-
| '''Masculine'''
| ''lo, l''' 
| ''los''
|-
| '''Feminine''' 
| ''la, l'''
| ''las''
|}
''l''' is used before a vowel.<ref name = Easy:Grammar/> 

[[Preposition]]s ''a'', ''de'', ''per'' and ''sus'' followed by articles ''lo'' and ''los'' are merged with them according to the following table.<ref name = Easy:Grammar /> 
{|class="wikitable"
!
! lo
! los
|-
| '''a''' 
| ''al''
| ''als''
|-
| '''de''' 
| ''del''
| ''dels''
|-
| '''per''' 
| ''pel''
| ''pels''
|-
| '''sus'''
| ''sul''
| ''suls''
|}

For instance 
''a+los = als.''

===Verbs===
{{further|Occitan conjugation}}
Verbs inflect for person, number, tense and [[Grammatical mood|mood]]. There are 3 [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugations]]: ''-ar'', ''-ir'' and -''re''.<ref name = Easy:Verbs> {{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan: Verbs|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/occitan2.html}}</ref> Verbs ending with ''-ir'' have two subconjugations: with and without a suffix.<ref name = Easy:Verbs /> 

Pattern of inflection of regular verbs belonging to the first conjugation is presented in the following table.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/> 

''Parlar'' (= ''to speak''), ''parlat'' (= ''spoken''), ''parlant'' (= ''speaking''). 
{|class = "wikitable"
! 
! Present
! Imperfect 
! Preterit 
! Subjunctive Present 
! Subjunctive Past 
! Future 
! Conditional 
! Imperative
|-
| Ieu
|Parli 	
|Parlavi 	
|Parlèri 	
|Parle 	
|Parlèsse
|Parlarai
|Parlariái
|
|-
| Tu
|Parlas
|Parlavas
|Parlères
|Parles
|Parlèsses
|Parlaràs
|Parlariás
|Parla
|-
| El/ela
|Parla
|Parlava
|Parlèt
|Parle
|Parlèsse
|Parlarà
|Parlariá
|
|-
| Nos 
|Parlam
|Parlàvem
|Parlèrem
|Parlem
|Parlèssem
|Parlarem
|Parlariam
|Parlem
|-
| Vos 
|Parlatz
|Parlàvetz
|Parlèretz
|Parletz
|Parlèssetz
|Parlaretz
|Parlariatz
|Parlatz
|-
| Eles/elas
|Parlan
|Parlavan
|Parlèron
|Parlen
|Parlèsson
|Parlaràn
|Parlarián
| 	
|}

Conjugation ''-ir'' with the suffix is shown below.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/>

''Dormir'' (= ''to sleep''), ''dormit'' (= ''slept''), ''dormint'' (= ''sleeping''). 
{| class = "wikitable"
! 
!Present
!Imperfect
!Preterite
!Subjunctive present 
!Subjunctive past
! Future 
! Conditional 
! Imperative
|-
|Ieu 
|Dormissi
|Dormissiái
|Dormiguèri
|Dormisca
|Dormiguèsse
| Dormirai
| Dormiriái
|
|-
|Tu
|Dormisses
|Dormissiás
|Dormiguères
|Dormiscas
|Dormiguèsses
|Dormiràs
|Dormiriás
|Dormís
|-
| El/ela
|Dormís 
|Dormissiá
|Dormiguèt
|Dormisca 
|Dormiguèsse
|Dormirà
|Dormiriá
|
|-
|Nos
|Dormissèm
|Dormissiam
|Dormiguèrem
|Dormiscam
|Dormiguèssem
|Dormirem
|Dormiriam
|Dormiscam
|-
|Vos
|Dormissètz
|Dormissiatz
|Dormiguèretz
|Dormiscatz
|Dormiguèssetz
|Dormiretz
|Dormiriatz
|Dormissètz
|-
|Eles/elas
|Dormisson
|Dormissián
|Dormiguèron
|Dormiscan
|Dormiguèsson
|Dormiràn
|Dormirián 
|}

Second conjugation without the suffix is shown below.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/> 

''Sentir'' (= ''to feel''), ''sentit'' (= ''felt''), ''sentent'' (= ''feeling''). 
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Present
!Imperfect
!Preterit
!Subjunctive present
!Subjunctive past
!Future
!Conditionnal
!Imperative
|-
|Ieu
|Senti 	
|Sentiái
|Sentiguèri
|Senta
|Sentiguèsse
|Sentirai
|Sentiriái
|
|-
|Tu
|Sentes
|Sentiás
|Sentiguères
|Sentas
|Sentiguèsses
|Sentiràs
|Sentiriás
|Sent
|-
|El/ ela
|Sent
|Sentiá
|Sentiguèt
|Senta
|Sentiguèsse
|Sentirà
|Sentiriá
|
|-
|Nos
|Sentèm
|Sentiam
|Sentiguèrem
|Sentam 
|Sentiguèssem
|Sentirem
|Sentiriam
|Sentiam
|-
|Vos
|Sentètz
|Sentiatz
|Sentiguèretz
|Sentatz
|Sentiguèssetz
|Sentiretz
|Sentiriatz
|Sentètz
|-
|Eles/ elas
|Senton
|Sentián
|Sentiguèron
|Sentan
|Sentiguèsson
|Sentiràn
|Sentirián
| 
|}

The third conjugation is shown below.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/> 

''Batre'' (= ''to beat''), ''batut'' (= ''beaten''), ''beatent'' (= ''beating'')
{| class = "wikitable"
!
!Present
!Imperfect
!Preterit
!Subjunctive present
!Subjunctive past
!Future
!Conditionnal
!Imperative
|-
|Ieu
|Bati
|Batiái
|Batèri
|Bata
|Batèsse
|Batrai
|Batriái
|
|-
|Tu
|Bates
|Batiás
|Batères
|Batas
|Batèsses
|Batràs
|Batriás
|Bat
|-
|El/ela
|Bat
|Batiá
|Batèt
|Bata
|Batèsse
|Batrà
|Batriá
|
|-
|Nos
|Batèm
|Batiam
|Batèrem
|Batam
|Batèssem
|Batrem
|Batriam
|Batiam
|-
|Vos
|Batètz
|Batiatz
|Batèretz
|Batatz
|Batèssetz
|Batretz
|Batriatz
|Batètz
|-
|Eles/elas
|Baton
|Batián
|Batèron
|Batan
|Batèsson
|Batràn
|Batrián
| 
|}

===Irregular verbs ===
Two very important irregular verbs are ''èsser/èstre'' (= ''to be'') and ''aver'' (= ''to have''). 

Conjugation of ''èsser/èstre'' is shown below.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/>

''estat'' (= ''been''), ''essent'' (= ''being'')
{| class = "wikitable"
!
!Present
!Imperfect
!Preterit
!Subjunctive present
!Subjunctive past
!Future
!Conditionnal
!Imperative
|-
|Ieu
|Soi 	
|Èri 	
|Foguèri
|Siá 	
|Foguèsse
|Serai
|Seriái
|
|-
|Tu
|Ès/Sès
|Èras
|Foguères
|Siás
|Foguèsses
|Seràs
|Seriás
|Siá
|-
|El/ela
|Es
|Èra
|Foguèt
|Siá
|Foguèsse
|Serà
|Seriá
|
|-
|Nos
|Sèm
|Èrem
|Foguèrem
|Siam
|Foguèssem
|Serem
|Seriam
|Siam
|-
|Vos
|Sètz
|Èretz
|Foguèretz
|Siatz
|Foguèssetz
|Seretz
|Seriatz
|Siatz
|-
|Eles/elas
|Son
|Èran
|Foguèron
|Sián
|Foguèsson
|Seràn
|Serián
| 
|}

Conjugation of ''aver'' is shown below.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/> 

''agut'' (= ''had''), ''avent'' (= ''having'')
{| class = "wikitable"
!
!Present
!Imperfect
!Preterit
!Subjunctive present
!Subjunctive past
!Future
!Conditionnal
!Imperative
|-
|Ieu
|Ai
|Aviái
|Aguèri
|Aja
|Aguèsse
|Aurai
|Auriái
|
|-
|Tu
|As
|Aviás
|Aguères
|Ajas
|Aguèsses
|Auràs
|Auriás
|Aja
|-
|El/ela
|A
|Aviá
|Aguèt
|Aja
|Aguèsse
|Aura
|Auriá
|
|-
|Nos
|Avem
|Aviam
|Aguèrem
|Ajam
|Aguèssem
|Aurem
|Auriam
|Ajam
|-
|Vos
|Avètz
|Aviatz
|Aguèretz
|Ajatz
|Aguèssetz
|Auretz
|Auriatz
|Ajatz
|-
|Eles/elas
|An
|Avián
|Aguèron
|Ajan
|Aguèsson
|Auràn
|Aurián
|	
|}

===Reflexive verbs===
Reflexive verbs are verbs which require [[reflexive pronoun]] ''se''. Pronoun ''se'' inflects for person and number. An example is ''se levar'' (= ''to get up''). It's inflacted according to the following table.<ref name = Easy:Verbs/> 

{| class = "wikitable"
!
!Present 
!Imperative
|-
|Ieu
|Me lèvi
|
|-
|Tu
|Te lèvas
|lèva-te
|-
|El/elas
|Se lèva
|
|-
|Nos 
|Nos levam
|levem-nos
|-
|Vos
|Vos levatz
|levatz-vos
|-
|Eles/elas
|Se lèvan
|tenon
|}

===Negation===
Negation is done by adding ''pas'' after a verb.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Easy Pccitan|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/occitan2.html|quote = Basic negation is "pas", which follows the verb. Its translation is "not" ("yes" is said "òc" and "no" is said "non").|access-date = 23 March 2025|archive-date = 24 March 2025|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20250324151743/https://easy-occitan.github.io/occitan2.html|url-status = live}}</ref> For example:
* ''Parli pas'' (= ''I don't speak'').
* ''An pas parlat'' (= ''They haven't spoken'').
* ''Vesi pas res'' (= ''I don't see anything'').
* ''Lo tròbi pas enluòc'' (= ''I don't find him anywhere'').
* ''Sortís pas jamai'' (= ''He never goes out'').
* ''Degun es pas vengut'' (= ''Nobody came'').

