View source for Ocean liner

{{Short description|Ship designed to transport people from one seaport to another}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2017}}
[[File:Queen Mary 2 Boston July 2015 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|{{As of|2025}}, {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}} is the only ocean liner still in service.]]
An '''ocean liner''' is a type of [[passenger ship]] primarily used for transportation across seas or oceans. Ocean liners may also carry cargo or mail, and may sometimes be used for other purposes (such as for pleasure cruises or as [[hospital ship]]s).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2015/07/01/4264798.htm |title=Maritime historian Chris Frame: how the ocean liner changed the world |work=ABC National |date=1 July 2015 |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref> The ''[[Queen Mary 2]]'' is the only active ocean liner in 2025, serving with [[Cunard Line]].

The category does not include [[ferry|ferries]] or other vessels engaged in short-sea trading, nor dedicated [[cruise ship]]s where the voyage itself, and not transportation, is the primary purpose of the trip. Nor does it include [[tramp steamer]]s, even those equipped to handle limited numbers of passengers. Some shipping companies refer to themselves as "lines" and their passenger ships, which often operate over set routes according to established schedules, as "liners".

While sharing certain similarities with cruise ships, such as comfort and luxuries for passengers,<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.businessinsider.com/historical-vintage-photos-cruise-ships-ocean-travel-2016-10?utm_source=firefox-newtab-en-us#it-was-also-possible-to-get-married-on-a-cruise-ship-like-this-couple-pictured-in-1960-32 | title=32 vintage photos from the days when cruise ships were glamorous | website=[[Business Insider]] }}</ref> ocean liners must be able to travel between continents from point A to point B on a fixed schedule, so must be faster and built to withstand the rough seas and adverse conditions encountered on long voyages across the open ocean. A cruise ship will usually travel within a particular region, while occasionally making an ocean voyage for repositioning.<ref name="Robin">{{cite web |url=http://chriscunard.com/history-fleet/translantic-liner/ |title=Ocean Liner vs. Cruise Ship |work=Chris's Cunard Page |date=19 July 2017 |access-date=1 September 2022}}</ref>  To protect against large waves, ocean liners usually have a higher [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] and promenade deck with higher positioning of lifeboats (the height above water called the [[Freeboard (nautical)|freeboard]]), as well as a longer bow than a cruise ship.<ref name="Robin"/>  For additional strength, they are often designed with thicker hull plating than is found on cruise ships, as well as a deeper [[Draft (hull)|draft]] for greater stability, and have large capacities for fuel, food, and other consumables on long voyages.<ref name="Robin"/>  On an ocean liner, the captain's tower ([[Bridge (nautical)|bridge]]) is usually positioned on the upper deck for increased visibility.<ref name="Robin"/>

The first ocean liners were built in the mid-19th century. [[Technology|Technological]] innovations such as the steam engine, diesel engine and steel hull allowed larger and faster liners to be built, giving rise to a competition between world powers of the time, especially between the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], the [[German Empire]], and to a lesser extent [[France]]. Once the dominant form of travel between continents, ocean liners were rendered largely obsolete by the emergence of long-distance aircraft after [[World War II]]. Advances in automobile and railway technology also played a role. After {{ship||Queen Elizabeth 2}} was retired in 2008, the only ship still in service as an ocean liner is {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}}, which was introduced in 2004 and is also the [[Timeline of largest passenger ships#20th century|largest ever built]].

==Overview==
{{Panorama
|image = File:The Lusitania at end of record voyage 1907 LC-USZ62-64956.jpg
|height = 220
|alt = The {{RMS|Lusitania}} arriving in New York in 1907.
|caption = {{RMS|Lusitania}} arriving in New York in 1907. As the primary means of trans-oceanic voyages for over a century, ocean liners were essential to the transportation needs of national governments, business firms, and the general public.
}}

Ocean liners were the primary mode of intercontinental travel for over a century, from the mid-19th century until they began to be supplanted by [[airliner]]s in the 1950s. In addition to passengers, liners carried mail and cargo. Ships contracted to carry [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Mail]] used the designation [[Royal Mail Ship|RMS]]. Liners were also the preferred way to move gold and other high-value cargoes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pickford |first=Nigel|title=Lost Treasure Ships of the Twentieth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/losttreasureship0000pick |url-access=registration |year=1999 |publisher=National Geographic|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=0-7922-7472-5}}</ref>

[[File:Aquitaniaposter.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|Cunard Line poster of 1921, with a cutaway of the liner {{RMS|Aquitania}}.]]
The busiest route for liners was on the North Atlantic with ships travelling between Europe and North America. It was on this route that the fastest, largest and most advanced liners travelled, though most ocean liners historically were mid-sized vessels which served as the common carriers of passengers and freight between nations and among other countries and their colonies and dependencies before the dawn of the [[jet age]]. Such routes included Europe to African and Asian colonies, Europe to South America, and migrant traffic from Europe to North America in the 19th and first two decades of the 20th centuries, and to Canada and Australia after the Second World War.

Shipping lines are companies engaged in shipping passengers and cargo, often on established routes and schedules. Regular scheduled voyages on a set route are called "line voyages" and vessels (passenger or cargo) trading on these routes to a timetable are called liners. The alternative to liner trade is "tramping" whereby vessels are notified on an ad hoc basis as to the availability of a cargo to be transported. (In older usage, "liner" also referred to [[ships of the line]], that is, line-of-battle ships, but that usage is now rare.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Liner|volume=16|page=727}}</ref>) The term "ocean liner" has come to be used interchangeably with "passenger liner", although it can refer to a [[cargo liner]] or cargo-passenger liner.

The advent of the Jet Age and the decline in transoceanic ship service brought about a gradual transition from passenger ships to modern cruise ships as a means of transportation.Modern cruise lines operate primarily for leisure rather than transportation, offering a wide range of itineraries and amenities that evolved from the traditions of classic ocean liners.<ref>{{cite web |title=Overview of Major Ocean and River Cruise Lines |url=https://bestworldcruises.com/our-cruise-lines/ |website=BestWorldCruises.com |access-date=2025-11-11}}</ref>
<ref name="gnorris">{{cite news|last=Norris|first=Gregory J.|title=Evolution of cruising|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IDEDAAAAMBAJ&q=The%20Evolution%20of%20the%20Transatlantic%20Liner&pg=PA28|access-date=26 May 2013|newspaper=Cruise Travel|date=December 1981}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In order for ocean liners to remain profitable, cruise lines modified some of them to operate on cruise routes, such as the {{SS|France|1961|6}}. Certain characteristics of older ocean liners made them unsuitable for cruising, such as high fuel consumption, deep draught preventing them from entering shallow ports, and cabins (often windowless) designed to maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort. The [[Italian Line]]'s {{SS|Michelangelo}} and {{SS|Raffaello}}, the last ocean liners to be built primarily for crossing the North Atlantic, could not be converted economically and had short careers.<ref name="LINER23">{{cite web |publisher=ssMaritime.com |year=2012 |url=http://www.ssmaritime.com/italia-lines.htm |title=T/n Michelangelo and Raffaello |first=Reuben |last=Goossens|access-date=26 May 2013}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==History==
===19th century===
[[File:SS Sirius (1837).jpg|thumb|In 1838, ''[[SS Sirius (1837)|Sirius]]'' was the first ship to cross the Atlantic using continuous steam power.]]
[[File:Great Western maiden voyage.jpg|thumb|The first voyage of {{SS|Great Western}} (1838)]]
At the beginning of the 19th century, the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the inter-continental trade made the development of secure links between continents imperative. Being at the top among the colonial powers, the United Kingdom needed stable maritime routes to connect different parts of its [[British Empire|empire]]: the [[Far East]], India, Australia, etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=11}}</ref> The birth of the concept of international water and the lack of any claim to it simplified navigation during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=14}}</ref> In 1818, the [[Black Ball Line (trans-Atlantic packet)|Black Ball Line]], with a fleet of sailing ships, offered the first regular passenger service with emphasis on passenger comfort, from England to the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=12}}</ref>

