View source for Ophthalmology

{{short description|Field of medicine treating eye disorders}}
{{For|the examination and correction of eyesight|Optometry}}{{More citations needed|date=October 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2025}}
{{Infobox medical specialty
| title        = Ophthalmology
| subdivisions =
| image        = US Navy 080607-N-9689V-008 Cmdr. Kenneth Kubis and U.S. Air Force Capt. Tighe Richardson use an operating microscope while performing cataract eye surgery to return sight to Marylin Kansi, a 12-year-old girl from Cotabato.jpg
| caption      = Ophthalmologists performing [[cataract surgery]] using an [[operating microscope]]
| system       = [[Human eye|Eye]] and [[visual system]]
| diseases     = [[Cataract]], [[retinal disease]] (including [[diabetic retinopathy]] and other types of [[retinopathy]]), [[glaucoma]], [[corneal disease]], {{Cl|Disorders of eyelid, lacrimal system and orbit|eyelid and orbital disorders}}, [[uveitis]], [[strabismus]] and disorders of the [[ocular muscles]], [[Eye neoplasm|ocular neoplasms]] (malignancies, or cancers, and benign eye tumors), [[Neuro-ophthalmology|neuro-ophthalmologic disorders]] (including disorders of the [[optic nerve]])
| tests        = [[Ophthalmoscopy]], [[visual field test]], [[optical coherence tomography]]
| specialist   = Ophthalmologist
| glossary     = [[Glossary of medicine]]
}}
{{Infobox Occupation
| name= Ophthalmologist
| image=
| caption=
| official_names= Physician<br/>Surgeon
| type= [[Specialty (medicine)|Specialty]]
| activity_sector= [[Medicine]], [[surgery]]
| competencies=
| formation= [[Doctor of Medicine]] (MD),<br/>[[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine]] (DO),<br/>[[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBBS),<br/>[[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBChB)
| employment_field= [[Hospital]]s, [[Clinic]]s
| related_occupation=
}}
'''Ophthalmology''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ɒ|f|θ|æ|l|ˈ|m|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}, {{respell|OFF|thal|MOL|ə|jee}})<ref>{{cite Lexico |ophthalmology |access-date=14 September 2015}} {{Cite web |url=http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ophthalmology |title=Definition of ophthalmology |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=17 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717050859/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ophthalmology |url-status=dead |website=Oxford Dictionaries}}.</ref> is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and surgery of [[eye disease]]s and disorders.<ref name="mrcophth">{{cite web |title=History of Ophthalmology |url=http://www.mrcophth.com/Historyofophthalmology/Introductory.htm |website=mrcophth.com |access-date=31 August 2013 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808095547/http://www.mrcophth.com/Historyofophthalmology/Introductory.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

An '''ophthalmologist''' is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ophthalmology |publisher=[[American Medical Association]] |url=https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/ophthalmology |access-date=28 March 2020 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725063252/https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/ophthalmology |url-status=live }}</ref> Following a [[medical degree]], a doctor specializing in ophthalmology must pursue additional postgraduate [[residency training]] specific to that field. In the United States, following graduation from medical school, one must complete a four-year residency in ophthalmology to become an ophthalmologist. Following residency, additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.<ref>{{cite web |last=Boyd |first=Kierstan |title=Ophthalmology Subspecialists |url=https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/ophthalmology-subspecialists |date=6 June 2016 |publisher=[[American Academy of Ophthalmology]] |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319004355/https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/ophthalmology-subspecialists |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ophthalmologists prescribe medications to treat ailments, such as eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed.<ref name="Ophthalmology">{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Yolanda |title=Ophthalmology |url=https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ophthalmology.aspx |publisher=News-Medical.net |language=en |date=5 September 2016 |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319151051/https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ophthalmology.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Ophthalmologists provide both primary and specialty eye care—medical and surgical.<ref name="Ophthalmology" /> Most ophthalmologists participate in academic research on eye diseases at some point in their training, and many include research as part of their career.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Churchill |first1=Jennifer |last2=Gudgel |first2=Dan T. |date=1 November 2013 |title=What is an Ophthalmologist? |url=https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/what-is-ophthalmologist |publisher=[[American Academy of Ophthalmology]] |access-date=18 March 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319004410/https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/what-is-ophthalmologist |url-status=live }}</ref>
Ophthalmology has always been at the forefront of medical research with a long history of advancement and innovation in eye care.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eyewiki.aao.org/History_of_Ophthalmology#Modern_Era_.28AD_1800_to_Present.29 |title=History of Ophthalmology |publisher=EyeWiki |website=eyewiki.aao.org |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722052007/https://eyewiki.aao.org/History_of_Ophthalmology#Modern_Era_.28AD_1800_to_Present.29 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A former term for this medical branch is '''oculism'''.

==Diseases==
A brief list of some of the most common diseases treated by ophthalmologists:<ref>{{cite web|last1=WebMD|title=What Causes Eye Problems?|url=https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/common-eye-problems|website=WebMD|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713131650/https://www.webmd.com/eye-health/common-eye-problems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EyeWiki |url=https://eyewiki.org/Main_Page |access-date=22 July 2022 |website=eyewiki.org |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006081538/https://eyewiki.org/Main_Page |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Cataract]]
* [[Epiphora (medicine)|Excessive tearing]] (tear duct obstruction)
* [[Exophthalmos|Proptosis]] (bulged eyes)
* [[Graves' ophthalmopathy]]
* [[Eye neoplasm]]s
* [[Ptosis (eyelid)|Ptosis]]
* [[Diabetic retinopathy]]
* [[Dry eye syndrome]]
* [[Glaucoma]]
* [[Macular degeneration]]
* [[Retinal detachment]]
* [[Endophthalmitis]]
* [[Refractive errors]]
* [[Strabismus]] (misalignment or deviation of eyes)
* [[Uveitis]]
* [[Eye injury]]
* [[Globe rupture]]
* [[Orbital fracture]]