==Dialects==
[[File:Occitan dialects legend-en.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Map of Occitan's six main dialects]]
[[File:Dialectes de l'occitan selon Pierre Bec.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Occitan dialects according to [[Pèire Bèc|Pierre Bec]]]]
[[File:Bec supradialectal.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to Bec]]
[[File:Sumien supradialectal.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Supradialectal classification of Occitan according to Sumien]]

Occitan is fundamentally defined by its dialects, rather than being a unitary language, as it lacks an official [[Standard language|written standard]]. Like other languages that fundamentally exist at a spoken, rather than written, level (e.g. the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]], [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[Astur-Leonese languages|Astur-Leonese]], and [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]), every settlement technically has its own dialect, with the whole of Occitania forming a classic [[dialect continuum]] that changes gradually along any path from one side to the other. Nonetheless, specialists commonly divide Occitan into six main dialects:
* [[Gascon language|Gascon]]: includes the [[Béarnese dialect|Béarnese]] and [[Aranese dialect|Aranese]] (spoken in Spain).
** [[Judeo-Gascon]]
* [[Languedocien dialect|Languedocien]] (''lengadocian'')
* [[Limousin dialect|Limousin]] (''lemosin'')
* [[Auvergnat dialect|Auvergnat]] (''auvernhat'')
* [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]] (''provençau'' or ''prouvençau''), including the [[Niçois|Niçard]] subdialect.
** [[Judeo-Provençal]]
** [[Judeo-Niçard]]
* [[Vivaro-Alpine]] (''vivaroaupenc''), also known as "Alpine" or "Alpine Provençal", and sometimes considered a subdialect of Provençal

The northern and easternmost dialects have more morphological and phonetic features in common with the [[Gallo-Italic languages|Gallo-Italic]] and [[Oïl languages]] (e.g. [[nasal vowel]]s; loss of final consonants; initial ''cha/ja-'' instead of ''ca/ga-''; [[uvular R|uvular {{angbr|r}}]]; the front-rounded sound {{IPA|/ø/}} instead of a diphthong, {{IPA|/w/}} instead of {{IPA|/l/}} before a consonant), whereas the southernmost dialects have more features in common with the [[Ibero-Romance languages]] (e.g. [[betacism]]; voiced fricatives between vowels in place of voiced stops; -''ch''- in place of -''it''-), and Gascon has a number of unusual features not seen in other dialects (e.g. {{IPA|/h/}} in place of {{IPA|/f/}}; loss of {{IPA|/n/}} between vowels; intervocalic ''-r-'' and final ''-t/ch'' in place of medieval -{{sm|ll}}-).

There are also significant lexical differences, where some dialects have words cognate with French, and others have Catalan and Spanish cognates. Nonetheless, there is a significant amount of [[mutual intelligibility]] and some of the words with two cognates can be used in the same dialect as synonymous (''totjorn/sempre'' in provençal or ''maison/ostau'' in gascon for instance).

There is also no particular geographical distribution of the cognates, with some shared by distant dialects and other not shared with bordering foreign languages (for instance ''maison'' in both Gascon and Niçard, cognate of French but not of Spanish or Italian, although these dialects are geographically closer to these languages).

{| class=wikitable
|+ Occitan words and their French, Catalan and Spanish cognates
|-
!  scope="col" rowspan=2 | English
!! scope="col" colspan=2 | Cognate of French
!! scope="col" colspan=3 | Cognate of Catalan and Spanish
|-
!  scope="col" | Occitan
!! scope="col" | French
!! scope="col" | Occitan
!! scope="col" | Catalan
!! scope="col" | Spanish
|-
| house || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|maison}} || {{lang|fr|maison}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|casa}} || {{lang|ca|casa}} || {{lang|es|casa}}
|-
| head || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|testa}} || {{lang|fr|tête}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|cap}} || {{lang|ca|cap}} || {{lang|es|cabeza}}
|-
| to buy || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|achaptar}} || {{lang|fr|acheter}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|crompar}} || {{lang|ca|comprar}} || {{lang|es|comprar}}
|-
| to hear || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|entendre}} || {{lang|fr|entendre}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|ausir}} / {{lang|oc-gascon|audir}} || {{lang|ca|oir}} || {{lang|es|oír}}
|-
| to be quiet || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|se taire}} || {{lang|fr|se taire}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|calar}} || {{lang|ca|callar}} || {{lang|es|callar}}
|-
| to fall || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|tombar}} || {{lang|fr|tomber}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|caire}} || {{lang|ca|caure}} || {{lang|es|caer}}
|-
| more || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|pus}} || {{lang|fr|plus}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|mai}} || {{lang|ca|més}} || {{lang|es|más}}
|-
| always || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|totjorn}} || {{lang|fr|toujours}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|sempre}} || {{lang|ca|sempre}} || {{lang|es|siempre}}
|-
| broom || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|balaja}} || {{lang|fr|balai}} || style{{=}}"background: Gainsboro" | {{lang|oc|escoba}} || {{lang|ca|escombra}} || {{lang|es|escoba}}
|-
|}

Gascon is the most divergent, and descriptions of the main features of Occitan often consider Gascon separately. Max Wheeler notes that "probably only its copresence within the French cultural sphere has kept [Gascon] from being regarded as a separate language", and compares it to Franco-Provençal, which is considered a separate language from Occitan but is "probably not more divergent from Occitan overall than Gascon is".<ref name="wheeler">{{citation|contribution=Occitan|first=Max|last=Wheeler|title=The Romance Languages|editor1-first=Martin|editor1-last=Harris|editor2-first=Nigel|editor2-last=Vincent|year=1988|publisher=Oxford University Press|place=New York|pages=246–278}}</ref>

There is no general agreement about larger groupings of these dialects.

Max Wheeler divides the dialects into two groups:<ref name="wheeler"/>
* Southwestern (Gascon and Languedocien), more conservative
* Northeastern (Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine), more innovative

[[Pèire Bèc|Pierre Bec]] divides the dialects into three groups:{{sfn|Bec|1973}}
* Gascon, standing alone
* Southern Occitan (Languedocien and Provençal)
* Northern Occitan (Limousin, Auvergnat, Vivaro-Alpine)

In order to overcome the pitfalls of the traditional romanistic view, Bec proposed a "supradialectal" classification that groups Occitan with [[Catalan language|Catalan]] as a part of a wider Occitano-Romanic group. One such classification posits three groups:{{sfn|Bec|1971|p=472}}<ref name="MoRS">{{cite book
|language=en
|author2=Janice Carruthers
|author1=Wendy Ayres-Bennett
|title=Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics
|editor=[[De Gruyter]]
|year=2018
|page=157
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
|isbn=9783110365955
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EOR8DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Occitano-Romance%22&pg=PA157
|access-date=10 July 2023
|archive-date=18 August 2023
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818174608/https://books.google.com/books?id=EOR8DwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Occitano-Romance%22&pg=PA157
|url-status=live
}}</ref><ref name="OG">{{cite book|date=2016|isbn=978-0--19-967710-8|language=en|location=Oxford|pages=63–65|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|title=The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L3p9DAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Occitano-Romance%22&pg=PA64|access-date=10 July 2023|archive-date=18 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230818174608/https://books.google.com/books?id=L3p9DAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Occitano-Romance%22&pg=PA64|url-status=live}}<!-- auto-translated by Module:CS1 translator --></ref>
* "Arverno-Mediterranean" (''arvèrnomediterranèu''), same as Wheeler's northeastern group, i.e. Limousin, Auvergnat, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine
* "Central Occitan" (''occitan centrau''), Languedocien, excepting the Southern Languedocien subdialect
* "Aquitano-Pyrenean" (''aquitanopirenenc''), Southern Languedocien, Gascon and Catalan
According to this view, Catalan is an [[ausbau language]] that became independent from Occitan during the 13th century, but originates from the Aquitano-Pyrenean group.