In 1807, [[Robert Fulton]] succeeded in applying steam engines to ships. He built the first ship that was powered by this technology, the [[North River Steamboat|''Clermont'']], which succeeded in travelling between New York City and [[Albany, New York]] in thirty hours before entering into regular service between the two cities.<ref name=GP10>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=10}}</ref> Soon after, other ships were built using this innovation. In 1816, the {{ship||Élise|steamship|2}} became the first [[steamship]] to cross the [[English Channel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=13}}</ref> Another important advance came in 1819, when {{SS|Savannah}} became the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. She left the [[Savannah, Georgia|U.S. city of the same name]] and arrived in [[Liverpool, England]] in 27 days. Most of the distance was covered by sailing; the steam power was not used for more than 72 hours during the travel.<ref name=LG8>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=8}}</ref> Public enthusiasm for the new technology was not high, as none of the thirty-two people who had booked a seat boarded the ship for that historic voyage.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=16}}</ref> Although ''Savannah'' had proven that a steamship was capable of crossing the ocean, the public was not yet prepared to trust such means of travel on an open sea, and, in 1820, the steam engine was removed from the ship.<ref name=LG8/>

Work on this technology continued and a new step was taken in 1833. ''Royal William'' managed to cross the Atlantic by using steam power on most of the voyage; sail was used only when the boilers were cleaned.<ref name=LG8/> However, there were still many skeptics, and in 1836, scientific writer [[Dionysius Lardner]] declared that: <blockquote>As the project of making the voyage directly from New York to Liverpool, it was perfectly chimerical, and they might as well talk of making the voyage from New York to the moon.<ref name=CM19>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=19}}</ref></blockquote>

[[Image:IKBrunelChains.jpg|thumb|right|upright|150px|[[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] at the launch of {{SS|Great Eastern}} in 1857]]
The last step toward long-distance travel using steam power was taken in 1837 when {{SS|Sirius|1837|6}} left Liverpool on 4 April and arrived in New York eighteen days later on 22 April after a turbulent crossing. Too little coal was prepared for the crossing, and the crew had to burn cabin furniture in order to complete the voyage. The journey took place at a speed of 8.03 knots.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=9}}</ref> The voyage was made possible by the use of a condenser, which fed the boilers with fresh water and avoiding having to periodically shut down the boilers in order to remove the salt.<ref name=CM19/> This new record was short-lived. The next day, {{SS|Great Western}}, designed by railway engineer [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], arrived in New York. She left Liverpool on 8 April and overtook ''Sirius''{{'}}s record with an average speed of 8.66 knots. A race for speed was born, and, with it, the tradition of the [[Blue Riband]].<ref name=GP100>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=100}}</ref>

With ''Great Western'', Isambard Kingdom Brunel laid the foundations for new shipbuilding techniques. He realised that the carrying capacity of a ship increases as the cube of its dimensions, whilst the water resistance only increases as the square of its dimensions. This means that large ships are more fuel-efficient, something very important for long voyages across the Atlantic.<ref name=CM19/><ref>{{cite book |last=Rolt |first=L.T.C. |title=Victorian Engineering|page=86 |date=1970 |location=Allen Lane |publisher=The Penguin Press |isbn=0-7139-0104-7}}</ref> Constructing large ships was therefore more profitable.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=13}}</ref> Moreover, migration to the Americas increased enormously. These movements of population were a financial windfall for the shipping companies,<ref name=CM21>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=21}}</ref> of which some of the largest were founded during this period. Examples are the [[P&O (company)|P&O]] of the United Kingdom in 1822 and the [[Compagnie Générale Transatlantique]] of France in 1855.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=25}}</ref>

[[File:RMS Britannia 1840 paddlewheel.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Britannia}} of 1840]]
[[Image:Great Eastern.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Great Eastern}} of 1858]]
The steam engine also allowed ships to provide regular service without the use of sail. This aspect particularly appealed to the postal companies, which leased the services of ships to serve clients separated by the ocean. In 1839, [[Samuel Cunard]] founded the [[Cunard Line]] and became the first to dedicate the activity of his shipping company to the transport of mails, thus ensuring regular services on a given schedule. The company's ships operated the routes between the United Kingdom and the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=20}}</ref> Over time, the paddle wheel, impractical on the high seas, was abandoned in favour of the propeller.<ref name=GP10/> In 1840, Cunard Line's {{RMS|Britannia}} began its first regular passenger and cargo service by a steamship, sailing from Liverpool to [[Boston]], Massachusetts.<ref name="LINER3">{{cite web
|publisher=The Cunarders |url=http://www.thecunarders.co.uk/Britannia%20History.html |title=Ship History |access-date=24 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160404043505/http://thecunarders.co.uk/Britannia%20History.html |archive-date=4 April 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Image:Kaiser wilhelm der grosse 01.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse}} of 1897]]
As the size of ships increased, the wooden hull became unreliable. The start of the use of [[Iron-hulled sailing ship|iron hulls]] in 1845, and then of steel hulls, solved this problem.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=11}}</ref> The first ship to be both iron-hulled and equipped with a screw [[propeller]] was {{SS|Great Britain}}, a creation of Brunel. Her career was disastrous and short. She was run aground and stranded at [[Dundrum Bay]] in 1846. In 1884, she was retired to the [[Falkland Islands]] where she was used as a warehouse, quarantine ship, and coal hulk until she was scuttled in 1937.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=12}}</ref> The American company [[Collins Line]] took a different approach. It equipped its ships with cold rooms, heating systems, and various other innovations but the operation was expensive. The sinking of two of its ships was a major blow to the company which was dissolved in 1858.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=27}}</ref>

In 1858, Brunel built his third and last giant, {{SS|Great Eastern}}. The ship was, for 43 years, the [[List of largest passenger ships|largest passenger ship ever built]]. She had the capacity to carry 4,000 passengers.<ref name=CM29>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=29}}</ref> Her career was marked by a series of failures and incidents, one of which was an explosion on board during her maiden voyage.<ref name=LG16>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=16}}</ref>

Many ships owned by [[Hapag-Lloyd]] were sailing from major German ports, such as Hamburg and Bremen, to the United States during this time. The year 1858 was marked by a major accident: the sinking of {{SS|Austria}}. The ship, built in [[Greenock]] and sailing between Hamburg and New York twice a month, suffered an accidental fire off the coast of Newfoundland and sank with the loss of all but 89 of the 542 passengers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archeosousmarine.net/austria.html |title=L'incendie de L'Austria |access-date=9 September 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327044750/http://archeosousmarine.net/austria.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the British market, Cunard Line and [[White Star Line]] competed strongly against each other in the late 1860s. The struggle was symbolised by the attainment of the Blue Riband, which the two companies achieved several times around the end of the century.<ref name=CM47>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=47}}</ref> The luxury and technology of ships were also evolving. Auxiliary sails became obsolete and disappeared completely at the end of the century. Possible military use of passenger ships was envisaged and, in 1889, {{RMS|Teutonic}} became the first [[auxiliary cruiser]] in history. In the time of war, ships could easily be equipped with cannons and used in cases of conflict. ''Teutonic'' succeeded in impressing [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Emperor Wilhelm II]] of Germany, who wanted to see his country endowed with a modern fleet.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=22}}</ref>

In 1870, the White Star Line's {{RMS|Oceanic|1870|6}} set a new standard for ocean travel by having its first-class cabins amidships, with the added amenity of large portholes, electricity and running water.<ref name="LINER6">{{cite web |publisher=The Red Duster |url=http://www.red-duster.co.uk/WSTAR.htm |title= The White Star Line |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819033343/http://www.red-duster.co.uk/WSTAR.htm |archive-date=19 August 2010}}</ref> The size of ocean liners increased from 1880 onward to meet the needs of migration to the United States and Australia.

{{RMS|Umbria}}<ref name="LINER7">{{cite web |publisher=Chris' Cunard Page |url=http://www.chriscunard.com/umbria.php |title=Umbria |access-date=24 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406055906/http://chriscunard.com/umbria.php |archive-date=6 April 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and her sister ship {{RMS|Etruria}} were the last two Cunard liners of the period to be fitted with auxiliary sails. Both ships were built by [[John Elder & Co.]] of Glasgow, Scotland, in 1884. They were record breakers by the standards of the time, and were the largest liners then in service, serving the Liverpool to New York route.