The most-valued pharmaceutical companies worldwide whose leading products are in ophthalmology are [[Regeneron]] (United States) for [[macular degeneration]] treatment and [[Bausch Health]] (Canada).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |title=Top Global Pharmaceutical Company Report |work=The Pharma 1000 |date=November 2021 |access-date=29 December 2022 |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315051910/https://torreya.com/publications/pharma-1000-report-update-torreya-2021-11-18.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Diagnosis==
[[File:US Navy 100929-N-1531D-031 Lt. Cmdr. Catherine Hagan, from Ocala, Fla., embarked aboard the multi-purpose amphibious assault ship USS Iwo Jima (LHD.jpg|thumb|Indirect [[ophthalmoscopy]]]]
[[File:Anterior-uveitis-with-active-disease.jpg|thumb|Fluorescein angiography]]{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2025}}

===Eye examination===
The following are examples of methods performed during an [[eye examination]] that enable diagnosis:{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}
* [[Visual acuity]] assessment
* [[Ocular tonometry]] to determine [[intraocular pressure]]
* [[Extraocular muscles|Extraocular motility]] and [[Strabismus|ocular alignment]] assessment
* [[Slit lamp|Slit lamp examination]]
* [[Dilated fundus examination]]
* [[Gonioscopy]]
* [[Refraction]]

===Specialized tests===
'''[[Optical coherence tomography]] (OCT)''' is a medical technological platform used to assess ocular structures. Physicians then use the information to assess the staging of pathological processes and confirm clinical diagnoses. Subsequent OCT scans are used to assess the efficacy of managing diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma.

'''[[Optical coherence tomography angiography]] (OCTA)''' and '''[[fluorescein angiography]]''' to visualize the vascular networks of the retina and choroid.

'''[[Electroretinography]]''' '''(ERG)''' measures the electrical responses of various cell types in the [[retina]], including the [[Photoreceptor cell|photoreceptors]] ([[Rod cell|rods]] and [[Cone cell|cones]]), inner retinal cells ([[Retinal bipolar cell|bipolar]] and [[amacrine]] cells), and the [[Retinal ganglion cell|ganglion cells]].

'''[[Electrooculography]]''' ('''EOG''') is a technique for measuring the corneo-retinal standing potential that exists between the front and the back of the human eye. The resulting signal is called the electrooculogram. Primary applications are in ophthalmological [[diagnosis]] and in recording [[Eye movement (sensory)|eye movements]].

'''[[Visual field test]]ing''' to detect dysfunction in central and [[peripheral vision]] which may be caused by various medical conditions such as [[glaucoma]], [[stroke]], [[pituitary disease]], [[brain tumour]]s or other neurological deficits.

'''[[Corneal topography]]''' is a [[Non-invasive (medical)|non-invasive]] [[medical imaging]] technique for mapping the anterior curvature of the [[cornea]], the outer structure of the eye.

'''[[Ultrasonography]]''' of the eyes may be performed by an ophthalmologist.

==Ophthalmic surgery==
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2025}}[[File:Eye surgery.jpg|thumb|An ophthalmologist performing surgery]]
{{For|a comprehensive list of surgeries performed by ophthalmologists|eye surgery}}
[[Eye surgery]], also known as ocular surgery, is surgery performed on the eye or its adnexa by an ophthalmologist. The eye is a fragile organ and requires extreme care before, during, and after a surgical procedure. An eye surgeon is responsible for selecting the appropriate surgical procedure for the patient and for taking the necessary safety precautions.

==Subspecialties==
Ophthalmology includes subspecialities that deal either with certain diseases or diseases of certain parts of the eye. Some of them are:<ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Yolanda|title=Subspecialties of Ophthalmology|url=https://www.news-medical.net/health/Subspecialties-of-Ophthalmology.aspx|publisher=News Medical Life Sciences|date=17 January 2017|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-date=19 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319003945/https://www.news-medical.net/health/Subspecialties-of-Ophthalmology.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Anterior segment]] surgery
* [[Cornea]], ocular surface, and external disease
* [[Glaucoma]]
* [[Neuro-ophthalmology]]
* [[Ocular oncology]]
* [[Oculoplastics]] and orbit surgery
* [[Ophthalmic pathology]]
* [[Pediatric ophthalmology]]/[[strabismus]] (misalignment of the eyes)
* [[Refractive surgery]]
* [[Retina|Medical retina]], deals with treatment of retinal problems through non-surgical means
* [[Uveitis]]
* [[Veterinary]] specialty training programs in veterinary ophthalmology exist in some countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.acvo.com/ |title=Acvo.com |publisher=Acvo.com |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-date=2 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111202095005/http://www.acvo.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecvo.org/ |title=Ecvo.org |publisher=Ecvo.org |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-date=24 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170724002720/http://www.ecvo.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Eye surgery#Vitreoretinal surgery|Vitreo-retinal surgery]], deals with surgical management of retinal and posterior segment diseases

Medical retina and vitreo-retinal surgery are sometimes combined, and together they are called [[posterior segment]] subspecialization.

==Etymology==
The [[Greek language|Greek]] roots of the word ophthalmology are ὀφθαλμός ({{transliteration|grc|ophthalmos}}, "eye") and -λoγία (-{{transliteration|grc|logia}}, "study, discourse"),<ref name=OnlineEtDict>{{cite dictionary|title=ophthalmology|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ophthalmology&allowed_in_frame=0|dictionary=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|access-date=24 May 2013|archive-date=11 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211132212/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ophthalmology&allowed_in_frame=0|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=LSJ>{{LSJ|o)fqalmo/s|ὀφθαλμός|ref}}</ref> i.e., "the study of eyes". The discipline applies to all animal eyes, whether human or not, since the practice and procedures are quite similar with respect to disease processes, although there are differences in the anatomy or disease prevalence.