[[Domergue Sumien]] proposes a slightly different supradialectal grouping.<ref name="sumien2006">Domergue Sumien (2006), ''La standardisation pluricentrique de l'occitan: nouvel enjeu sociolinguistique, développement du lexique et de la morphologie'', Publications de l'Association Internationale d'Études Occitanes, Turnhout: Brepols</ref>
* Arverno-Mediterranean (''arvèrnomediterranèu''), same as in Bec and Wheeler, divided further:
** Niçard-Alpine (''niçardoaupenc''), Vivaro-Alpine along with the Niçard subdialect of Provençal.
** Trans-Occitan (''transoccitan''), the remainder of Provençal along with Limousin and Auvergnat.
* Pre-Iberian (''preïberic'').
** Central Occitan (''occitan centrau''), same as in Bec.
** Aquitano-Pyrenean (''aquitanopirenenc''), same as in Bec.

=== Jewish dialects ===
Occitan has 3 dialects spoken by Jewish communities that are all now extinct.

==== Judeo-Gascon ====
A [[sociolect]] of the Gascon dialect spoken by [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews]] in [[Gascony]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2018 |title=Notes on Contributors |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/clrjames2018241/267 |journal=The CLR James Journal |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=353–355 |doi=10.5840/clrjames2018241/267 |issn=2167-4256|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It, like many other Jewish dialects and languages, contained large amounts of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] loanwords.<ref>{{Citation |last=Costandi |first=Moheb |title=Persönlichkeit |date=2015 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-44191-6_18 |work=50 Schlüsselideen Hirnforschung |pages=68–71 |access-date=2023-12-17 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-44191-6_18 |isbn=978-3-662-44190-9|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It went extinct after [[World War II|World War 2]] with the last speakers being elderly Jews in [[Bayonne]]. About 850 unique words and a few morphological and grammatical aspects of the dialect were transmitted to Southern Jewish French.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Judeo-Provençal |url=https://www.jewishlanguages.org/judeo-provencal |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817181038/http://www.jewish-languages.org/judeo-provencal.html |archive-date=17 August 2017 |access-date=2023-12-17 |website=Jewish Languages |language=en}}</ref>

==== Judeo-Provençal ====
[[Judeo-Provençal]] was a dialect of Occitan spoken by Jews in [[Provence]]. The dialect declined in usage after Jews were expelled from the area in 1498, and was probably extinct by the 20th century.

==== Judeo-Niçard ====
The least attested of the Judeo-Occitan dialects, Judeo-Niçard was spoken by the community of Jews living in [[Nice]], who were descendants of Jewish immigrants from Provence, Piedmont, and other Mediterranean communities. Its existence is attested from a few documents from the 19th century. It contained significant influence in both vocabulary and grammar from Hebrew.<ref name=":0" />

==== Southern Jewish French ====
All three of these dialects have some influence in Southern Jewish French, a dialect of French spoken by Jews in southern France. Southern Jewish French is now estimated to only be spoken by about 50–100 people.<ref name=":0" />

===IETF dialect tags===
*{{code|pro}}: Old Occitan (until the 14th century).
*{{code|sdt}}: Judeo-Occitan

Several [[IETF language tag|IETF language variant tags]] have been registered:<ref name="IETF"/>
* {{code|oc-aranese}}: Aranese.
* {{code|oc-auvern}}: Auvergnat.
* {{code|oc-cisaup}}: Cisalpine, northwestern Italy.
* {{code|oc-creiss}}: Croissant
* {{code|oc-gascon}}: Gascon.
* {{code|oc-lemosin}}: Leimousin.
* {{code|oc-lengadoc}}: Languedocien. 
* {{code|oc-nicard}}: Niçard.
* {{code|oc-provenc}}: Provençal.
* {{code|oc-vivaraup}}: Vivaro-Alpine.

==Codification==

===Standardization===
All regional varieties of the Occitan language have a written form; thus, Occitan can be considered as a [[pluricentric language]]. Standard Occitan, also called ''occitan larg'' (i.e., 'wide Occitan') is a synthesis that respects and admits soft regional adaptations (which are based on the convergence of previous regional [[Koiné language|koinés]]).<ref name=sumien2006/> The standardization process began with the publication of ''[[Gramatica occitana segon los parlars lengadocians]]'' ("Grammar of the Languedocien Dialect") by [[Louis Alibert]] (1935), followed by the ''[[Dictionnaire occitan-français selon les parlers languedociens]]'' ("French-Occitan dictionary according to Languedocien") by the same author (1966), completed during the 1970s with the works of [[Pierre Bec]] (Gascon), [[Robèrt Lafont]] (Provençal), and others. However, the process has not yet been completed as of the present.{{clarify|date=April 2013}} Standardization is mostly supported by users of the [[#Writing system|classical norm]]. Due to the strong situation of [[diglossia]], some users{{who|date=February 2022}} thusly reject the standardization process, and do not conceive Occitan as a language that can be standardized as per other standardized languages.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

===Writing system===
{{further|Occitan alphabet}}
There are two main linguistic norms currently used for Occitan, one (known as "classical") based on that of Medieval Occitan, and one (sometimes known as "Mistralian", due to its use by [[Frédéric Mistral]]) based on modern [[French orthography]]. Sometimes, there is conflict between users of each system.
* The ''classical norm'' (or less exactly ''classical orthography'') has the advantage of maintaining a link with earlier stages of the language, and reflects the fact that Occitan is not a variety of French. It is used in all Occitan dialects. It also allows speakers of one dialect of Occitan to write intelligibly for speakers of other dialects (e.g. the Occitan for ''day'' is written ''jorn'' in the classical norm, but could be ''jour'', ''joun'', ''journ'', or even ''yourn'', depending on the writer's origin, in Mistralian orthography). The Occitan classical orthography and the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] orthography are quite similar: they show the very close ties of both languages. The digraphs ''lh'' and ''nh'', used in the classical orthography, were adopted by the [[Portuguese alphabet#Basic digraphs|orthography of Portuguese]], presumably by [[Gerald of Braga]], a monk from [[Moissac]], who became bishop of [[Braga]] in Portugal in 1047, playing a major role in modernizing written [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] using classical Occitan norms.<ref>Jean-Pierre Juge (2001) ''Petit précis – Chronologie occitane – Histoire & civilisation'', p. 25</ref>
* The ''[[Mistralian norm]]'' (or less exactly ''Mistralian orthography'') has the advantage of being similar to that of French, in which most Occitan speakers are literate. Now, it is used mostly in the [[Provençal (dialect)|Provençal]]/[[Niçard]] dialect, besides the classical norm. It has also been used by a number of eminent writers, particularly in Provençal. However, it is somewhat impractical, because it is based mainly on the Provençal dialect and also uses many digraphs for simple sounds, the most notable one being ''ou'' for the {{IPA|[u]}} sound, as it is in French, written as ''o'' under the classical orthography.

There are also two other norms but they have a lesser audience. The ''Escòla dau Pò norm'' (or ''Escolo dóu Po norm'') is a simplified version of the Mistralian norm and is used only in the Occitan Valleys (Italy), besides the classical norm. The ''Bonnaudian norm'' (or ''écriture auvergnate unifiée, EAU'') was created by Pierre Bonnaud and is used only in the [[Auvergnat]] dialect, besides the classical norm.

{| class="wikitable"  style="margin:1em auto;" align="center"
|+ Comparison between the four existing norms in Occitan: extract from the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]
|-
! Classical norm
! Mistralian norm
! Bonnaudian norm
! Escòla dau Pò norm
|-
|'''[[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]'''<br /> Totei lei personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e li cau (/fau/) agir entre elei amb un esperit de frairesa.
|'''[[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]'''<br /> Tóuti li persouno naisson liéuro e egalo en dignita e en dre. {{not a typo|Soun}} doutado de rasoun e de counsciènci e li fau agi entre éli em' un esperit de freiresso.
|
|
|-
|'''[[Niçard]] Provençal'''<br /> Toti li personas naisson liuri e egali en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadi de rason e de consciéncia e li cau agir entre eli emb un esperit de frairesa.
|'''[[Niçard]] Provençal'''<br /> Touti li persouna naisson liéuri e egali en dignità e en drech. {{not a typo|Soun}} doutadi de rasoun e de counsciència e li cau agì entre eli em' un esperit de frairessa.
|
|
|-
|'''[[Auvergnat]]'''<br /> Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en dreit. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chau (/fau/) agir entre elas amb un esperit de frairesa.
|
|'''[[Auvergnat]]'''<br />Ta la proussouna neisson lieura moé parira pà dïnessà mai dret. Son charjada de razou moé de cousiensà mai lhu fau arjî entremeî lha bei n'eime de freiressà. (Touta la persouna naisson lieura e egala en dïnetàt e en dreit. {{not a typo|Soun}} doutada de razou e de cousiensà e lour chau ajî entre ela am en esprî de freiressà.)
|
|-
|'''[[Vivaroalpenc|Vivaro-Alpine]]'''<br /> Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotaas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chal agir entre elas amb un esperit de fraternitat.
|
|
|'''[[Vivaroalpenc|Vivaro-Alpine]]'''<br /> Toutes les persounes naisoun liures e egales en dignità e en drech. {{not a typo|Soun}} douta de razoun e de counsiensio e lour chal agir entre eels amb (/bou) un esperit de freireso.
|-
|'''[[Gascon language|Gascon]]'''<br /> Totas las personas que naishen liuras e egaus en dignitat e en dreit. Que son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e que'us cau agir enter eras dab un esperit de hrairessa.
|'''[[Gascon language|Gascon]] (Febusian writing)'''<br /> Toutes las persounes que nachen libres e egaus en dinnitat e en dreyt. Que {{not a typo|soun}} doutades de rasoû e de counscienci e qu'ous cau ayi entre eres dap û esperit de hrayresse.
|
|
|-
|'''[[Limousin dialect|Limousin]]'''<br /> Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor chau (/fau/) agir entre elas emb un esperit de frairesa.
|
|
|
|-
|'''[[Languedocien dialect|Languedocien]]'''<br />Totas las personas naisson liuras e egalas en dignitat e en drech. Son dotadas de rason e de consciéncia e lor cal agir entre elas amb un esperit de frairesa.
|
|
|
|}