{{SS|Ophir}} was a 6,814-ton<ref name="LINER8">{{cite web|publisher=Clydemaritime|url=http://www.clydemaritime.co.uk/HMS%20Ophir%20of%201891|title=SS Ophir|access-date=5 November 2019|archive-date=5 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191105180741/http://www.clydemaritime.co.uk/HMS%2520Ophir%2520of%25201891|url-status=dead}}</ref> steamship owned by the [[Orient Steam Navigation Company|Orient Steamship Co.]], and was fitted with refrigeration equipment. She served the Suez Canal route from England to Australia during the 1890s, up until the years leading to [[World War I]] when she was converted to an [[armed merchant cruiser]].

In 1897, [[Norddeutscher Lloyd]] launched {{SS|Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse}}. She was followed three years later by [[Kaiser-class ocean liner|three sister ships]]. The ship was both luxurious and fast, managing to win the Blue Riband from the British.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=23}}</ref> She was also the first of the fourteen [[four funnel liner|ocean liners with four funnels]] that have emerged in maritime history. The ship needed only two funnels, but more funnels gave passengers a feeling of safety.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=124}}</ref> In 1900, the [[Hamburg America Line]] competed with its own four-funnel liner, {{SS|Deutschland|1900|6}}. She quickly obtained the Blue Riband for her company. This race for speed, however, was a detriment to passengers' comfort and generated strong vibration, which made her owner lose any interest in her after she lost the Blue Riband to another ship of Norddeutscher Lloyd.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=26}}</ref> She was only used for ten years for transatlantic crossing before being converted into a cruise ship.<ref name=LG25>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=25}}</ref> Until 1907, the Blue Riband remained in the hands of the Germans.

===Early 20th century===
[[File:Mauretania,1907 on Tyne.JPG|thumb|{{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}} of 1907]]
[[File:Imperator LOC ggbain 13359u.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Imperator}} of 1913]]
[[File:HMT Olympic.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Olympic||2}} with [[dazzle camouflage]] during World War I]]
In 1902, [[J. P. Morgan]] embraced the idea of a maritime empire comprising a large number of companies. He founded the [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]], a trust which originally comprised only American shipping companies. The trust then absorbed [[Leyland Line]] and White Star Line.<ref>{{cite web |first=William B. |last=Saphire |url=http://www.titanic1.org/articles/mercantile.asp |title=The White Star Line and the International Mercantile Marine Company |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080128020348/http://www.titanic1.org/articles/mercantile.asp |archive-date=28 January 2008 |work=[[Titanic Historical Society]] |access-date=11 July 2010}}</ref> The British government then decided to intervene in order to regain its ascendancy.

Although German liners dominated in terms of speed, British liners dominated in terms of size. {{RMS|Oceanic|1899|6}} and the [[Big Four (White Star Line)|Big Four]] of the White Star Line were the first liners to surpass ''Great Eastern'' as the [[Timeline of largest passenger ships|largest passenger ships]]. Ultimately their owner was American (as mentioned above, White Star Line had been absorbed into J. P. Morgan's trust). Faced with this major competition, the British government contributed financially to Cunard Line's construction of two liners of unmatched size and speed, under the condition that they be available for conversion into armed cruisers when needed by the navy. The result of this partnership was the completion in 1907 of two sister ships: {{RMS|Lusitania}} and {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}}, both of which won the Blue Riband during their respective maiden voyages. The latter retained it for twenty years.<ref name=LG33>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=33}}</ref> Their great speed was achieved by the use of turbines instead of conventional expansion machines.<ref name="Piouffre-16">{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=16}}</ref>
In response to the competition from Cunard Line, White Star Line ordered the {{sclass|Olympic|ocean liner|0}} liners at the end of 1907.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=37}}</ref> The first of these three liners, {{RMS|Olympic}}, completed in 1911, had a fine career, although punctuated by incidents. This was not the case for her sister, the {{RMS|Titanic}}, which [[Sinking of the RMS Titanic|sank]] on her maiden voyage on 15 April 1912, resulting in several major changes to maritime safety practices.<ref name=CM54>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=54}}</ref> As for the third sister, {{HMHS|Britannic}}, she never served her intended purpose as a passenger ship, as she was drafted in the [[World War I|First World War]] as a [[hospital ship]], and sank to a [[naval mine]] in 1916.

At the same time, France tried to mark its presence with the completion in 1912 of {{SS|France|1910|6}} owned by the [[Compagnie Générale Transatlantique]].<ref name=LG47>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=47}}</ref> Germany soon responded to the competition from the British. From 1912 to 1914, Hamburg America Line completed a trio of liners significantly larger than the White Star Line's ''Olympic''-class ships. The first to be completed, in 1913, was {{SS|Imperator}}. She was followed by [[SS Leviathan|SS ''Vaterland'']] in 1914.<ref name=LG52>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=52}}</ref> The construction of the third liner, {{SS|Bismarck}}, was paused by the outbreak of World War I.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=61}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=223}}</ref>

[[World War I]] was a difficult time for the liners. Some of them, like the ''Mauretania'', {{RMS|Aquitania||2}}, and ''Britannic'' were transformed into hospital ships during the conflict.<ref name=LG33/><ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=39}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=55}}</ref><ref name=LG47/> Others became troop transports, while some, such as the ''Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse'', participated in the war as warships.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=120}}</ref> Troop transportation was very popular due to the liners' large size. Liners converted into troop ships were painted in [[dazzle camouflage]] to reduce the risk of being torpedoed by enemy [[submarine]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=50}}</ref>

The war caused the loss of many liners. ''Britannic'', while serving as a hospital ship, sank in the [[Aegean Sea]] in 1916 after she struck a mine.<ref name="LINER18">{{cite web|first=J. Kent|last=Layton|publisher=Atlantic Liners|url=http://www.atlanticliners.com/britannic_home.htm|title=H.M.H.S. Britannic|year=2009|access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref> Numerous incidents of [[torpedo]]ing took place and large numbers of ships sank. ''Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse'' was defeated and [[Scuttling|scuttled]] after a fierce battle with {{HMS|Highflyer|1898|6}} off the coast of west Africa, while her sister ship {{SS|Kronprinz Wilhelm||2}} served as a [[commerce raider]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/index2.html |title=Kronprinz Wilhelm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120918025540/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/index2.html |archive-date=18 September 2012 |work=The Great Ocean Liners |access-date=12 July 2010}}</ref> The torpedoing and sinking of ''Lusitania'' on 7 May 1915 caused the loss of 128 American lives at a time when the United States was still neutral. Although other factors came into play, the loss of American lives in the sinking strongly pushed the United States to favour the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] and facilitated the country's entry into the war.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=34}}</ref>

The losses of the liners owned by the Allied Powers were compensated by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919.  This led to the awarding of many German liners to the victorious Allies. The Hamburg America Line's trio ({{SS|Imperator||2}}, ''Vaterland'', and ''Bismarck'') were divided between the Cunard Line, White Star Line, and the [[United States Lines]], while the three surviving ships of the Kaiser class were requisitioned by the US Navy in the context of the conflict and then retained. The ''Tirpitz'', whose construction was delayed by the outbreak of war, eventually became the {{RMS|Empress of Australia|1919|6}}. Of the German superliners, only ''Deutschland'', because of her poor state, avoided this fate.<ref name=LG25/>

===After World War I===
[[File:Île de France at sea.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Île de France}} of 1927]]
[[File:TS Bremen.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Bremen|1928|6}} of 1929]]
[[File:StateLibQld 1 171411 Queen Mary (ship).jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Queen Mary}} of 1936]]
[[File:«Conte Di Savoia» durante le sue prove in mare.JPG|thumb|{{SS|Conte di Savoia}} of 1932]]
After a period of reconstruction, the shipping companies recovered quickly from the damage caused by World War I. The ships whose construction was started before the war, such as {{SS|Paris|1916|6}} of the [[French Line]], were completed and put into service.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=58}}</ref> Prominent British liners, such as the ''Olympic'' and the ''Mauretania'', were also put back into service and had a successful career in the early 1920s. More modern liners were also built, such as {{SS|Île de France}} (completed in 1927).<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=65}}</ref> The [[United States Lines]], having received the ''Vaterland'', renamed her ''Leviathan'' and made her the [[flagship]] of the company's fleet. Because all U.S. [[Ship registration|registered]] ships counted as an extension of U.S. territory, the [[National Prohibition Act]] made American liners alcohol-free, causing alcohol-seeking passengers to choose ships of other countries for travel and substantially reduce profits for the United States Lines.<ref name=LG52/>