==History==
{{Section rewrite|it is not written in an encyclopedic tone and there may be citation issues|date=July 2025}}

===Ancient near east and the Greek period===
In the [[Ebers Papyrus]] from ancient Egypt dating to 1550 BC, a section is devoted to eye diseases.<ref name="mrcophth" />

Prior to [[Hippocrates]], physicians largely based their anatomical conceptions of the eye on speculation, rather than [[empiricism]].<ref name="mrcophth" /> They recognized the sclera and transparent cornea running flushly as the outer coating of the eye, with an inner layer with pupil, and a fluid at the centre. It was believed, by [[Alcamaeon]] (fifth century BC) and others, that this fluid was the medium of vision and flowed from the eye to the brain by a tube. [[Aristotle]] advanced such ideas with empiricism. He dissected the eyes of animals, and discovering three layers (not two), found that the fluid was of a constant consistency with the lens forming (or congealing) after death, and the surrounding layers were seen to be juxtaposed. He and his contemporaries further put forth the existence of three tubes leading from the eye, not one. One tube from each eye met within the skull.

The Greek physician [[Rufus of Ephesus]] (first century AD) recognized a more modern concept of the eye, with [[conjunctiva]], extending as a fourth epithelial layer over the eye.<ref name="mrcophth" /> Rufus was the first to recognise a two-chambered eye, with one chamber from cornea to lens (filled with water), the other from lens to retina (filled with a substance resembling egg whites).

[[Celsus]] the Greek philosopher of the second century AD gave a detailed description of cataract surgery by the [[Couching (ophthalmology)|couching]] method.

The Greek physician [[Galen]] (second century AD) remedied some mistaken descriptions, including about the curvature of the cornea and lens, the nature of the optic nerve, and the existence of a [[Posterior chamber of eyeball|posterior chamber]]. Although this model was a roughly correct modern model of the eye, it contained errors. Still, it was not advanced upon again until after [[Vesalius]]. A [[ciliary body]] was then discovered and the sclera, retina, choroid, and cornea were seen to meet at the same point. The two chambers were seen to hold the same fluid, as well as the lens being attached to the choroid. Galen continued the notion of a central canal, but he dissected the optic nerve and saw that it was solid. He mistakenly counted seven optical muscles, one too many. He also knew of the [[tear duct]]s.

===Ancient India===
The ''[[Sushruta Samhita]]'' is an ancient [[Sanskrit]] text attributed to the Indian surgeon [[Sushruta]]. The final volume of the Sushruta Samhita, known as the Uttaratantra, contains the ophthalmic sections of the work, including the method of cataract surgery, and is attributed in the traditions of both India and China to a figure named Nagarjuna, who lived in the early Common Era.<ref name="India2024">{{cite book |last=Leffler |first=Christopher |title=The History of Cataract Surgery in India from Antiquity to the Modern Era. In: Leffler CT (ed.). A New History of Cataract Surgery. Part 1. From Antiquity through 1750. pages 165-229. |isbn=978-90-6299-472-4 |publication-place=Amsterdam |publisher=Wayenborgh |date=2024}}</ref><ref name="India2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Leffler |first1=C. T. |year=2020 |title=The history of cataract surgery: from couching to phacoemulsification. |journal=[[Annals of Translational Medicine]]|volume=8 |issue=22 |pages=1551 |doi= 10.21037/atm-2019-rcs-04 |pmid=33313296 |doi-access=free |pmc=7729313 }}</ref>

The Uttaratantra describes 76 ocular diseases (of these, 51 surgical) as well as several ophthalmological surgical instruments and techniques.<ref>Bidyadhar, N.K. (1939), Sushruta's Ophthalmic Operations, [[Archives of Ophthalmology]], 22, page 553.</ref><ref>Agarwal, R.K. (1965), Ancient Indian Ophthalmology, The Ophthalmic Optician, 5(21),1093–1100 (the title of this journal was changed to Optometry Today in 1985), published by the Association of Optometrists, London, England.</ref> His description of [[cataract surgery]] was compatible with the method of [[Couching (ophthalmology)|couching]].<ref name="India2020"/><ref name="India2024"/>

===Medieval Islam===
{{Main|Ophthalmology in medieval Islam}}
[[File:Cheshm manuscript.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Anatomy of the Eye, 1200 A.D.]]
Medieval Islamic Arabic and Persian scientists (unlike their classical predecessors) considered it normal to combine theory and practice, including the crafting of precise instruments, and therefore found it natural to combine the study of the eye with the practical application of that knowledge.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Science in the Middle Ages|author=David C. Lindberg|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1980|isbn=0-226-48233-2|page=21|author-link=David C. Lindberg}}</ref> [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] (a Christian), and others beginning with the medieval Arabic period, taught that the crystalline lens is in the exact center of the eye.<ref name="Clinical Ophthalmology">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leffler CT, Hadi TM, Udupa A, Schwartz SG, Schwartz D |title=A medieval fallacy: the crystalline lens in the center of the eye |journal=Clinical Ophthalmology |volume=2016 |issue=10 |pages=649–662 |year=2016 |pmc=4833360 |pmid=27114699 |doi=10.2147/OPTH.S100708 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This idea was propagated until the end of the 1500s.<ref name="Clinical Ophthalmology"/>

[[Ibn al-Nafis]], an Arabic native of Damascus, wrote a large textbook, ''The Polished Book on Experimental Ophthalmology'', divided into two parts, ''On the Theory of Ophthalmology'' and ''Simple and Compounded Ophthalmic Drugs''.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures|editor=Helaine Selin|author=David C. Lindberg|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|year=1997|isbn=0792340663|page=410}}</ref>