{| class="wikitable" align="center"
|+ The same extract in six neighboring [[Romance languages]] and English for comparison
|-
|'''[[French language|French]]'''<br />Tous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits. Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.<ref name="omniglot" />
|'''[[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]]'''<br />Tôs los étres homans nêssont libros et ègals en dignitât et en drêts. Ils ant rêson et conscience et dêvont fâre los uns envèrs los ôtros dedens un èsprit de fraternitât.<ref name="omniglot" />
|'''[[Catalan language|Catalan]]'''<br />Totes les persones neixen/naixen lliures i iguals en dignitat i en drets. Són dotades de raó i de consciència, i cal que es comportin fraternalment les unes amb les altres.<ref name="omniglot">{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/udhr/italic.htm|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)|publisher=Omniglot.com|access-date=15 October 2009|archive-date=18 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018133257/http://www.omniglot.com/udhr/italic.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|'''[[Spanish language|Spanish]]'''<br />Todos los seres humanos nacen libres e iguales en dignidad y derechos y, dotados como están de razón y conciencia, deben comportarse fraternalmente los unos con los otros.<ref name="omniglot" />
|'''[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]'''<br />Todos os seres humanos nascem livres e iguais em dignidade e direitos. Eles são dotados de razão e consciência, e devem comportar-se fraternalmente uns com os outros.<ref name="omniglot" />
|'''[[Italian language|Italian]]'''<br />Tutti gli esseri umani nascono liberi ed uguali in dignità e in diritti. Sono dotati di ragione e di coscienza e devono comportarsi fraternamente l'uno con l'altro.<ref name="omniglot" />
|'''English'''<br />All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/udhr/germanic.htm|title=Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)|publisher=Omniglot.com|access-date=15 October 2009|archive-date=18 October 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091018170432/http://www.omniglot.com/udhr/germanic.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

Note that Catalan version was translated from the Spanish, while the Occitan versions were translated from the French. The second part of the Catalan version may also be rendered as "Són dotades de raó i de consciència, i els cal actuar entre si amb un esperit de fraternitat", showing the similarities between Occitan and Catalan.

===Orthography IETF subtags===
Several [[IETF language tag|IETF language subtags]] have been registered for the different orthographies:<ref name="IETF">{{cite web |title=Language subtag registry |url=https://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |publisher=IANA |access-date=8 April 2021 |language=en |date=2021-03-05 |archive-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112063905/http://www.iana.org/assignments/language-subtag-registry/language-subtag-registry |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{code|oc-grclass}}: Classical Occitan orthography.
* {{code|oc-grital}}: Italian-inspired Occitan orthography.
* {{code|oc-grmistr}}: Mistralian-inspired Occitan orthography.

===Debates concerning linguistic classification and orthography===
The majority of scholars think that Occitan constitutes a single language.{{sfn|Kremnitz|2002|pp=109–111}} Some authors,<ref>Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle, Pierre Bonnaud and Jean Lafitte</ref> constituting a minority,{{sfn|Kremnitz|2002|pp=109–111}} reject this opinion and even the name ''Occitan'', thinking that there is a family of distinct {{lang|oc|lengas d'òc}} rather than dialects of a single language.

Many Occitan linguists and writers,<ref>Kremnitz, Georg (2003) "Un regard sociolinguistique sur les changements de la situation de l'occitan depuis 1968" in: Castano R., Guida, S., & Latella, F. (2003) (dir.) ''Scènes, évolutions, sort de la langue et de la littérature d'oc. Actes du VIIe congrès de l'Association Internationale d'Études Occitanes'', Reggio di Calabria/Messina, 7–13 juillet 2002, Rome: Viella</ref> particularly those involved with the pan-Occitan movement centered on the [[Institut d'Estudis Occitans]], disagree with the view that Occitan is a family of languages; instead they believe Limousin, Auvergnat, Languedocien, Gascon, Provençal and Vivaro-Alpine are dialects of a single language. Although there are indeed noticeable differences between these varieties, there is a very high degree of [[mutual intelligibility]] between them<ref>For traditional Romance philology see:
:*{{citation | last=Ronjat | first=Jules | year=1913 | title=Essai de syntaxe des parlers provençaux modernes | publisher=Protat | place=Macon | language=fr | page=12 | url=https://archive.org/stream/essaidesyntaxede00ronjuoft#page/12/mode/2up }}: {{lang|fr|Mais les différences de phonétique, de morphologie, de syntaxe et de vocabulaire ne sont pas telles qu'une personne connaissant pratiquement à fond un de nos dialectes ne puisse converser dans ce dialecte avec une autre personne parlant un autre dialecte qu'elle possède pratiquement à fond.}} (But phonetic, morphological, syntactical and lexical differences are not such that a person quite perfectly fluent in one of our dialects would not be able to have a conversation with another person speaking another dialect with an equally perfect fluency).
:*{{citation | last=Ronjat | first=Jules | year=1930 | title=Grammaire historique des parlers provençaux modernes | publisher=Société des langues romanes (Volume 1) | place=Montpellier | pages=1–32 | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58339580/f32.image | language=fr | access-date=22 February 2013 | archive-date=11 September 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911183011/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58339580/f32.image | url-status=live }}.
:For a discussion of the unity of the Occitan [[diasystem]] in structural linguistics see {{harvnb|Bec|1973|pp=24–25}}.</ref> partly because they share a common literary history; furthermore, academic and literary circles have identified them as a collective linguistic entity—the {{lang|oc|lenga d'òc}}—for centuries.{{Citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Some Provençal authors continue to support the view that Provençal is a separate language.<ref>Philippe Blanchet, Louis Bayle</ref> Nevertheless, the vast majority of Provençal authors and associations think that Provençal is a part of Occitan.<ref>The most emblematic and productive ones, [[Frédéric Mistral]], [[Robert Lafont]], and their followers ([[Théodore Aubanel]], [http://www.rene-merle.com/ René Merle] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627091610/http://www.rene-merle.com/ |date=27 June 2007 }}, Claude Barsotti, Philippe Gardy, Florian Vernet, Bernard Giély, Pierre Pessemesse...), and also the most important and historic Provençal cultural associations as [https://web.archive.org/web/20230818174610/http://c-oc.org/oc/provenca/article.php3?id_article=10 CREO Provença], [http://www.felibrige.org/spip.php?article3 Felibrige] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015112912/http://www.felibrige.org/spip.php?article3 |date=15 October 2007 }} and [http://www.prouvenco-aro.com/archieu/outobre.htm Parlaren (Assiso de la Lengo Nostro en Prouvènço, 2003)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040228224426/http://www.prouvenco-aro.com/archieu/outobre.htm |date=28 February 2004 }}</ref>

This debate about the status of Provençal should not be confused with the debate concerning the spelling of Provençal.
* The '''classical orthography''' is [[phonemic orthography|phonemic]] and [[diasystem]]ic, and thus more pan-Occitan. It can be used for (and adapted to) all Occitan dialects and regions, including Provençal. Its supporters think that Provençal is a part of Occitan.
* The '''Mistralian orthography''' of Provençal is more or less phonemic but not diasystemic and is closer to the [[French language|French]] spelling and therefore more specific to Provençal; its users are divided between the ones who think that Provençal is a part of Occitan and the ones who think that Provençal is a separate language.

For example, the classical system writes ''Polonha'', whereas the Mistralian spelling system has ''Poulougno'', for {{IPA|[puˈluɲo]}}, 'Poland'.