In 1929, Germany returned to the scene with the two ships of Norddeutscher Lloyd, {{SS|Bremen|1928|6}} and {{SS|Europa|1928|6}}. ''Bremen'' won the Blue Riband from Britain's ''Mauretania'' after the latter had held it for twenty years.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=63}}</ref> Soon, [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] also entered the scene. The [[Italian Line]] completed {{SS|Rex}} and {{SS|Conte di Savoia}} in 1932, breaking the records of both luxury and speed (''Rex'' won the westbound Blue Riband in 1933).<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=69}}</ref> France reentered the scene with {{SS|Normandie}} of the French Compagnie Générale Transatlantique (CGT). The ship was the largest ship afloat at the time of her completion in 1935. She was also the fastest, winning the Blue Riband in 1935.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=84}}</ref>

A crisis arose when the United States drastically reduced its immigrant quotas, causing shipping companies to lose a large part of their income and to have to adapt to this circumstance.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=111}}</ref> The [[Great Depression]] also played an important role, causing a drastic decrease in the number of people crossing the Atlantic and at the same time reducing the number of profitable transatlantic voyages. In response, shipping companies redirected many of their liners to a more profitable cruise service.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=117}}</ref> In 1934, in the United Kingdom, Cunard Line and White Star Line were in very bad shape financially. [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] proposed to merge the two companies in order to solve their financial problems.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=122}}</ref> The merger took place in 1934 and launched the construction of the {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}} while progressively sending their older ships to the scrapyard. The ''Queen Mary'' was the fastest ship of her time and the largest for a short amount of time, she captured the Blue Riband twice, both off ''Normandie''.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=93}}</ref> The construction of a second ship, the {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth||2}}, was interrupted by the outbreak of [[World War II]].<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=100}}</ref>

[[World War II]] was a conflict rich in events involving liners. From the start of the conflict, German liners were requisitioned and many were turned into barracks ships. It was in the course of this activity that the ''Bremen'' caught fire while under conversion for [[Operation Sea Lion]] and was scrapped in 1941.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=70}}</ref> During the conflict, ''Queen Elizabeth'' and ''Queen Mary'' provided distinguished service as troopships.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=42}}</ref>

Many liners were sunk with great loss of life; the three worst disasters were the loss of the Cunarder {{RMS|Lancastria||2}} in 1940 off [[Saint-Nazaire]] to German bombing while attempting to evacuate troops of the [[British Expeditionary Force (World War II)|British Expeditionary Force]] from France, with the loss of more than 3,000 lives;<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=86}}</ref> the sinking of {{MV|Wilhelm Gustloff||2}}, after the ship was torpedoed by a Soviet submarine, with more than 9,000 lives lost, making it the deadliest maritime disaster in history;<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=87}}</ref> and the sinking of {{SS|Cap Arcona}} with more than 7,000 lives lost, both in the [[Baltic Sea]], in 1945.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=69}}</ref>

SS ''Rex'' was bombarded and sunk in 1944, and ''Normandie'' caught fire, capsized, and sank in New York in 1942 while being converted into a troopship.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=83}}</ref> Many of the superliners of the 1920s and 1930s were victims of [[U-boat]]s, mines or enemy aircraft. {{RMS|Empress of Britain|1931|2}} was attacked by German planes, then torpedoed by a U-boat when tugs tried to tow her to safety.<ref name="LINER19">{{cite web|publisher=Great Ships|url=http://www.greatships.net/empressbritain2.html|title=Empress of Britain (II) |year=2012|first=Jeff|last=Newman|access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref> Out of all the innovative and glamorous inter-war superliners, only the Cunard ''Queens'' and ''Europa'' would survive the war.

===Decline of long-distance line voyages===
[[File:StateLibQld 1 169487 United States (ship).jpg|thumb|{{SS|United States}} of 1952]]
[[File:QE2-South Queensferry.jpg|thumb|''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'' of 1969]]
After the war, some ships were again transferred from the defeated nations to the winning nations as war reparations. This was the case of the ''Europa'', which was ceded to France and renamed ''Liberté''.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=73}}</ref> The United States government was very impressed with the service of the Cunard's ''Queen Mary'' and ''Queen Elizabeth'' as troopships during the war. To ensure a reliable and fast troop transport in case of a war against the Soviet Union, the U.S. government sponsored the construction of {{SS|United States}} and entered it into service for the United States Lines in 1952. She won the Blue Riband on her maiden voyage in that year and held it until [[Richard Branson]] won it in 1986 with ''Virgin Atlantic Challenger II''.<ref name=LG109>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=109}}</ref> One year later, in 1953, Italy completed the {{SS|Andrea Doria}}, which later sank in 1956 after a collision with {{MS|Stockholm|1948|6}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=112}}</ref>

Before World War II, aircraft had not posed a significant economic threat to ocean liners. Most pre-war aircraft were noisy, vulnerable to bad weather, and/or incapable of the range needed for transoceanic flights; all were expensive and had a small passenger capacity. The war accelerated development of large, long-ranged aircraft. Four-engined bombers, such as the [[Avro Lancaster]] and [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress]], with their range and massive carrying capacity, were natural prototypes for post-war next-generation [[airliner]]s. [[Jet engine]] technology also accelerated due to wartime development of [[jet aircraft]]. In 1953, the [[De Havilland Comet]] became the first commercial jet airliner; the [[Sud Aviation Caravelle]], [[Boeing 707]] and [[Douglas DC-8]] followed, and much long-distance travel was done by air. The Italian Line's {{SS|Michelangelo}} and {{SS|Raffaello}},<ref name="LINER23"/> launched in 1962 and 1963, were two of the last ocean liners to be built primarily for liner service across the North Atlantic. Cunard's transatlantic liner, {{ship||Queen Elizabeth 2}}, although designed as an ocean liner, was also used as a cruise ship.<ref name="gnorris"/> By the early 1960s, 95% of passenger traffic across the Atlantic was by aircraft. Thus the reign of the ocean liners came to an end.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=93}}</ref> By the early 1970s, many passenger ships continued their service in cruising.

In 1982, during the [[Falklands War]], three active or former liners were requisitioned for war service by the [[British Government]]. The liners ''Queen Elizabeth 2''<ref name="LINER20">{{cite web |publisher=The Great Ocean Liners |first=Henrik |last=Ljungström |url=http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/qe2.html |title=Queen Elizabeth 2: 1969 – Present Day |access-date=27 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609231824/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/qe2.html |archive-date=9 June 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and {{SS|Canberra||2}}, were requisitioned from Cunard and [[P&O]] to serve as troopships, carrying [[British Army]] personnel to [[Ascension Island]] and the [[Falkland Islands]] to recover the Falklands from the invading [[Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic|Argentine forces]]. The P&O educational cruise ship and former [[British India Steam Navigation Company]] liner {{SS|Uganda|1952|2}} was requisitioned as a hospital ship, and served after the war as a troopship until the [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] station was built, which could handle trooping flights.<ref name="LINER21">{{cite web|url=http://www.ssuganda.co.uk/ |title=Introduction to the SS Uganda|publisher=SS Uganda Trust|access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:Queen Mary 2 05 KMJ.jpg|thumb|{{RMS|Queen Mary 2}} (2003)]]
By the first decade of the 21st century, only a few former ocean liners were still in existence. Some, like {{SS|Norway}}, were sailing as [[cruise ship]]s while others, like {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}}, were preserved as [[Museum ship|museums]], or laid up at pier side like SS ''United States''. After the retirement of ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' in 2008, the only ocean liner in service was ''Queen Mary 2'', built in 2003–04 and used for both point-to-point line voyages and for cruises.