[[Avicenna]] wrote in his Canon "rescheth", which means "retiformis", and [[Gerard of Cremona]] translated this at approximately 1150 into the new term "retina".<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Jong|first1=Paulus T. V. M.|title=From where does "rete" in retina originate?|journal=Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology|date=10 August 2014|volume=252|issue=10|pages=1525–1527|doi=10.1007/s00417-014-2769-1|pmid=25107541|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Modern period===
[[File:A double sheet showing various ophthalmology instruments, ey Wellcome V0016255.jpg|thumb|Early ophthalmology instruments]]
In the 17th and 18th centuries, [[hand lens]]es were used by [[Malpighi]], [[microscope]]s by [[Leeuwenhoek]], preparations for fixing the eye for study by [[Frederik Ruysch|Ruysch]], and later the freezing of the eye by [[Francois Pourfour du Petit|Petit]]. This allowed for detailed study of the eye and an advanced model. Some mistakes persisted, such as: why the pupil changed size (seen to be vessels of the iris filling with blood), the existence of the [[Posterior chamber of eyeball|posterior chamber]], and the nature of the retina. Unaware of their functions, Leeuwenhoek noted the existence of photoreceptors;<ref>{{cite web|title=Important Dates in Vision Science|url=http://www.arts.rpi.edu/~ruiz/stereo_history/text/visionsc.html|website=www.arts.rpi.edu|access-date=27 March 2018|archive-date=16 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216134325/http://www.arts.rpi.edu/~ruiz/stereo_history/text/visionsc.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> however, they were not properly described until [[Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus]] in 1834.

[[Jacques Daviel]] performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on 18&nbsp;September 1750 in [[Cologne]].<ref name="Eye1">{{cite journal | last1 = Leffler | first1 = CT | last2 = Hogewind | first2 = BF |name-list-style=vanc | year = 2023 | title = Jacques Daviel performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on Sep. 18, 1750. | journal = Eye | volume = Dec. 6, 2023| issue = 7 | pages = 1392–1393 | doi = 10.1038/s41433-023-02874-5 | pmid = 38057561 | pmc = 11076578 | s2cid = 266051586 }}</ref>
[[Georg Joseph Beer]] (1763–1821) was an Austrian ophthalmologist and leader of the First Viennese School of Medicine. He introduced a flap operation for the treatment of [[cataract]]s (Beer's operation) and popularized the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2Iigywli08C |title=Fuchs, Ernst, and Alexander Duane.Text-book of Ophthalmology. Philadelphia, PA: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1908 |date=1 January 2001 |access-date=11 March 2013 |last1=Fuchs |first1=Ernst |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329100704/https://books.google.com/books?id=U2Iigywli08C |url-status=live }}</ref>

In North America, indigenous healers treated some eye diseases by rubbing or scraping the eyes or eyelids.<ref name="Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases">{{cite journal |vauthors=Leffler CT, et al. |title=Ophthalmology in North America: Early Stories (1491-1801) |journal=Ophthalmology and Eye Diseases|volume=9 |pages=1–51 |year=2017 |article-number=1179172117721902 |pmid=28804247 |pmc=5533269 |doi= 10.1177/1179172117721902 |url=}}</ref>

===Ophthalmic surgery in the United Kingdom===
The first ophthalmic surgeon in the UK was [[John Freke (surgeon)|John Freke]], appointed to the position by the governors of [[St.&nbsp;Bartholomew's Hospital]] in 1727. A major breakthrough came with the appointment of Baron de Wenzel (1724–90), a German who became the oculist to [[King George&nbsp;III]] of Great Britain in 1772. His skill at removing cataracts legitimized the field.<ref name="wyman">{{cite journal | author = Wyman A.L. | year = 1991 | title = Baron De Wenzel, Oculist to King George III: His Impact on British Ophthalmologists | journal = Medical History | volume = 35 | issue = 1| pages = 78–88 | doi=10.1017/s0025727300053138| pmid = 2008123 | pmc = 1036270}}</ref> The first dedicated ophthalmic hospital opened in 1805 in London; it is now called [[Moorfields Eye Hospital]]. Clinical developments at Moorfields, and the founding of the Institute of Ophthalmology (now part of the [[University College London]]) by [[Sir Stewart Duke-Elder]], established the site as the largest eye hospital in the world and a nexus for ophthalmic research.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Davidson Luke | year = 1996 | title = 'Identities Ascertained': British Ophthalmology in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century | journal = Social History of Medicine | volume = 9 | issue = 3| pages = 313–333 | doi=10.1093/shm/9.3.313| pmid = 11618725 }}</ref>

===Central Europe===
In Berlin, ophthalmologist [[Albrecht von Graefe (ophthalmologist)|Albrecht von Graefe]] introduced [[iridectomy]] as a treatment for glaucoma and improved cataract surgery, he is also considered the founding father of the German Ophthalmological Society.

Numerous ophthalmologists fled Germany after 1933 as the Nazis began to persecute those of Jewish descent. A representative leader was [[Joseph Igersheimer]] (1879–1965), best known for his discoveries with arsphenamine for the treatment of syphilis. He fled to [[Turkey]] in 1933. As one of eight emigrant directors in the Faculty of Medicine at the [[University of Istanbul]], he built a modern clinic and trained students. In 1939, he went to the United States, becoming a professor at [[Tufts University]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Namal Arin, Reisman Arnold | year = 2007 | title = Joseph Igersheimer (1879–1965): A Visionary Ophthalmologist and his Contributions before and after Exile | journal = Journal of Medical Biography | volume = 15 | issue = 4| pages = 227–234 | doi=10.1258/j.jmb.2007.06-63| pmid = 18172563 | s2cid = 45604124 }}</ref> German ophthalmologist, [[Gerhard Meyer-Schwickerath]] is widely credited with developing the predecessor of laser coagulation, photocoagulation.