The question of [[Gascon language|Gascon]] is similar. Gascon presents a number of significant differences from the rest of the language; but, despite these differences, Gascon and other Occitan dialects have very important common lexical and grammatical features, so authors such as Pierre Bec argue that they could never be considered as different as, for example, Spanish and Italian.<ref>{{harvnb|Bec|1963|p=46}}: The close ties between Gascon and others Occitan dialects have been demonstrated through a common diasystem.</ref> In addition, Gascon's being included in Occitan despite its particular differences can be justified because there is a common elaboration (''[[Ausbau language|Ausbau]]'') process between Gascon and the rest of Occitan.{{sfn|Kremnitz|2002|pp=109–111}} The vast majority of the Gascon cultural movement considers itself as a part of the Occitan cultural movement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pernoste.com/|title=Per Noste edicions|website=www.pernoste.com|access-date=12 June 2007|archive-date=7 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207014340/https://www.pernoste.com/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[http://perso.orange.fr/anaram/ Perso.orange.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070712234051/http://perso.orange.fr/anaram/ |date=12 July 2007 }}, Aranaram Au Patac</ref> And the official status of [[Val d'Aran]] ([[Catalonia]], Spain), adopted in 1990, says that [[Aranese]] is a part of [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and Occitan. A grammar of Aranese by Aitor Carrera, published in 2007 in [[Lleida]], presents the same view.{{sfn|Carrera|2007}}

The exclusion of [[Catalan language|Catalan]] from the Occitan sphere, even though Catalan is closely related, is justified because there has been a consciousness of its being different from Occitan since the later Middle Ages and because the elaboration (''Ausbau'') processes of Catalan and Occitan (including Gascon) have been quite distinct since the 20th century. Nevertheless, other scholars point out that the process that led to the affirmation of Catalan as a distinct language from Occitan started during the period when the pressure to include Catalan-speaking areas in a mainstream Spanish culture was at its greatest.<ref>Lluis Fornés, see his thesis. {{Cite thesis |last=Fornés |first=Lluis |title=El pensament panoccitanista (1904–2004) en les revistes Occitania, Oc, L'Amic de les Ats, Taula de Lletres Valencianes, Revista Occitana i Paraula d'Oc |date=2004 |publisher=University of Valencia |url=http://www.oc-valencia.org/files/autors/El_Pensament_Ultima.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003112058/http://www.oc-valencia.org/files/autors/El_Pensament_Ultima.pdf |language=ca-valencia |trans-title=The pan-occitanista thought (1904–2004) in the magazines Occitania, Oc, L'Amic de les Ats, Taula de Lletres Valencianes, Revista Occitana and Paraula d'Oc |via=www.oc-valencia.org |archive-date=3 October 2008 |accessdate=19 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The answer to the question of whether [[Gascon language|Gascon]] or [[Catalan language|Catalan]] should be considered dialects of Occitan or separate languages has long been a matter of opinion or convention, rather than based on scientific ground. However, two recent studies support Gascon's being considered a distinct language. For the first time, a quantifiable, statistics-based approach was applied by Stephan Koppelberg in attempt to solve this issue.<ref>Stephan Koppelberg, El lèxic hereditari caracteristic de l'occità i del gascó i la seva relació amb el del català (conclusions d'un analisi estadística), Actes del vuitè Col·loqui Internacional de Llengua i Literatura Catalana, Volume 1 (1988). Antoni M. Badia Margarit & Michel Camprubi ed. (in Catalan)</ref> Based on the results he obtained, he concludes that Catalan, Occitan, and Gascon should all be considered three distinct languages. More recently, Y. Greub and J.P. Chambon (Sorbonne University, Paris) demonstrated that the formation of Proto-Gascon was already complete at the eve of the 7th century, whereas Proto-Occitan was not yet formed at that time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chambon |first1=Jean-Pierre  |last2=Greub |first2=Yan  |year=2002 |title=Note sur l'âge du (proto)gascon |journal=Revue de Linguistique Romane |language=fr |volume=66 |pages=473–495}}</ref> These results induced linguists to do away with the conventional classification of Gascon, favoring the "distinct language" alternative.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} Both studies supported the early intuition of the late [[Kurt Baldinger]], a specialist of both medieval Occitan and medieval Gascon, who recommended that Occitan and Gascon be classified as separate languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldinger |first=Kurt |year=1962 |title=La langue des documents en ancien gascon |journal=Revue de Linguistique Romane |language=fr |volume=26 |pages=331–347}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Baldinger |first=Kurt |year=1962 |title=Textes anciens gascons |journal=Revue de Linguistique Romane |language=fr |volume=26 |pages=348–362}}</ref>

==Linguistic characterization==
{{further|Occitan phonology}}
{{More footnotes needed|section|date=July 2011}}
Jules Ronjat has sought to characterize Occitan with 19 principal, generalizable criteria. Of those, 11 are phonetic, five morphologic, one syntactic, and two lexical. For example, close rounded vowels are rare or absent in Occitan. This characteristic often carries through to an Occitan speaker's French, leading to a distinctive ''[[Meridional French|méridional]]'' accent. Unlike French, it is a [[pro-drop language]], allowing the omission of the subject ({{lang|oc|canti}}: I sing; {{lang|oc|cantas}} you sing)—though, at least in Gascon, the verb must be preceded by an "enunciative" in place of the pronoun, {{lang|oc|e}} for questions, {{lang|oc|be}} for observations, {{lang|oc|que}} for other occasions: {{abbr|e.g.|for example}}, {{lang|oc|que soi}} (I am), {{lang|oc|E qu'ei?}} (He/she is?), {{lang|oc|Be qu'èm.}} (We are.).<ref>''Lo gascon lèu e plan'', p.14</ref> Among these 19 discriminating criteria, 7 are different from Spanish, 8 from Italian, 12 from Franco-Provençal, and 16 from French.

===Features of Occitan===
Most features of Occitan are shared with either [[French language|French]] or [[Catalan language|Catalan]], or both.

====Features of Occitan as a whole====
Examples of pan-Occitan features shared with French, but not Catalan:
* Latin {{smallcaps|ū}} [uː] (Vulgar Latin {{IPA|/u/}}) changed to {{IPA|/y/}}, as in French (Lat. {{smallcaps|dv̄rvm}} &gt; Oc. ''dur'').
* Vulgar Latin {{IPA|/o/}} changed to {{IPA|/u/}}, first in unstressed syllables, as in Eastern Catalan (Lat. {{smallcaps|romānvs}} > Oc. ''roman'' [ruˈma]), then in stressed syllables (Lat. {{smallcaps|flōrem}} > Oc. ''flor'' [fluɾ]).

Examples of pan-Occitan features shared with Catalan, but not French:
* Stressed Latin {{smallcaps|a}} was preserved (Lat. {{smallcaps|mare}} > Oc. ''mar'', Fr. ''mer'').
* Intervocalic -{{smallcaps|t}}- was lenited to {{IPA|/d/}} rather than lost (Lat. {{smallcaps|vitam}} > Oc. ''vida'', Fr. ''vie'').

Examples of pan-Occitan features not shared with Catalan or French:
* Original {{IPA|/aw/}} preserved.
* Final {{IPA|/a/}} becomes {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (note in [[Valencian language|Valencian]] (Catalan), {{IPA|/ɔ/}} may appear in word-final unstressed position, in a process of [[vowel harmony]]).
* Low-mid {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} diphthongized before velars. {{IPA|/ɛ/}} generally becomes {{IPA|/jɛ/}}; {{IPA|/ɔ/}} originally became {{IPA|/wɔ/}} or {{IPA|/wɛ/}}, but has since usually undergone further fronting (e.g. to {{IPA|[ɥɛ], [ɥɔ], [jɔ], [œ], [ɛ], [ɥe], [we]}}, etc.). Diphthongization also occurred before palatals, as in French and Catalan.
* Various assimilations in consonant clusters (e.g. {{angle bracket|cc}} in ''Occitan'', pronounced {{IPA|/utsiˈta/}} in conservative Languedocien).

====Features of some Occitan dialects====
Examples of dialect-specific features of the northerly dialects shared with French, but not Catalan:
* Palatalization of {{smallcaps|ca-, ga-}} to {{IPA|/tʃa, dʒa/}}.
* Vocalization of syllable-final {{IPA|/l/}} to {{IPA|/w/}}.
* Loss of final consonants.
* Vocalization of syllable-final nasals to [[nasal vowel]]s.
* [[Uvular R|Uvularization]] of some or all {{angle bracket|r}} sounds.

Examples of dialect-specific features of the southerly dialects (or some of them) shared with Catalan, but not French:
* Latin {{smallcaps|-mb-,-nd-}} become {{IPA|/m, n/}}.
* [[Betacism]]: {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/v/}} merge (feature shared with Spanish and some Catalan dialects; except for Balearic, Valencian and Algherese Catalan, where {{IPA|/v/}} is preserved).
* Intervocalic voiced stops {{IPA|/b d ɡ/}} (from Latin {{smallcaps|-p-, -t, -c-}}) become voiced fricatives {{IPA|[β ð ɣ]}}.
* Loss of word-final single {{IPA|/n/}} (but not {{IPA|/nn/}}, e.g. ''an'' "year" < {{smallcaps|ānnvm}}).