A proposed and planned ocean liner, the ''[[Titanic II]]'', is a modern replica of the original [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']], which sank in 1912. The ship is owned by [[Blue Star Line]] and is bought by Australian businessman [[Clive Palmer]]. The ship is set to be launched by 2027.<ref>{{cite web|title=Australian billionaire says 'Titanic' replica will set sail in 2027—but first he has to build the ship|url=https://fortune.com/2024/04/29/australian-billionaire-new-titanic-sail-date/}}</ref>

==Survivors==
<!--Note: This section does not include shipwrecks or partial bits, only those that are fully intact are listed here.-->
[[File:Astoria departing Tallinn 20 June 2016.jpg|thumb|MV ''Astoria'' (formerly ''Stockholm and formerly a survivor)'' in late 2016 as a cruise ship. Much of her original hull remained, including her [[sheer (ship)|sheer]]. The MV Astoria is currently awaiting to be scrapped at the [[port of Ghent]] as of 2025.]]
Four ocean liners built before World War II survive today as they have been preserved as museums and [[hotel ship|hotels]]. The Japanese ocean liner {{ship||Hikawa Maru}} (1929), has been preserved in [[Naka-ku, Yokohama]], Japan, as a museum ship, since 1961. {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}} (1934) was preserved in 1967 after her retirement, and became a museum/hotel in [[Long Beach, California]]. In the 1970s, {{SS|Great Britain}} (1843) was also preserved, and now resides in [[Bristol]], England as another museum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssgreatbritain.org/|title=Visit Bristol's attraction – Brunel's ss Great Britain|work=ssgreatbritain.org|access-date=4 May 2015}}</ref> The latest ship to undergo preservation is {{MV|Doulos}} (1914). While originally being a cargo ship, it served as the Italian ocean liner Franca C. for Costa Lines from 1952 to 1959, and in 2010 it became a dry berthed luxury hotel on [[Bintan Island]], Indonesia.<ref>{{cite magazine|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | title=DOULOS PHOS TO BECOME HOTEL (p.5)|url= http://worldshipny.com/pdfs/PORTHOLE_NOVEMBER_2015.pdf|magazine=The Porthole|location=New York, NY|publisher= World Ship Society, Port of New York|date= November 2015|access-date=11 January 2016}}</ref>

Post-war ocean liners still existent include {{MV|Astoria}} (1948) (formerly a survivor), {{SS|United States||2}} (1952), ''[[MV Brazil Maru]]'' (1954), {{SS|Rotterdam||2}} (1958), {{MV|Funchal}} (1961), {{MS|Ancerville}} (1962), ''[[MV Orient Princess|MV Yaohua]]'' (1966), ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]'' (1967), and Queen Mary 2 (2003). Out of these nine ocean liners, only one is still active and three of them have since been preserved. The ''Rotterdam'' has been moored in [[Rotterdam]] as a museum and hotel since 2008, while the ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' has been a floating luxury hotel and museum at Mina Rashid, Dubai since 2018.<ref name="LINER25">{{cite web|publisher=Steamship Rotterdam Foundation |url=http://www.ssrotterdam.net/ |title=The history of the SS Rotterdam |access-date=27 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Morris|first1=Hugh|title='Forlorn' QE2 is not coming home from Dubai, campaigners concede|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/travelnews/12097316/Forlorn-QE2-is-not-coming-home-from-Dubai-campaigners-concede.html|access-date=18 January 2016|publisher=Telegraph Media Group|date=13 January 2016}}</ref> The ''Ancerville'' was refurbished as a hotel for use at the [[Sea World (Shenzhen)|Sea World]] development in [[Shenzhen|Shenzhen, China]] in 1984.<ref>{{cite web |author1=James Baquet |date=21 Jan 2011 |title=Shekou Sea World |url=http://www.szdaily.com/content/2011-01/21/content_5286133.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126124846/http://www.szdaily.com/content/2011-01/21/content_5286133.htm |archive-date=26 November 2020 |access-date=26 November 2020 |website=Shenzhen Daily |quote=Deng Xiaoping visit and naming of Sea World}}</ref> The first of these, ''Astoria'' (originally the ocean liner MS ''Stockholm,'' which collided with ''Andrea Doria'' in 1956<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.travelmole.com/news_feature.php?news_id=2012138&c=setreg&region=2|title=CMV to replace Discovery from the UK|work=travelmole.com|access-date=4 May 2015}}</ref>) was rebuilt and refitted as a cruise ship over the years and was in active service for [[Cruise & Maritime Voyages]] until operations ceased in 2020 due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. In August, 2021 she was purchased by [[Brock Pierce]] to be transformed into a hotel along with {{MV|Funchal}}. These plans were ultimately abandoned and the ship was again made available for sale, never having left port in Rotterdam.<ref>{{cite news |title=Astoria Set for the Auction Block Once More |url=https://cruiseharbournews.com/astoriaauction.html |access-date=16 December 2022 |work=Cruise & Harbour News |date=29 March 2022 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702121718/https://cruiseharbournews.com/astoriaauction.html |archive-date=2 July 2022}}</ref> Astoria was sold for scrap in 2025.<ref name=MarEx20250620>{{Cite news |title=Recycling Firm Buys Astoria, Famous 77-Year-Old Liner Turned Cruise Ship |url=https://maritime-executive.com/article/recycling-firm-buys-astoria-famous-77-year-old-liner-turned-cruise-ship |date=2025-06-19|access-date=2025-06-20 |work=The Maritime Executive |language=en}}</ref> ''United States'' has been docked in [[Philadelphia]] since 1996, but following a legal dispute between the organization that owns ''United States'' and the pier owners, she was purchased by [[Okaloosa County, Florida|Okaloosa County]], Florida to be turned into the world's largest artificial reef. There are plans for a land-based museum and several pieces of ''United States'' are planned to be preserved.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-14 |title=Agreement announced between SS United States and Okaloosa County, Florida |url=https://phl17.com/phl17-news/agreement-announced-between-ss-united-states-and-okaloosa-county-florida/amp/ |access-date=2024-10-17 |website=PHL17.com |language=en-US |archive-date=21 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241121184958/https://phl17.com/phl17-news/agreement-announced-between-ss-united-states-and-okaloosa-county-florida/amp/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''Brazil Maru'' was beached in Zhanjiang, China as a tourist attraction called ''Hai Shang Cheng Shi'' in 1998, though has been closed as of 2022.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://40anos.nikkeybrasil.com.br/jp/biografia.php?cod=1345
|title=The Brazil Maru is still alive!!
|author=Wada Yoshiji
|website=40anos.nikkeybrasil.com.br
|year=2009
|access-date=20 June 2024
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.ixigua.com/7105570526906548777?wid_try=1
|title=Why is the once glorious maritime city of Zhanjiang now deserted and rusty?
|author=Travel and life of Hannan
|website=www.ixigua.com/
|year=2022
|access-date=20 June 2024
}}</ref> ''Funchal'' was purchased by Brock Pierce in 2021, with the intent of turning her into a hotel.<ref name=jornaleconomico>{{cite web|title=Brock Pierce: O criptomilionário que comprou o paquete Funchal|date=31 July 2021 |url=https://jornaleconomico.sapo.pt/noticias/brock-pierce-o-criptomilionario-que-comprou-o-paquete-funchal-769051|access-date=27 October 2021}}</ref> Her future is uncertain as it was reported in July 2021 that no progress has been made since then.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dinheirovivo.pt/empresas/paquete-funchal-transformado-em-hotel-flutuante-13940850.html | title=Paquete Funchal transformado em hotel flutuante | date=15 July 2021 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of surviving ocean liners
! Name (at launch) !! Year built !! Status !! Location !! class=unsortable|Notes !!class=unsortable|Image
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | SS Great Britain || 1845 || Preserved<br>(Museum) || Bristol, UK || First iron-hulled ocean liner; now a museum. || [[File:Bristol MMB 43 SS Great Britain.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | SS Medina || 1914 || Preserved<br>(Land-based Hotel) || Bintan, Indonesia || No longer floating, now on reclaimed land. || 
[[File:MV Doulos Phos in Bintan.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | SS Hikawa Maru || 1930 || Preserved<br>(Museum) || Yokohama, Japan || Now a museum ship. || [[File:Yokohama Hikawa Maru seen from the southwest.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | MV Moonta || 1931 || Preserved<br>(Museum) || Le Barcarès, France || No longer floating. Museum open in summer. || [[File:190604 Le-Lydia 02.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | RMS Queen Mary || 1936 || Preserved<br>(Hotel/Museum) || Long Beach, California, USA || Retired in 1967, now a floating hotel and museum. || [[File:RMS Queen Mary Long Beach.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFCCCB" | MS Stockholm || 1948 || Laid up || Ghent,
Belgium
| Last known as MV Astoria,  awaiting to be scrapped. || [[File:Astoria (IMO 5383304).jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFCCCB" | SS United States || 1952 || Laid up || Philadelphia, USA<br>→ Okaloosa County, Florida || Planned for conversion into an artificial reef. || [[File:A559, SS United States, Pier 82, Columbus Boulevard, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 2017.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFCCCB" | MV Brazil Maru || 1954 || Laid up || Zhanjiang, China || Laid up. || [[File:Brazil Maru 1954 (02) Scan10061.JPG|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | SS Rotterdam || 1959 || Preserved<br>(Hotel/Museum) || Rotterdam, Netherlands || Former Holland America flagship, now a hotel and museum. || [[File:SS Rotterdam in Rotterdam-8350.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFCCCB" | MV Funchal || 1961 || Laid up || Lisbon, Portugal || Future uncertain. || [[File:MV Funchal.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | MV Ancerville || 1962 || Preserved<br>(Floating Hotel) || Shenzhen, China || Now a floating hotel at Shenzhen Sea World. || [[File:Minghua ship at Shekou Seaworld 2018-10-12 2.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFCCCB" | MV Yaohua || 1967 || Laid up || Tianjin, China || Laid up. || [[File:东方公主号.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#FFFFE0" | SS Queen Elizabeth 2 || 1969 || Preserved<br>(Floating Hotel/Museum) || Dubai, UAE || Now a floating hotel and museum. || [[File:Queen Elizabeth 2 à Québec.jpg|250px]]
|-
| style="background-color:#ADD8E6" | RMS Queen Mary 2 || 2004 || Active || Operated by Cunard Line || The only ocean liner still in active service. || [[File:Queen Mary 2, Leaving Southampton (2) - geograph.org.uk - 1819659.jpg|250px]]
|}