In 1946, Igersheimer conducted the first experiments on light coagulation. In 1949, he performed the first successful treatment of a retinal detachment with a light beam (light coagulation) with a self-constructed device on the roof of the ophthalmic clinic at the [[University of Hamburg|University of Hamburg-Eppendorf]].<ref name="Goes">{{Cite book|title=Eye in history|last=Goes|first=Frank|date=2013|publisher=Jaypee Brothers|isbn=9789350902745|location=New Delhi|oclc=813930522}}</ref><ref name="Boyd">{{Cite book|title=Modern ophthalmology : the highlights : the account of a master wintnessing a 60 year epoch of evolution and progress (1950-2010)|last=Boyd|first=Benjamin|date=2010|publisher=Jaypee-Highlights Medical Publishers|isbn=9789962678168|location=Panama|oclc=720191230}}</ref>

Polish ophthalmology dates to the 13th century. The Polish Ophthalmological Society was founded in 1911. A representative leader was [[Adam Zamenhof]] (1888–1940), who introduced certain diagnostic, surgical, and nonsurgical eye-care procedures. He was executed by the German Nazis in 1940.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wincewicz Andrzej|display-authors=etal| year = 2009 | title = Dr Adam Zamenhof (1888-1940) and his insight into ophthalmology | journal = Journal of Medical Biography | volume = 17 | issue = 1| pages = 18–22 | doi=10.1258/jmb.2008.008037 | pmid=19190194|s2cid=46308292}}</ref>

Zofia Falkowska (1915–1993) head of the Faculty and Clinic of Ophthalmology in Warsaw from 1963 to 1976, was the first to use lasers in her practice.

===Contributions by physicists===
The prominent physicists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries included [[Ernst Abbe]] (1840–1905), a co-owner of at the Zeiss Jena factories in Germany, where he developed numerous optical instruments. [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1821–1894) was a polymath who made contributions to many fields of science and invented the [[ophthalmoscope]] in 1851. They both made theoretical calculations on image formation in optical systems and studied the optics of the eye.

==Professional requirements==
Ophthalmologists are [[physicians]] ([[Doctor of Medicine|MD/DO in the U.S. or MBBS in the UK and elsewhere]], or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|DO]]/DOMS/DNB) who typically complete an undergraduate degree at general medical school, followed by a residency in ophthalmology. Ophthalmologists typically perform optical, medical and surgical eye care.

===Australia and New Zealand===
{{See also|Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Ophthalmologists}}
In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], the FRACO or FRANZCO is the equivalent postgraduate specialist qualification. The structured training system takes place over five years of postgraduate training. Overseas-trained ophthalmologists are assessed using the pathway published on the RANZCO website. Those who have completed their formal training in the UK and have the CCST or CCT, usually are deemed to be comparable.

===Bangladesh===
In [[Bangladesh]] to be an ophthalmologist the basic degree is an MBBS. They then have to obtain a postgraduate degree or diploma in an ophthalmology specialty. In Bangladesh, these are diploma in ophthalmology, diploma in community ophthalmology, fellow or member of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in ophthalmology, and Master of Science in ophthalmology.

===Canada===
In [[Canada]], after medical school an ophthalmology residency is undertaken. The residency typically lasts five years, culminating in fellowship of the Royal College of Surgeons of Canada (FRCSC). Subspecialty training is undertaken by approximately 30% of fellows (FRCSC) in a variety of fields from [[anterior segment]], [[cornea]], [[glaucoma]], [[vision rehabilitation]], [[uveitis]], [[oculoplastics]], medical and surgical retina, [[ocular oncology]], [[Pathology|Ocular pathology]], or [[neuro-ophthalmology]]. Approximately 35 vacancies open per year for ophthalmology residency training in all of Canada. These numbers fluctuate per year, ranging from 30 to 37 spots. Of these, up to ten spots are at French-speaking universities in Quebec. At the end of the five years, the graduating ophthalmologist must pass the oral and written portions of the [[Medical royal college|Royal College]] exam in either English or French.

===India===
In [[India]], after completing MBBS degree, postgraduate study in ophthalmology is required. The degrees are doctor of medicine, master of surgery, diploma in ophthalmic medicine and surgery, and diplomate of national board. The concurrent training and work experience are in the form of a junior residency at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution under the supervision of experienced faculty. Further work experience in the form of fellowship, registrar, or senior resident refines the skills of these eye surgeons. All members of the India Ophthalmologist Society and various state-level ophthalmologist societies hold regular conferences and actively promote continuing medical education.

===Nepal===
In [[Nepal]], to become an ophthalmologist, three years of postgraduate study is required after completing an MBBS degree. The postgraduate degree in ophthalmology is called medical doctor in ophthalmology. Currently, this degree is provided by Tilganga Institute of Ophthalmology, Tilganga, Kathmandu, BPKLCO, Institute of Medicine, TU, Kathmandu, BP Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, and National Academy of Medical Science, Kathmandu. A few Nepalese citizens also study this subject in Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and other countries. All graduates have to pass the Nepal Medical Council Licensing Exam to become a registered ophthalmologists in Nepal. The concurrent residency training is in the form of a PG student (resident) at a medical college, eye hospital, or institution according to the degree providing university's rules and regulations. Nepal Ophthalmic Society holds regular conferences and actively promotes continuing medical education.