Examples of [[Gascon language|Gascon]]-specific features not shared with French or Catalan:
* Latin initial {{IPA|/f/}} changed into {{IPA|/h/}} (Lat. {{smallcaps|filivm}} > Gasc. ''hilh''). This also happened in [[History of Spanish|medieval Spanish]], although the {{IPA|/h/}} was eventually lost, or reverted to {{IPA|/f/}} (before a consonant). The Gascon {{angle bracket|h}} has retained its [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]].
* Loss of {{IPA|/n/}} between vowels. This also happened in [[History of Portuguese|Portuguese]] and [[Galician language|Galician]] (and moreover also in [[Basque language|Basque]]).
* Change of {{smallcaps|-ll-}} to {{angle bracket|r}} {{IPA|/ɾ/}}, or {{angle bracket|th}} word-finally (originally the [[voiceless palatal stop]] {{IPA|/c/}}, but now generally either {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, depending on the word). This is a unique characteristic of Gascon and of certain [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]] dialects.

Examples of other dialect-specific features not shared with French or Catalan:
* Merging of syllable-final nasals to {{IPA|/ŋ/}}. This appears to represent a transitional stage before nasalization, and occurs especially in the southerly dialects other than Gascon (which still maintains different final nasals, as in Catalan).
* Former intervocalic {{IPA|/ð/}} (from Latin {{smallcaps|-d-}}) becomes /z/ (most dialects, but not Gascon). This appears to have happened in primitive Catalan as well, but Catalan later deleted this sound or converted it to {{IPA|/w/}}.
* Palatalization of {{IPA|/jt/}} (from Latin {{smallcaps|ct}}) to {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in most dialects or {{IPA|/(j)t/}}: ''lach'' vs ''lait'' (Gascon ''lèit'') 'milk', ''lucha'' vs ''luta'' (Gascon ''luta'') 'fight'.
* Weakening of {{IPA|/l/}} to {{IPA|/r/}} in the Vivaro-Alpine dialect.

===Comparison with other Romance languages and English===
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em ; font-size:80%"
|----- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|+ Common words in Romance languages, with English (a Germanic language) for reference
||'''Latin'''<br />(all nouns in the [[ablative case]])|| '''Occitan'''<br />(including main regional varieties)|| '''Catalan'''|| '''French''' || '''Norman''' || '''Romansh (Rumantsch Grischun)''' || '''Ladin (Gherdëina)''' ||'''Lombard'''|| '''Italian'''|| '''Spanish''' || '''Portuguese''' || '''Sardinian''' || '''Romanian''' || '''English'''
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|cantare}}
||cantar (chantar)
||cantar
||chanter
||canter, chanter
||chantar
||cianté
||cantà
||cantare
||cantar
||cantar
||cantare
||cânta(re)
||'(to) sing'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|capra}}
||craba (chabra, chaura)
||cabra
||chèvre
||quièvre
||chaura
||cëura
||cavra
||capra
||cabra
||cabra
||craba
||capră
||'goat'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|clave}}
||clau
||clau
||clé, clef
||clef
||clav
||tle
||ciav
||chiave
||llave
||chave
||crae
||cheie
||'key'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|ecclesia}}, {{smallcaps|basilica}}
||glèisa (esglèisa, glèia)
||església
||église
||église
||baselgia
||dlieja
||giesa
||chiesa
||iglesia
||igreja
||gresia/creia
||biserică
||'church'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|formatico}} ([[Vulgar Latin]]), {{smallcaps|caseo}}
||formatge (fromatge, hormatge)
||formatge
||fromage
||froumage, fourmage
||chaschiel
||ciajuel
||furmai/furmagg
||formaggio
||queso
||queijo
||casu
||caș
||'cheese'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|lingva}}
||lenga (lengua, luenga, linga)
||llengua
||langue
||langue
||lingua
||lenga, rujeneda
||lengua
||lingua
||lengua
||língua
||limba
||limbă
||'tongue, language'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|nocte}}
||nuèch (nuèit, nueit, net, nuòch)
||nit
||nuit
||nît
||notg
||nuet
||nocc
||notte
||noche
||noite
||nothe
||noapte
||'night'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|platea}}
||plaça
||plaça
||place
||plache
||plazza
||plaza
||piassa
||piazza
||plaza
||praça
||pratza
||piață<ref name="ReferenceA">Modern loanword from Italian or Greek (Iordan, Dift., 145)</ref>
||'square, plaza'
|----- bgcolor="#ffffff"
||{{smallcaps|ponte}}
||pont (pònt)
||pont
||pont
||pont
||punt
||puent
||punt
||ponte
||puente
||ponte
||ponte
||punte (small bridge)
||'bridge'
|}

===Lexicon===
A comparison of terms and word counts between languages is not easy, as it is impossible to count the number of words in a language. (See [[Lexicon]], [[Lexeme]], [[Lexicography]] for more information.)

Some have claimed around 450,000 words exist in the Occitan language,<ref>Avner Gerard Levy & Jacques Ajenstat: [http://www.kodaxil.org/kManifesto.pdf ''The Kodaxil Semantic Manifesto'']{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}} (2006), Section 10 – ''Modified Base64 / Kodaxil word length, representation'', p. 9: "the English language, as claimed by Merriam-Webster, as well as the Occitan language – are estimated to comprise over 450,000 words in their basic form."</ref> a number comparable to English (the ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'', Unabridged with 1993 addenda reaches 470,000 words, as does the Oxford English Dictionary, Second edition). The Merriam-Webster website estimates that the number is somewhere between 250,000 and 1&nbsp;million words.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

The magazine [[GEO (magazine)|''Géo'']] (2004, p.&nbsp;79) claims that American English literature can be more easily translated into Occitan than French, excluding modern technological terms that both languages have integrated.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

A comparison of the lexical content can find more subtle differences between the languages. For example, Occitan has 128 synonyms related to cultivated land, 62 for wetlands, and 75 for sunshine (''Géo''). The language went through an eclipse during the [[Industrial Revolution]], as the vocabulary of the countryside became less important. At the same time, it was disparaged as a [[patois]]. Nevertheless, Occitan has also incorporated new words into its lexicon to describe the modern world. The Occitan word for web (as in World Wide Web) is {{wikt-lang|oc|oèb}}, for example.