==Characteristics==
===Size and speed===
[[File:Normandie color.jpg|thumb|{{SS|Normandie}} of 1935]]
Since their beginning in the 19th century, ocean liners needed to meet growing demands. The first liners were small and overcrowded, leading to unsanitary conditions on board.<ref name=CM21/> Eliminating these conditions required larger ships, to reduce crowding, and faster ships, to reduce the duration of transatlantic crossings. The iron and steel hulls and steam power allowed for these to be achieved. Thus, ''[[SS Great Western]]'' (1,340 GRT) and ''[[SS Great Eastern]]'' (18,915 GRT) were constructed in 1838 and 1858 respectively.<ref name=CM29/> The record set by ''SS Great Eastern'' was not beaten until 43 years later in 1901 when {{RMS|Celtic}} (20,904 GT) was completed.<ref name=largest>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/largest.html « ''The Largest Passenger Ships in the World'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170227205631/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/largest.html |date=27 February 2017 }}, ''The Great Ocean Liners''. Accessed 12 July 2010</ref> The tonnage then grew: the first liners of over 20,000 tons were the [[Big Four (White Star Line)|Big Four]] of the [[White Star Line]]. The {{sclass|Olympic|ocean liner|0}} liners, first completed in 1911, were the first to exceed 45,000 tons, and the {{sclass|Imperator|ocean liner|0}} liners first completed in 1913 became the first liners with tonnage exceeding 50,000. {{SS|Normandie}}, completed in 1935, had a tonnage of 79,280.<ref>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/sizechart.html « ''The Evolution of Size'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229190911/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/sizechart.html |date=29 December 2012 }}, ''The Great Ocean Liners''. Accessed 2 July 2010</ref> In 1940, {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth}} raised the record of size to a tonnage of 83,673. She was the [[Timeline of largest passenger ships|largest passenger ship]] ever constructed until 1997.<ref>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/queenelizabeth.html « ''Queen Elizabeth'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100826125950/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/queenelizabeth.html |date=26 August 2010 }}, ''The Great Ocean Liners''. Accessed 12 July 2010</ref> In 2003, {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}} became the largest, at 149,215 GT.

In the early 1840s, the average speed of liners was less than 10 knots, and so it took 12 days or more to cross the Atlantic. In the 1870s, the average speed of liners increased to around 15 knots, and the crossing took just 7 days, owing to the technological progress made in the propulsion of ships. The rudimentary steam boilers gave rise to more elaborate machineries, and the paddlewheel gradually disappeared, replaced first by one screw then by two screws. At the beginning of the 20th century, Cunard Line's {{RMS|Lusitania}} and {{RMS|Mauretania}} reached a speed of 27 knots. Their records seemed unbeatable, and most shipping companies abandoned the race for speed in favor of size, luxury, and safety.<ref name=CM47/> The advent of ships with diesel engines, and those with oil-burning engines, such as the [[SS Bremen (1928)|''Bremen'']], in the early 1930s, renewed the race for the [[Blue Riband]]. The {{SS|Normandie||2}} won it in 1935 before it was snatched by {{RMS|Queen Mary}} in 1938. It was not until 1952 that {{SS|United States}} set a record that remains today: 34.5 knots (3 days 12 hours to cross the Atlantic).<ref name=CM47/> In addition, since 1935, the Blue Riband is accompanied by the [[Hales Trophy]], which is awarded to the winner.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=46}}</ref>

===Passenger cabins and amenities===
The first ocean liners were designed to carry mostly migrants. On-board sanitary conditions were often deplorable, and epidemics were frequent. In 1848, maritime laws imposing hygiene rules were adopted, and they improved on-board living conditions.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=26}}</ref> Gradually, two distinct classes were developed: cabin class and steerage class. Cabin class passengers were wealthy, and they enjoyed certain comfort in that class. Steerage class passengers were middle class or working class; they were packed into large dormitories. Until the beginning of the 20th century, they did not always have bedsheets and meals.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=30}}</ref> An intermediate class for tourists and members of the middle class gradually appeared. The cabins were then divided into three classes.<ref name=Piouffre-16/>

The facilities offered to passengers developed over time. In the 1870s, the installation of bathtubs and oil lamps caused a sensation on board {{SS|Oceanic|1870|6}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=8}}</ref> In the following years, the number of amenities became numerous: for example, smoking rooms, lounges, and promenade deck. In 1907, {{RMS|Adriatic|1906|6}} even offered [[Hammam|Turkish baths]] and a swimming pool.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shifrin |first=Malcolm |year=2015 |title=Victorian Turkish Baths |publisher=Historic England |chapter=Chapter 23: The Turkish bath at sea |isbn=978-1-84802-230-0 }}</ref> In the 1920s, {{SS|Paris|1916|6}} was the first liner to offer a movie theatre.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=59}}</ref>

{{Gallery
|title=
|width=180 | height=170 |align=left
|footer=
|File:Titanic's B 59 stateroom.jpg
|A first-class cabin on board ''Titanic'' in 1912
|File:RMS Mauretania Second Class Smoking Room.jpg
|The second-class smoking room on board ''Mauretania''
|File:RMS Queen Mary Grand Salon edit.jpg
|The first-class dining room on board ''Queen Mary''
|File:First Class Dining Room Andrea Doria.jpg
|The first-class dining room on board ''Andrea Doria''
}}{{clear}}

==Builders==
===British and German===
[[File:RMS Celtic under construction.jpg|thumb|[[RMS Celtic (1901)|RMS ''Celtic'']] under construction at [[Harland and Wolff]] shipyard in Belfast]]
The British and the German [[shipyard]]s were the most famed in shipbuilding during the era of ocean liners. In Ireland, [[Harland and Wolff|Harland & Wolff]] shipyard of Belfast were particularly innovative and succeeded in winning the trust of many shipping companies, such as [[White Star Line]]. These gigantic shipyards employed a large portion of the population of cities and built hulls, machines, furnitures and lifeboats.<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=13}}</ref> Among the other well-known British shipyards were [[Swan Hunter|Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson]], the builder of {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}}, and [[John Brown & Company]], builders of {{RMS|Lusitania}}, {{RMS|Aquitania}}, {{RMS|Queen Mary}}, {{RMS|Queen Elizabeth||2}}, and ''[[Queen Elizabeth 2]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|pp=86–87}}</ref>