===Ireland===
{{See also|Irish College of Ophthalmologists}}
In [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], the [[Royal College of Surgeons of Ireland]] grants membership (MRCSI (Ophth)) and fellowship (FRCSI (Ophth)) qualifications in conjunction with the Irish College of Ophthalmologists. Total postgraduate training involves an intern year, a minimum of three years of basic surgical training, and a further 4.5&nbsp;years of higher surgical training. Clinical training takes place within public, [[Health Service Executive]]-funded hospitals in [[Dublin]], [[Sligo]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]], [[Waterford]], and [[Cork (city)|Cork]]. A minimum of 8.5&nbsp;years of training is required before eligibility to work in [[Consultant (medicine)|consultant]] posts. Some trainees take extra time to obtain [[MSc]], [[Doctor of Medicine#United Kingdom, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries|MD]] or [[PhD]] degrees and to undertake clinical fellowships in the UK, Australia, and the United States.

===Pakistan===
In [[Pakistan]], after MBBS, a four-year full-time residency program leads to an exit-level FCPS examination in ophthalmology, held under the auspices of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Pakistan. The tough examination is assessed by both highly qualified Pakistani and eminent international ophthalmic consultants. As a prerequisite to the final examinations, an intermediate module, an optics and refraction module, and a dissertation written on a research project carried out under supervision is also assessed.

Moreover, a two-and-a-half-year residency program leads to an MCPS while a two-year training of DOMS is also being offered.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cpsp.edu.pk/ |title=College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan |publisher=Cpsp.edu.pk |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-date=12 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712000106/https://www.cpsp.edu.pk/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For candidates in the military, a stringent two-year graded course, with quarterly assessments, is held under Armed Forces Post Graduate Medical Institute in Rawalpindi.

The M.S. in ophthalmology is also one of the specialty programs. In addition to programs for physicians, various diplomas and degrees for allied eyecare personnel are also being offered to produce competent optometrists, orthoptists, ophthalmic nurses, ophthalmic technologists, and ophthalmic technicians in this field. These programs are being offered, notably by the [[College of Ophthalmology and Allied Vision Sciences]] in [[Lahore]] and the Pakistan Institute of Community Ophthalmology in Peshawar.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kemu.edu.pk/pipo.html |title=King Edward Medical University |publisher=Kemu.edu.pk |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708133329/http://kemu.edu.pk/pipo.html |archive-date=8 July 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Subspecialty fellowships also are being offered in the fields of [[pediatric ophthalmology]] and vitreoretinal ophthalmology. [[King Edward Medical University]], Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital Rawalpindi, and Al- Ibrahim Eye Hospital Karachi also have started a degree program in this field.

===Philippines===
In the Philippines, Ophthalmology is considered a medical specialty that uses medicine and surgery to treat diseases of the eye. There is only one professional organization in the country that is duly recognized by the PMA and the PCS: the Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology (PAO).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pao.org.ph/ |title=Philippine Academy of Ophthalmology |work=PAO.org.ph |access-date=27 May 2012 |archive-date=29 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180129054603/http://www.pao.org.ph/ |url-status=live }}</ref> PAO and the state-standard Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (PBO) regulates ophthalmology residency programs and board certification. To become a general ophthalmologist in the Philippines, a candidate must have completed a doctor of medicine degree (MD) or its equivalent (e.g. MBBS), have completed an internship in Medicine, have passed the physician licensure exam, and have completed residency training at a hospital accredited by the Philippine Board of Ophthalmology (accrediting arm of PAO).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pao.org.ph/pbo.php |title=PBO Officers |website=PAO.org.ph |date=1 December 2012 |access-date=11 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302111113/http://pao.org.ph/pbo.php |archive-date=2 March 2013}}</ref> Attainment of board certification in ophthalmology from the PBO is essential in acquiring privileges in most major health institutions. Graduates of residency programs can receive further training in ophthalmology subspecialties, such as neuro-ophthalmology, retina, etc. by completing a fellowship program that varies in length depending on each program's requirements.

===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], three colleges grant postgraduate degrees in ophthalmology. The [[Royal College of Ophthalmologists]] (RCOphth) and the [[Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh]] grant MRCOphth/FRCOphth and MRCSEd/FRCSEd, (although membership is no longer a prerequisite for fellowship), the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow|Royal College]] of Glasgow grants FRCS. Postgraduates work as a [[specialist registrar]], and one of these degrees is required for specialization in [[eye disease]]s. Such clinical work is within the NHS, with supplementary private work for some consultants.

Only 2.3 ophthalmologists exist per 100,000 population in the UK – fewer ''pro rata'' than in any nations in the European Union.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.uems.net/ |title=European Union of medical specialists |publisher=Uems.net |access-date=11 March 2013 |archive-date=6 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106173536/http://uems.net/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===United States===
{{See also|Medical education in the United States}}
[[File:(King1893NYC) pg479 NEW-YORK OPHTHALNIC HOSPITAL, THIRD AVENUE AND EAST 23D STREET.jpg|thumb|New York Ophthalmic Hospital, 1893]]
Ophthalmologists typically complete four years of undergraduate studies, four years of medical school, and four years of eye-specific training (residency). Some pursue additional training, known as a fellowship – typically one to two years. Ophthalmologists are physicians who specialize in the eye and related structures. They perform medical and surgical eye care and may also write prescriptions for corrective lenses. They often manage late-stage eye disease, which typically involves surgery.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facs.org/education/resources/residency-search/specialties/ophthal|title=Ophthalmology|last=Tarbet|first=Kristen J.|website=facs.org|publisher=American College of Surgeons|access-date=7 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185220/https://www.facs.org/education/resources/residency-search/specialties/ophthal|url-status=live}}</ref>

Ophthalmologists must complete the requirements of [[continuing medical education]] to maintain licensure and for recertification.