===Differences between Occitan and Catalan===
The separation of Catalan from Occitan is seen by some{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} as largely politically (rather than linguistically) motivated. However, the variety that has become standard Catalan differs from the one that has become standard Occitan in a number of ways. Here are just a few examples:
* [[Phonology]] {{Main|Occitan phonology|Catalan phonology}}
** Standard Catalan (based on Central Eastern Catalan) is unique in that Latin short ''e'' developed into a close vowel {{IPA|/e/}} (''é'') and Latin long ''e'' developed into an open vowel {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (''è''); that is precisely the reverse of the development that took place in Western Catalan dialects and the rest of the Romance languages, including Occitan. Thus Standard Catalan ''ésser'' {{IPA|[ˈesə]}} corresponds to Occitan ''èsser/èstre'' {{IPA|[ˈɛse/ˈɛstre]}} 'to be;' Catalan {{lang|ca|carrer}} {{IPA|[kəˈre]}} corresponds to Occitan ''carrièra'' {{IPA|oc|karˈjɛɾo̞|}} 'street', but it is also ''carriera'' {{IPA|oc|karˈjeɾo̞|}}, in Provençal.
** The distinctly Occitan development of word-final ''-a'', pronounced {{IPA|[o̞]}} in standard Occitan (''chifra'' 'figure' {{IPA|[ˈtʃifro̞]}}), did not occur in general Catalan (which has ''xifra'' {{IPA|[ˈʃifrə]}}). However, some Occitan varieties also lack that feature, and some Catalan ([[Valencian language|Valencian]]) varieties have the {{IPA|[ɔ]}} pronunciation, mostly by vowel harmony.
** When in Catalan word stress falls in the antepenultimate syllable, in Occitan the stress is moved to the penultimate syllable: for example, Occitan ''pagina'' {{IPA|[paˈdʒino̞]}} vs. Catalan ''pàgina'' {{IPA|[ˈpaʒinə]}}, "page". However, there are exceptions. For example, some varieties of Occitan (such as that of [[Nice]]) keep the stress on the antepenultimate syllable ''(pàgina)'', and some varieties of Catalan (in Northern Catalonia) put the stress on the penultimate syllable ''(pagina)''.
** [[Diphthong]]ization has evolved in different ways: Occitan ''paire'' vs. Catalan ''pare'' 'father;' Occitan ''carrièra (carrèra, carrèira)'' vs. Catalan ''carrera''.
** Although some Occitan dialects lack the [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] phoneme {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, others such as southwestern Occitan have it: general Occitan ''caissa'' {{IPA|[ˈkajso̞]}} vs. Catalan ''caixa'' {{IPA|[ˈkaʃə]}} and southwestern Occitan ''caissa, caisha'' {{IPA|[ˈka(j)ʃo̞]}}, 'box.' Nevertheless, some [[Western Catalan|Valencian dialects]] like Northern Valencian lack that phoneme too and generally substitute {{IPA|/jsʲ/}}: ''caixa'' {{IPA|[ˈkajʃa]}} (Standard Valencian) ~ {{IPA|[ˈkajsʲa]}} (Northern Valencian).
** Occitan has developed the [[close front rounded vowel]] {{IPA|/y/}} as a [[phoneme]], often (but not always) corresponding to Catalan {{IPA|/u/}}: Occitan ''musica'' {{IPA|[myˈziko̞]}} vs. Catalan ''música'' {{IPA|[ˈmuzikə]}}.
** The distribution of [[palatal consonant]]s {{IPA|/ʎ/}} and {{IPA|/ɲ/}} differs in Catalan and part of Occitan: while Catalan permits them in word-final position, in central Occitan they are [[Phoneme#Neutralization, archiphoneme, underspecification|neutralized]] to {{IPA|[l]}} and {{IPA|[n]}} (Central Occitan ''filh'' {{IPA|[fil]}} vs. Catalan ''fill'' {{IPA|[fiʎ]}}, 'son'). Similarly, [[Algherese dialect|Algherese Catalan]] neutralizes palatal consonants in word-final position as well. Non-central varieties of Occitan, however, may have a palatal realization (e.g. ''filh, hilh'' {{IPA|[fiʎ, fij, hiʎ]}}). 
** Furthermore, many words that start with {{IPA|/l/}} in Occitan start with {{IPA|/ʎ/}} in Catalan: Occitan ''libre'' {{IPA|[ˈliβɾe]}} vs. Catalan ''llibre'' {{IPA|[ˈʎiβɾə]}}, 'book.' That feature is perhaps one of the most distinctive characteristics of Catalan amongst the Romance languages, shared only with [[Asturian language|Asturian]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]] and [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]]. However, some transitional varieties of Occitan, near the Catalan area, also have initial {{IPA|/ʎ/}}.
** While {{IPA|/l/}} is always clear in Occitan, in Catalan it tends to be [[velarization|velarized]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}} ("[[dark l]]"). In coda position, {{IPA|/l/}} has tended to be vocalized to {{IPA|[w]}} in Occitan, while remained dark in Catalan.
** Standard [[Eastern Catalan]] has a [[schwa|neutral vowel]] {{IPA|[ə]}} whenever ''a'' or ''e'' occur in unstressed position (''passar'' {{IPA|[pəˈsa]}}, 'to happen', but ''passa'' {{IPA|[ˈpasə]}}, 'it happens'), and also {{IPA|[u]}} whenever ''o'' or ''u'' occur in unstressed position, e.g. ''obrir'' {{IPA|[uˈβɾi]}}, 'to open', but ''obre'' {{IPA|[ˈɔβɾə]}}, 'you open'. However, that does not apply to [[Western Catalan]] dialects, whose vowel system usually retains the ''a''/''e'' distinction in unstressed position, or to Northern Catalan dialects, whose vowel system does not retain the ''o''/''u'' distinction in stressed position, much like Occitan.
* [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]]
** Verb [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] is slightly different, but there is a great variety amongst dialects. Medieval conjugations were much closer. A characteristic difference is the ending of the second person plural, which is ''-u'' in Catalan but ''-tz'' in Occitan. {{further|Occitan conjugation|Catalan conjugation}}
** Occitan tends to add an [[analogy|analogical]] -''a'' to the [[grammatical gender|feminine]] forms of adjectives that are invariable in standard Catalan: for example, Occitan ''legal'' / ''legala'' vs. Catalan ''legal'' / ''legal''.
** Catalan has a distinctive past tense formation, known as the 'periphrastic preterite', formed from a variant of the verb 'to go' followed by the infinitive of the verb: ''donar'' 'to give,' ''va donar'' 'he gave.' That has the same value as the 'normal' preterite shared by most Romance languages, deriving from the Latin perfect tense: Catalan ''donà'' 'he gave.' The periphrastic preterite, in Occitan, is an archaic or a very local tense.
* [[Orthography]]
** The writing systems of the two languages differ slightly. The modern Occitan spelling recommended by the [[Institut d'Estudis Occitans]] and the [[Conselh de la Lenga Occitana]] is designed to be a pan-Occitan system, and the Catalan system recommended by the [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] and [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]] is specific to Catalan and Valencian. For example, in Catalan, word-final ''-n'' is omitted, as it is not pronounced in any dialect of Catalan (''Català'', ''Occità''); central Occitan also drops word-final ''-n'', but it is retained in the spelling, as some eastern and western dialects of Occitan still have it (''Catalan'', ''Occitan''). Some digraphs are also written in a different way such as the sound {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, which is ''ll'' in Catalan (similar to Spanish) and ''lh'' in Occitan (similar to Portuguese) or the sound {{IPA|/ɲ/}} written ''ny'' in Catalan and ''nh'' in Occitan.

===Occitano-Romance linguistic group===
Despite these differences, Occitan and Catalan remain more or less [[mutual intelligibility|mutually comprehensible]], especially when written – more so than either is with Spanish or French, for example, although this is mainly a consequence of using the classical (orthographical) norm of the Occitan, which is precisely focused in showing the similarities between the Occitan dialects with Catalan. Occitan and Catalan form a common diasystem (or a common [[Abstandsprache]]), which is called [[Occitano-Romance]], according to the linguist [[Pierre Bec]].<ref>Bec, Pierre. (1995). ''La langue occitane'', coll. Que sais-je? nr. 1059. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France [1st ed. 1963]</ref> Speakers of both languages share early historical and cultural heritage.

The combined Occitano-Romance area is 259,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, with a population of 23&nbsp;million. However, the regions are not equal in terms of language speakers. According to Bec 1969 (pp.&nbsp;120–121), in France, no more than a quarter of the population in counted regions could speak Occitan well, though around half understood it; it is thought that the number of Occitan users has decreased dramatically since then. By contrast, in the [[Catalonia]] administered by the [[Government of Catalonia]], nearly three-quarters of the population speak Catalan and 95% understand it.<ref>[http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/coneix.htm Gencat.net] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060709074538/http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/coneix.htm |date=9 July 2006 }}</ref>

==Preservation==
In the modern era, Occitan has become a rare and highly threatened language. Its users are clustered almost exclusively in Southern France, and it is unlikely that any monolingual speakers remain. In the early 1900s, the French government attempted to restrict the use and teaching of many minority languages, including Occitan, in public schools. While the laws have since changed, with bilingual education returning for regions with unique languages in 1993, the many years of restrictions had already caused serious decline in the number of Occitan speakers. The majority of living speakers are older adults.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bahrami|first=Beebe|title=The language the French forbade|url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180911-occitan-the-language-the-french-forbade|access-date=2021-12-24|website=www.bbc.com|date=11 September 2018 |language=en|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224201638/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20180911-occitan-the-language-the-french-forbade|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-13|title=Global Voices – The decline of Occitan: A failure of cultural initiatives, or abandonment by the state?|url=https://globalvoices.org/2021/08/13/the-decline-of-occitan-a-failure-of-cultural-initiatives-or-abandonment-by-the-state/|access-date=2021-12-24|website=Global Voices|language=en|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224201649/https://globalvoices.org/2021/08/13/the-decline-of-occitan-a-failure-of-cultural-initiatives-or-abandonment-by-the-state/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2018-04-19|title=Occitan's fight to stay away from the cliff of extinction|newspaper=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/prospero/2018/04/19/occitans-fight-to-stay-away-from-the-cliff-of-extinction|access-date=2021-12-24|issn=0013-0613|archive-date=24 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211224201637/https://www.economist.com/prospero/2018/04/19/occitans-fight-to-stay-away-from-the-cliff-of-extinction|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Samples==
[[File:VirgendeLourdes.JPG|thumb|upright=1.15|According to the testimony of [[Bernadette Soubirous]], the Virgin Mary spoke to her ([[Lourdes]], 25 March 1858) in Gascon saying: {{lang|oc|Que soy era Immaculada Councepciou}} ("I am the [[Immaculate Conception]]", the phrase is reproduced under this statue in the Lourdes grotto with a Mistralian/Febusian spelling), confirming the proclamation of this Catholic dogma four years earlier.]]
[[File:Abbaye de Sorde-Déploration-20110616.jpg|thumb|Inscription in Occitan in the Abbey of Saint-Jean de Sorde, [[Sorde-l'Abbaye]]: "Blessed are those who die in the Lord."]]
One of the most notable passages of Occitan in Western literature occurs in the 26th ''canto'' of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s {{lang|it|[[Purgatorio]]}} in which the troubadour [[Arnaut Daniel]] responds to the narrator:
:{{lang|oc|Tan m'abellís vostre cortés deman, / qu'ieu no me puesc ni voill a vos cobrire. / Ieu sui Arnaut, que plor e vau cantan; / consirós vei la passada folor, / e vei jausen lo joi qu'esper, denan. / Ara vos prec, per aquella valor / que vos guida al som de l'escalina, / sovenha vos a temps de ma dolor.}}
:Modern Occitan: {{lang|oc|Tan m'abelís vòstra cortesa demanda, / que ieu non-pòdi ni vòli m'amagar de vos. / Ieu soi Arnaut, que plori e vau cantant; / consirós vesi la foliá passada, / e vesi joiós lo jorn qu'espèri, davant. / Ara vos prègui, per aquela valor / que vos guida al som de l'escalièr, / sovenhatz-vos tot còp de ma dolor.}}

The above strophe translates to:
:So pleases me your courteous demand, / I cannot and I will not hide me from you. / I am Arnaut, who weep and singing go;/ Contrite I see the folly of the past, / And joyous see the hoped-for day before me. / Therefore do I implore you, by that power/ Which guides you to the summit of the stairs, / Be mindful to assuage my suffering!