Germany had many shipyards on the coast of the [[North Sea]] and the [[Baltic Sea]], including [[Blohm+Voss|Blohm & Voss]] and [[AG Vulcan Stettin]]. Many of these shipyards were destroyed during World War II; some managed to recover and continue building ships.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=89}}</ref>

===Other nations===
In France, major shipyards included [[Ateliers et Chantiers de Penhoët|Chantiers de Penhoët]] in [[Saint-Nazaire]], known for building {{SS|Normandie}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=85}}</ref> This shipyard merged with [[Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire]] shipyard to form the [[Chantiers de l'Atlantique]] shipyard, which has built ships including {{RMS|Queen Mary 2}}.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.musee-marine.fr/site/fr/611 « ''Queen Mary 2'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107232331/http://www.musee-marine.fr/site/fr/611 |date=7 January 2010 }}, ''Musée national de la Marine''. Accessed 12 July 2010</ref> France also had major shipyards on the shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=84}}</ref>

Italy and the Netherlands also had shipyards capable of building large ships (for example, [[Fincantieri]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|pp=90–93}}</ref>

==Shipping companies==
===British===
[[File:Whitestarline.svg|thumb|180px|Logo of [[White Star Line]]]]
There were many British shipping companies; two were particularly distinguished: [[Cunard Line]] and [[White Star Line]]. Both were founded during the 1840s and engaged in strong competition against one another, possessing the largest and fastest liners in the world in the early 20th century. It was not until 1934 that financial difficulty caused the two to merge, forming [[Cunard Line#Cunard White Star Ltd: 1934-1949|Cunard White Star Ltd]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|pp=64–65}}</ref> The [[P&O (company)|P&O]] also occupied a large part of the business.

The [[Royal Mail Steam Packet Company]] operated as a [[state-owned enterprise]] with its close relationship with the government. Over the course of its history, it took over many shipping companies, becoming one of the largest companies in the world before legal problems led to its liquidation in 1931. The [[Union Castle Line]] operated in Africa and the Indian Ocean with a fleet of considerable size.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|pp=78–79}}</ref>

===German, French and Dutch===
[[File:Norddeutscher Lloyd emblem.svg|thumb|150px|Logo of [[Norddeutscher Lloyd]]]]
Two rival companies, [[Hamburg America Line]] (often referred to as "HAPAG") and [[Norddeutscher Lloyd]], competed in Germany. The First and Second World Wars dealt much damage to the two companies, both forced to cede their ships to the winning side in both wars. The two merged to form [[Hapag-Lloyd]] in 1970.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=67}}</ref>

The ocean liner industry in France also consisted of two rival companies: the [[Compagnie Générale Transatlantique]] (commonly known as "Transat" or "French Line") and [[Messageries Maritimes]]. The CGT operated on the North Atlantic route with well-known liners such as {{SS|Normandie}} and {{SS|France|1961|6}}, while the MM operated in French colonies in Asia and Africa. Decolonization in the second half of the 20th century led to a sharp decline in profit for the MM, and it merged with the CGT in 1975 to form the [[CMA CGM|Compagnie Générale Maritime]].<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|p=63}}</ref>

The Netherlands had three main companies. The [[Holland America Line]] operated mostly on the north Atlantic route and with well-known ships like the {{SS|Nieuw Amsterdam|1937|3=6}} and {{SS|Rotterdam}}. Unlike the French and German industry, the Holland America Line had no domestic rival in this trade and only had to compete with foreign lines. The other two Dutch lines were the ''Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland'' (SMN), otherwise known as the [[Netherland Line]] and the ''Koninklijke Rotterdamsche Lloyd'' (KRL); both offered regular service between the Netherlands and the [[Dutch East Indies]], the Dutch colony in South East Asia now known as [[Indonesia]], and had a long-lasting friendly rivalry.

===Other nations===
[[File:House Flag of the Italian Line.svg|thumb|180px|Flag of [[Italian Line]]]]
The [[United States Lines]] competed with European companies for the North Atlantic trade. In Italy, the [[Italian Line]] was founded in 1932 as a result of a merger of three companies. It was known for operating liners such as {{SS|Rex}} and {{SS|Andrea Doria}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Ferulli|2004|pp=72–73}}</ref> The Japanese established [[Nippon Yusen]], also known as NYK Lines, which ran trans-Pacific liners such as the ''[[Hikawa Maru]]'' and the ''[[Asama Maru]]''.

==Routes==
===North Atlantic===
The most important of all routes taken by ocean liners was the North Atlantic route. It accounted for a large part of the clientele, who traveled between ports of [[Liverpool]], [[Southampton]], [[Hamburg]], [[Le Havre]], [[Cherbourg]], [[Cobh]], and [[New York City]]. The profitability of this route came from migration to the United States. The need for speed influenced the construction of liners for this route, and the [[Blue Riband]] was awarded to the liner with the highest speed.<ref name=GP100/> The route was not without danger, as storm and icebergs are common in the North Atlantic. Many shipwrecks occurred on this route, among them that of {{RMS|Titanic}}, the details of which have been recounted in numerous books, films and documentaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=101}}</ref> This route was the preferred route for major shipping companies and was the scene of fierce competition between them.<ref name=GP112>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=112}}</ref>

===South Atlantic===
[[File:Asturias (Royal Mail Line) par Kenneth Shoesmith.jpg|thumb|Promotional poster of {{RMS|Asturias|1925|6}}]]
The South Atlantic was the route frequented by liners bound for South America, Africa, and sometimes Oceania. The [[White Star Line]] had some of its ships, such as the {{SS|Suevic||2}}, on the [[Liverpool]]-[[Cape Town]]-[[Sydney]] route.<ref>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/suevic.html « ''Suevic'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010104025/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/suevic.html |date=10 October 2009 }}, ''The Great Ocean Liners''. Accessed 13 July 2010</ref> There was not the same level of competition in the South Atlantic as there was in the North Atlantic. There were fewer shipwrecks.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=164}}</ref> The [[Hamburg Süd]] operated on this route; among its ships was the famed {{SS|Cap Arcona|1927|6}}.<ref>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/caparcona2.html « ''Cap Arcona'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712225455/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/caparcona2.html |date=12 July 2014 }}, ''The Great Ocean Liners''. Accessed 13 July 2010</ref>

===Mediterranean===
The [[Mediterranean Sea]] was frequented by many ocean liners. Many companies benefited from migration from Italy and the Balkans to the United States. Cunard's {{RMS|Carpathia}} served on the [[Gibraltar]]-[[Genoa]]-[[Trieste]] route.<ref>[http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/carpathia.html « ''Carpathia'' »] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213155019/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/carpathia.html |date=13 December 2016 }}, ''The Great Oceans Liners''. Accessed 13 July 2010</ref> Similarly, Italian liners crossed the Mediterranean Sea before entering the North Atlantic Ocean.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=63}}</ref> The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] made the Mediterranean a possible route to Asia.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=51}}</ref>

===Indian Ocean and the East Asia===
Colonization made Asia particularly attractive to shipping companies. Many government officials must travel there from time to time. As early as the 1840s, the [[P&O (company)|P&O]] organized trips to Calcutta via the Suez Isthmus, as the canal had not yet been built.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=203}}</ref> The time it took to travel on this route to [[India]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[Japan]] was long, with many stopovers.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=211}}</ref> The [[Messageries Maritimes]] operated on this route, notably in the 1930s, with its motor ships.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=76}}</ref> Similarly, the [[MV Bianca C.|''La Marseillaise'']], put into service in 1949, was one of the flagships of its fleet. Decolonization caused the loss in the profitability of these ships.<ref name=LG105>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=105}}</ref>

===Pacific===
Ocean liners on the Pacific route brought large numbers of migrants from East Asia to the Americas, especially the United States, which continued despite successive laws restricting [[Asian immigration to the United States]]; the journey typically took three weeks, with many impoverished migrants travelling in [[steerage]] class conditions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aiisf.org/history |title=History of Angel Island Immigration Station |work=Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation |access-date=26 December 2022}}</ref> Some of the finest ships on the route, such as {{RMS|Empress of Japan|1890|6}} of [[CP Ships|Canadian Pacific Steamships]] which operated out of [[Vancouver]], and ''[[Hikawa Maru]]'' of [[Nippon Yusen]], became known as '[[Queen of the Pacific]]'.