==Notable ophthalmologists==
The following is a list of physicians who have significantly contributed to the field of ophthalmology:

===18th–19th centuries===
* [[Theodor Leber]] (1840–1917) discovered Leber's congenital amaurosis, Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, Leber's miliary aneurysm, and Leber's stellate neuroretinitis.
* [[Carl Ferdinand von Arlt]] (1812–1887), the elder (Austrian), proved that myopia is largely due to an excessive axial length, published influential textbooks on eye disease, and ran annual eye clinics in needy areas long before the concept of volunteer eye camps became popular; his name is still attached to some disease signs, e.g., von [[Arlt's line]] in trachoma and his son, Ferdinand Ritter von Arlt, the younger, was also an ophthalmologist.
* [[Jacques Daviel]] (1696–1762) (France) performed the first documented planned primary cataract extraction on 18&nbsp;September 1750 in Cologne.<ref name="Eye1"/>
* [[Franciscus Donders]] (1818–1889) (Dutch) published pioneering analyses of ocular biomechanics, intraocular pressure, [[glaucoma]], and physiological [[optics]], and he made possible the prescribing of combinations of spherical and cylindrical lenses to treat [[astigmatism]].
* [[Joseph Forlenze]] (1757–1833) (Italy), specialist in [[cataract surgery]], became popular during the [[First French Empire]], healing, among many, personalities such as the minister [[Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis]] and the poet [[Ponce Denis Écouchard Lebrun|Ponce Denis Lebrun]]; he was nominated by [[Napoleon]] "chirurgien oculiste of the lycees, the civil hospices and all the charitable institutions of the departments of the Empire",<ref>[[Jan Ellen Goldstein]], ''Console and Classify. The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century'', Chicago Press, 2002, p. 63</ref> and he was known for his free interventions, mainly in favor of poor people.
[[File:Albrecht v Graefe3.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Albrecht von Graefe]]
* [[Albrecht von Graefe (ophthalmologist)|Albrecht von Graefe]] (1828–1870) (Germany) probably the most important ophthalmologist of the 19th century, along with Helmholtz and Donders, one of the 'founding fathers' of ophthalmology as a specialty, he was a brilliant clinician and charismatic teacher who had an international influence on the development of ophthalmology, and was a pioneer in mapping visual field defects and diagnosis and treatment of glaucoma, and he introduced a cataract extraction technique that remained the standard for more than 100 years, and many other important surgical techniques such as iridectomy. He rationalized the use of many ophthalmically important drugs, including mydriatics and miotics; he was the founder of one of the earliest ophthalmic societies (German Ophthalmological Society, 1857) and one of the earliest ophthalmic journals (''Graefe's Archives of Ophthalmology'').
* [[L. L. Zamenhof]] (born 1859) (Poland) was a Polish ophthalmologist who created the [[Conlang|constructed international auxiliary language]] known as [[Esperanto]].

[[File:Allvar Gullstrand 02.jpg|thumb|upright=0.6|Allvar Gullstrand]]
* [[Allvar Gullstrand]] (1862–1930) (Sweden) was a [[Nobel Prize]]-winner in 1911 for his research on the eye as a light-refracting apparatus; he described the 'schematic eye', a mathematical model of the [[human eye]] based on his measurements known as the 'optical constants' of the eye; his measurements are still used today.
* [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1821–1894), a great German [[polymath]], invented the ophthalmoscope (1851) and published important work on physiological optics, including color vision.
* [[Julius Hirschberg]] (1843–1925) (Germany) in 1879 became the first to use an [[electromagnet]] to remove metallic [[foreign bodies]] from the eye and in 1886 developed the [[Hirschberg test]] for measuring [[strabismus]].
* [[Peter Adolph Gad]] (1846–1907), Danish-Brazilian ophthalmologist who founded the first eye infirmary in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.
* [[Rosa Kerschbaumer-Putjata]] (1851–1923), Russian-Austrian ophthalmologist who was the first female doctor in Austria, headed "mobile ophthalmological troops" in Russia and reduced the above-average number of blind people in [[Salzburg]] where she ran a private eye clinic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ing |first=Susanne |title=Rosa Kerschbaumer-Putjata |url=https://www.stadt-salzburg.at/archiv/frauen-und-geschlechtergeschichte/rosa-kerschbaumer-putjata |access-date=15 January 2025 |website=Stadt Salzburg |language=de |archive-date=17 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250117122742/https://www.stadt-salzburg.at/archiv/frauen-und-geschlechtergeschichte/rosa-kerschbaumer-putjata |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Socrate Polara (1800–1860) (Italy) founded the first dedicated ophthalmology clinic in [[Sicily]] in 1829, as a philanthropic endeavor; in 1831 he was appointed as the first director of the ophthalmology department at the Grand Hospital of [[Palermo]], Sicily, after the Sicilian government became convinced of the importance of state support for the specialization.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parisi|first=Antonino|title=Annuario Storico del Regno della Due Sicilie, dal Principio del Governo, di Ferdinando II Borbone|year=1838|publisher=Tipografica Trani (Napoli)|pages=66–67}}</ref>
* [[Herman Snellen]] (1834–1908) (Netherlands) introduced the [[Snellen chart]] to study [[visual acuity]].