Another notable Occitan quotation, this time from Arnaut Daniel's own 10th ''Canto'':
:{{lang|oc|"Ieu sui Arnaut qu'amas l'aura}}
:{{lang|oc|e chatz le lebre ab lo bou}}
:{{lang|oc|e nadi contra suberna"}}
Modern Occitan:
:{{lang|oc|"Ieu soi Arnaut qu'aimi l'aura}}
:{{lang|oc|e caci [chaci] la lèbre amb lo buòu}}
:{{lang|oc|e nadi contra subèrna.}}

Translation:
:"I am Arnaut who loves the wind,
:and chases the hare with the ox,
:and swims against the torrent."

French writer [[Victor Hugo]]'s classic ''[[Les Misérables]]'' also contains some Occitan. In Part One, First Book, Chapter IV, "{{lang|fr|Les œuvres semblables aux paroles|italic=no}}", one can read about [[Bishop Myriel|Monseigneur Bienvenu]]:
:"{{lang|fr|Né provençal, il s'était facilement familiarisé avec tous les patois du midi. Il disait: —|italic=no}} {{lang|oc|E ben, monsur, sètz saget?}} {{lang|fr|comme dans le bas Languedoc. —|italic=no}} {{lang|oc|Ont anaratz passar?}} {{lang|fr|comme dans les basses Alpes. —|italic=no}} {{lang|oc|Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras}}, {{lang|fr|comme dans le haut Dauphiné. [...] Parlant toutes les langues, il entrait dans toutes les âmes.|italic=no}}"

Translation:
:"Born a Provençal, he easily familiarized himself with the dialect of the south. He would say, {{lang|oc|E ben, monsur, sètz saget?}} as in lower Languedoc; {{lang|oc|Ont anaratz passar?}} as in the Basses-Alpes; {{lang|oc|Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras}} as in upper Dauphiné. [...] As he spoke all tongues, he entered into all hearts."
:{{lang|oc|E ben, monsur, sètz saget?}}: So, Mister, everything's fine?
:{{lang|oc|Ont anaratz passar?}}: Which way will you go?
:{{lang|oc|Pòrti un bon moton amb un bon formatge gras}}: I brought some fine mutton with a fine fat cheese

The Spanish playwright [[Lope de Rueda]] included a Gascon servant for comical effect in one of his short pieces, ''La generosa paliza''.<ref name="Rueda">''[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01159741097810429650035/p0000001.htm Registro de Representantes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828104958/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01159741097810429650035/p0000001.htm |date=28 August 2007 }}'' by Lope de Rueda, in Spanish. Peirutón speaks a mix of Gascon and Catalan.</ref>

[[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]'s ''Thousand Cultures'' science fiction series (''[[A Million Open Doors]]'', 1992; ''[[Earth Made of Glass]]'', 1998; ''[[The Merchants of Souls]]'', 2001; and ''[[The Armies of Memory]]'', 2006), features Occitan.
So does the 2005 best-selling novel ''[[Labyrinth (book)|Labyrinth]]'' by English author [[Kate Mosse]]. It is set in [[Carcassonne]], where she owns a house and spends half of the year.

The French composer [[Joseph Canteloube]] created five sets of folk songs entitled ''[[Songs of the Auvergne]]'', in which the lyrics are in the Auvergne dialect of Occitan. The orchestration strives to conjure vivid pastoral scenes of yesteryear.

[[Michael Crichton]] features Occitan in his ''[[Timeline (novel)|Timeline]]'' novel.

==See also==
{{Portal|France|Italy|Spain|Language}}
* [[Association internationale d'études occitanes]]
* [[Baìo]]
* [[History of the Basque language]]
* [[Languages of France]]
* [[Languages of Italy]]
* [[Languages of Spain]]
* [[Occitan cross]]
* [[Occitan cuisine]]
* [[Language policy in France]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

===Explanatory footnotes===
{{notelist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite web|title = Easy Occitan|url = https://easy-occitan.github.io/index.html#}}
* {{cite book | last=Anglade | first=Joseph | year=1921 | title=Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc: phonétique et morphologie | publisher=C. Klincksieck | place=Paris | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j/f3.image | language=fr | access-date=21 February 2013 | archive-date=18 January 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118132007/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k255748j/f3.image | url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last=Backer | first=Louis de | year=1860 | title=Grammaire comparée des langues de la France, par Louis de Baecker. Flamand, allemand, celto-breton, basque, provençal, espagnol, italien, français, comparés au sanscrit | publisher=C. Blériot | place=Paris | url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5846989r.f61 | language=fr | access-date=14 August 2010 | archive-date=12 April 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412011234/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5846989r.f61 | url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | last=Bec | first=Pierre | author-link=Pierre Bec | year=1963 | title= La Langue occitane | series=Que sais-je? 1059 | publisher=  Presses Universitaires de France| place=Paris | language=fr}}
* {{cite book | last=Bec | first=Pierre | author-link=Pierre Bec | year = 1971 |title=Manuel pratique de philologie romane. Français, roumain, sarde, rhéto-frioulan, francoprovençal, dalmate. Phonologie, index |place=Paris |publisher=Picard}}
* {{cite book | last=Bec | first=Pierre | year=1973 | title= Manuel pratique d'occitan moderne | publisher= A. & J. Picard | place=Paris | language=fr}}
* <!-- This book is relevant, because it includes not just the grammar of Aranese, but also an extensive article about all dialects of Occitan -->{{cite book|last=Carrera|first=Aitor|title=Gramatica Aranesa|publisher=Pagès Editors|location=Lleida|year=2007|isbn=978-84-9779-484-8|language=oc}}
* {{cite book | last= Gaussen | first= Yvan | year= 1927 | title= Du fédéralisme de Proudhon au Félibrige de Mistral | publisher= A. Chastanier | place= Nîmes | url= http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57104841.image.langEN.f6.pagination | language= fr | access-date= 14 August 2010 | archive-date= 18 July 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120718170441/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57104841.image.langEN.f6.pagination | url-status= live }}
* {{cite book | last= Kremnitz | first= Georg | year=2002 | contribution=Une approche sociolinguistique | editor1-last= Kirsch | editor1-first= Fritz Peter | editor2-last= Kremnitz | editor2-first= Georg | editor3-last= Schlieben-Lange | editor3-first= Brigitte | others= Chabrant, Catherine trans  |title=Petite histoire sociale de la langue occitane: Usages, images, littérature, grammaires et dictionnaires | publisher= Trabucaire | place= Canet, France | language=fr | isbn=978-2-912966-59-9 }}
* [[Ursula Reutner]]: "'Minor' Gallo-Romance Languages". In: Lebsanft, Franz/Tacke, Felix: ''Manual of Standardization in the Romance Languages''. Berlin: de Gruyter (Manuals of Romance Linguistics 24), 773–807.
* {{Cite book|last1=Smith|first1=Nathaniel B.|last2=Bergin | first2=Thomas Goddard | title=An Old Provençal Primer | publisher=Garland | place=New York | year=1984 |isbn=0-8240-9030-6}}

==External links==
{{interWiki|code=oc}}
{{commons category|Occitan language}}
{{WikisourceWiki|Occitan language}}
{{Wiktionary|Category:Occitan language}}
* [https://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Occitan/index.html Orbilat.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813104158/https://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Occitan/index.html |date=13 August 2021 }} – Overview and grammar of Occitan
* [http://occitanet.free.fr/en/index.html Occitanet.free.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529084158/http://occitanet.free.fr/en/index.html |date=29 May 2006 }} – a guide to the language
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060405161054/http://globegate.utm.edu/french/globegate_mirror/occit.html Globegate.UTM.edu] – Troubadour & Early Occitan Literature
* [http://www.ostaldoccitania.net Ostaldoccitania.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106193621/http://ostaldoccitania.net/ |date=6 January 2011 }} – The house of Occitan associations of Toulouse
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090505143145/http://www.eonet.ne.jp/~ogurisu/2french/LexiqueRoman/LexiqueRoman.html Eonet.ne] – "LexRomEdic", electronic version of Lexique Roman of Rainouard (A provisional version is available).
* [http://arrilemosin.free.fr arrilemosin.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104143642/http://arrilemosin.free.fr/ |date=4 January 2017 }} – Occitan Limousin group website with maps and vocabulary
*{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Provençal Language |volume=22 |pages=491–495 |first=Paul |last=Meyer |short=1}}

{{Languages of France}}
{{Romance languages}}
{{Occitano-Romance languages and dialects}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Occitan Language}}
[[Category:Occitan language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Monaco]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Piedmont]]
[[Category:Languages of Catalonia]]
[[Category:Southern France]]
[[Category:Endangered Romance languages]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]
[[Category:Occitano-Romance languages]]