==Other==
===National symbol===
The construction of some ocean liners was a result of [[nationalism]]. The revival of power of the German navy stemmed from the clear affirmation of [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany]] to see his country become a sea power. Thus, the {{SS|Deutschland|1900|6}} of 1900 had the honor to bear the name of its mother country, an honor which she lost after ten years of a disappointing career.<ref name=LG25/> {{RMS|Lusitania}} and {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}} of 1907 were built with the help of the British government with the desire that the United Kingdom would regain its prestige as a sea power.<ref name=LG33/> {{SS|United States}} of 1952 was the result of a desire by the United States government to possess a large and fast ship that is convertible into a troop transport.<ref name=LG109/> {{SS|Rex}} and {{SS|Conte di Savoia}} of 1932 were constructed at the demands of [[Benito Mussolini]].<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=81}}</ref> Finally, the construction {{SS|France|1961|6}} of 1961 was a result of [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s desire to build on French national pride and was financed by the French government.<ref name=CM97>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=97}}</ref><ref name="ARC">Offrey, Charles; ''303 Arts, recherces et créations'':SS Normandie/SS France/SS Norway: ''France'', the Last French Passenger Liner; p. 45</ref>

Some liners did gain great popularity. ''Mauretania'' and {{RMS|Olympic||2}} had many admirers during their careers, and their retirement and scrapping caused some sadness. The same was true of [[SS Île de France|''Île de France'']], whose scrapping aroused strong emotion from her admirers.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|pp=64–65}}</ref> Similarly, {{RMS|Queen Mary||2}} was very popular with the British people.<ref name=LG115>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=115}}</ref>

===Maritime disasters and incidents===
[[File:Titanic sinking, painting by Willy Stöwer.jpg|thumb|[[Sinking of the Titanic|The sinking]] of {{RMS|Titanic}} in 1912 led to a serious re-examination of safety measures at sea.]]
Some ocean liners are known today because of their sinking with great loss of lives. In 1873 {{RMS|Atlantic}} struck an underwater rock and sank off the coast of [[Nova Scotia]], Canada, killing at least 535 people.<ref name=CM54/> In 1912 the [[sinking of the RMS Titanic|sinking of the RMS ''Titanic'']], which took approximately 1,500 lives, highlighted the overconfidence of the shipping companies in their ships, such as the failure to put enough lifeboats on board. Safety measures at sea were reexamined following the incident.<ref name=GP112/> Two years later, in 1914, {{RMS|Empress of Ireland}} sank in the [[Saint Lawrence River]] after colliding with the {{SS|Storstad}}. 1,012 people died.<ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=55}}</ref>

Among the other sinkings are the sinking by torpedo of the [[Sinking of the RMS Lusitania|RMS ''Lusitania'']] in 1915, which resulted in the loss of 1,198 lives and provoked an international outcry, the sinking by naval mine of {{HMHS|Britannic}} in 1916, and that of {{MS|Georges Philippar}}, which caught fire and sank in the Gulf of Aden in 1932, killing 54 people.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=77}}</ref> In 1956 the sinking of {{SS|Andrea Doria}}, with the loss of 46 lives, after a collision with {{MS|Stockholm|1948|6}} made the headline.

In 1985, {{MS|Achille Lauro}} was [[Achille Lauro hijacking|hijacked]] off the coast of Egypt by members of the [[Palestinian Liberation Front]], resulting in the death of one of the hostages being held by the hijackers. In 1994, she caught fire and sank off the coast of Somalia.<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=102}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Mars|Jubelin|2001|p=107}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
===Literature===
Ocean liners have a strong impact on popular culture, whether during their era or afterwards. In 1867, [[Jules Verne]] recounted his experience aboard {{SS|Great Eastern}} in his novel ''[[A Floating City]]''. In 1898, writer [[Morgan Robertson]] wrote the short novel ''[[Futility, or the Wreck of the Titan]]'', which features a British ocean liner ''Titan'' that hits an iceberg and sinks in the North Atlantic with great loss of lives. The similarities between the plot of the novel and the sinking of the {{RMS|Titanic}} 14 years later led to the assertion of [[RMS Titanic alternative theories|conspiracy theories regarding ''Titanic'']].<ref>{{harvnb|Le Goff|1998|p=44}}</ref>

===Films===
Ocean liners were often a setting of a love story in films, such as the 1939's [[Love Affair (1939 film)|''Love Affair'']]<ref>{{harvnb|Server|1998|p=71}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Server|1998|p=75}}</ref> Liners were also used as a setting of disaster films. The 1960 film ''[[The Last Voyage]]'' was filmed on board the [[SS Île de France|''Île de France'']], which was used as a floating prop and was scuttled for the occasion.<ref>{{harvnb|Server|1998|p=78}}</ref> The 1972 film ''[[The Poseidon Adventure (1972 film)|The Poseidon Adventure]]'' has become a classic of the genre and has spawned many remakes.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} [https://archive.today/20120604230253/http://www.imdb.fr/title/tt0069113/combined « ''L'aventure du Poséidon'' » (1972)], ''[[IMDb]]''. Accessed 14 July 2010</ref>

The [[sinking of the RMS Titanic|sinking of ''Titanic'']] also attracted attention of filmmakers. Nearly [[list of films about the RMS Titanic|fifteen films]] were made to depict it, with [[James Cameron]]'s [[Titanic (1997 film)|1997 film]] being the most well-known and commercially successful.<ref>{{harvnb|Server|1998|p=76}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Oceans}}
* [[List of cruise lines]]
* [[List of cruise ships]]
* [[List of ocean liners]]
* [[Mail boat]]
* [[Packet boat]]
* [[Passenger terminal (maritime)]]

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rémy|first1=Max|last2=Le Boutilly|first2=Laurent|title=''Les "Provinces" Transatlantiques 1882–1927''|publisher=Éditions Minimonde76|year=2016|url= http://www.editions-minimonde76.com/pages/marine/marine.html|isbn=9782954181820|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Brouard|first=Jean-Yves|title=Paquebots de chez nous |publisher=MDM|year=1998|isbn=978-2909313535|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Chirnside|first=Mark|title=The Olympic Class Ships : Olympic, Titanic, Britannic|publisher=Tempus|year=2004|isbn=978-0752428680}}
* {{cite book|last=Ferulli|first=Corrado|title=Au cœur des bateaux de légende|publisher=Hachette Collections|year=2004|isbn=978-2846343503|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Le Goff|first=Olivier|title=Les Plus Beaux Paquebots du Monde|publisher=Solar|year=1998|isbn=978-2263027994|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last1=Mars|first1=Christian|last2=Jubelin|first2=Frank |title=Paquebots|publisher=Sélection du Reader's Digest|year=2001|isbn=978-2709812863|language=fr}}
* {{cite book|last=Piouffre|first=Gérard|title=L'Âge d'or des voyages en paquebot|publisher=Éditions du Chêne|year=2009|isbn=978-2812300028|language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sayers |first1=John G. |title=Secrets of the Great Ocean Liners |date=2021 |publisher=[[Bodleian Library]], University of Oxford |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1851245307 |url={{GBurl|3KpGzQEACAAJ}}}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scull|first1=Theodore W.|title=Ocean Liner Odyssey, 1958-1969|date=1998|publisher=Carmania Press|location= London|isbn=0-95186569-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scull|first1=Theodore W.|title=Ocean Liner Twilight: Steaming to Adventure, 1968-1979|date=2007|publisher= Overview Press|location=Windsor|isbn=978-0-95472063-6|author-mask1= 3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Scull|first1=Theodore W.|title=Ocean Liner Sunset|date=2017|publisher=Overview Press|location=Windsor|isbn=978-095470268-7|author-mask1= 3}}
* {{cite book|last=Server|first=Lee|title=L'Âge d'or des paquebots|publisher=MLP|year=1998|isbn=2-7434-1050-7|language=fr}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Russell, Mark A. "Steamship nationalism: Transatlantic passenger liners as symbols of the German Empire." ''International Journal of Maritime History'' 28.2 (2016): 313–334.  [http://ijh.sagepub.com/content/28/2/313.abstract Abstract].

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ocean liners}}
{{Wikivoyage|Ocean liners}}
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[[Category:Ocean liners| ]]
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