===20th–21st centuries===
* [[Vladimir Petrovich Filatov]] (1875–1956) (Russia) contributed the tube flap grafting method, corneal transplantation, and preservation of grafts from cadaver eyes and tissue therapy; he founded the [[Filatov Institute of Eye Diseases and Tissue Therapy]], Odessa, one of the leading eye-care institutes in the world.
* [[Shinobu Ishihara]] (1879–1963) (Japan), in 1918, invented the [[Ishihara test|Ishihara Color Vision Test]], a common method for determining [[color blindness]]; he also made major contributions to the study of [[trachoma]] and [[myopia]].
* [[Ignacio Barraquer]] (1884–1965) (Spain), in 1917, invented the first motorized vacuum instrument (erisophake) for intracapsular [[cataract]] extraction; he founded the Barraquer Clinic in 1941 and the Barraquer Institute in 1947 in [[Barcelona]].
* [[Ernst Fuchs (doctor)|Ernst Fuchs]] (1851–1930) was an Austrian ophthalmologist known for his discovery and description of numerous ocular diseases and abnormalities including [[Fuchs' dystrophy]] and [[Fuchs heterochromic iridocyclitis]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Andreas |title=Professor Ernst Fuchs (1851–1930) |journal=Archives of Ophthalmology |date=1 June 2003 |volume=121 |issue=6 |pages=888–91 |doi=10.1001/archopht.121.6.888|pmid=12796263 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Tsutomu Sato (ophthalmologist)|Tsutomu Sato]] (1902–1960) (Japan) pioneer in incisional refractive surgery, including techniques for astigmatism and the invention of [[radial keratotomy]] for myopia.
* [[Jules Gonin]] (1870–1935) (Switzerland) was the "father of retinal detachment surgery".
* [[Harold Ridley (ophthalmologist)|Sir Harold Ridley]] (1906–2001) (United Kingdom), in 1949, may have been the first to successfully implant an artificial intraocular lens after observing that plastic fragments in the eyes of wartime pilots were well tolerated; he fought for decades against strong reactionary opinions to have the concept accepted as feasible and useful.
* [[Wajid Ali Khan Burki]] (1900–1989) (Pakistan), was the "father of medical services" in Pakistan and distinguished ophthalmologist widely recognized as an expert in the field of eye care.
* [[Charles Schepens]] (1912–2006) (Belgium) was the "father of modern retinal surgery" and developer of the Schepens indirect binocular ophthalmoscope whilst at Moorfields Eye Hospital; he was the founder of the [[Schepens Eye Research Institute]], associated with [[Harvard Medical School]] and the [[Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[Tom Pashby]] (1915–2005) (Canada) was chairman of the [[Canadian Standards Association]] and a sport safety advocate to prevent eye injuries and spinal cord injuries, developed safer sports equipment, named to the [[Order of Canada]], inducted into Canada's Sport Hall of Fame.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sportshall.ca/hall-of-famers/hall-of-famers-search.html?proID=35&lang=EN|title=Dr. Tom Pashby|year=2000|website=[[Canada's Sports Hall of Fame]]|access-date=26 October 2022|archive-date=22 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022185920/http://www.sportshall.ca/hall-of-famers/hall-of-famers-search.html?proID=35&lang=EN|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Marshall M. Parks]] (1918–2005) (United States) was the "father of pediatric ophthalmology".<ref>{{cite web|title=Hall of Fame|publisher=American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology & Strabismus|url=https://aapos.org/meetings/lectures/hall-of-fame|access-date=30 March 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421120535/https://aapos.org/meetings/lectures/hall-of-fame|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[José Ignacio Barraquer]] (1916–1998) (Spain) was the "father of modern refractive surgery" and in the 1960s he developed lamellar techniques, including [[keratomileusis]] and keratophakia, as well as the first [[microkeratome]] and corneal [[microlathe]].
* [[Tadeusz Krwawicz]] (1910–1988) (Poland), in 1961, developed the first cryoprobe for intracapsular cataract extraction.
* [[Svyatoslav Fyodorov]] (1927–2000) (Russia) was the "father of ophthalmic microsurgery"; he improved and popularized [[radial keratotomy]], invented a surgical cure for cataract, and developed scleroplasty.
* [[Charles Kelman]] (1930–2004) (United States) developed the ultrasound and mechanized irrigation and aspiration system for [[phacoemulsification]], first allowing cataract extraction through a small incision.
* [[Melvin L. Rubin]] (1932–2014) (United States) was a retinal surgeon and educator; he created the Ophthalmic Knowledge Assessment Program (OKAP) that changed ophthalmic education, and he authored leading textbooks ''Optics for Clinicians'' and ''The Fine Art of Prescribing Glasses'', as well as ''The Dictionary of Eye Terminology'' – currently in its eighth edition. Rubin served as president, and later chairman, of the American Academy of Ophthalmology; and chairman of the American Boards of Ophthalmology.
* [[Helena Ndume]] (born 1960) (Namibia) is a renowned ophthalmologist notable for her charitable work among people with eye-related illnesses.
* [[Rand Paul]] (born 1963) (United States) worked as an ophthalmologist before becoming a US senator.
* [[J. Morgan Micheletti]] (United States) is an ophthalmologist, researcher, inventor, and podcaster known for advancements in ocular health and recipient of the Outstanding Young Texas Ex Award.

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[American Academy of Ophthalmology]]
* [[Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology]]
* ''[[Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye]]''
* [[Chinese ophthalmology]]
* [[Copiale cipher]]
* [[European Board of Ophthalmology]]
* [[Eye care professional]]
* [[EyeWiki]]
* [[List of systemic diseases with ocular manifestations]]
* [[Orthoptics]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* Christopher Leffler (ed.), ''Biographies of Ophthalmologists from Around the World: Ancient, Medieval, and Early Modern'', 2024, pp.&nbsp;384, ISBN 9798342679220 Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/392094663_Biographies_of_Ophthalmologists_from_Around_the_World_Ancient_Medieval_and_Early_Modern

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://eyewiki.aao.org/ EyeWiki]
* [http://www.zeitzfrankozeitz.de/index.php/fachwoerterbuch.html Multilingual illustrated Dictionary of Ophthalmology]
* [https://www.aaojournal.org/ Aaojournal]

{{Medicine}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ophthalmology| ]]
[[Category:Surgical specialties]]